Transcriptional Regulation of EGR1 by EGF and the ERK Signaling Pathway in Prostate Cancer Cells

Restoration of LAT activity improves CAR T cell sensitivity and persistence in response to antigen-low acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells induce responses in patients with relapsed/refractory leukemia; however, long-term efficacy is frequently limited by relapse. The inability to target antigen-low cells is an intrinsic vulnerability of second-generation CAR T cells and underlies most relapses following CD22BBz CAR T cell therapy. Here, we interrogate CD22BBz CAR signaling in response to low antigen and find inefficient phosphorylation of the linker for activation of T cells (LAT) limiting downstream signaling. To overcome this, we designed the adjunctive LAT-activating CAR T cell (ALA-CART) platform, pairing a second-generation CAR with a LAT-CAR incorporating the intracellular domain of LAT. ALA-CART cells demonstrate reduced differentiation during manufacturing and increased LAT phosphorylation, MAPK signaling, and AP-1 activity. ALA-CART cells show improved cytotoxicity, proliferation, persistence, and efficacy against antigen-low leukemias that were refractory to clinically active CD22BBz CAR T cells. Restoration of LAT signaling through the ALA-CART platform represents a promising strategy for overcoming multiple mechanisms of CAR T cell failure.

PLCβ1 by-passes early growth response -1 to induce the differentiation of neuronal cells

The Gαq/phospholipase C-β (PLCβ) signaling system mediates calcium responses to a variety of hormones and neurotransmitters. Recent studies suggest that PLCβ1 expression plays a role in the differentiation of two types of cultured neuronal cells (PC12 and SK-N-SH) through a mechanism independent of Gαq. Here, we show that, similar to that observed in PC12 and SK-N-SH cells, PLCβ1 expression increases when human NT2 cells are induced to differentiate either through cytosine-β-D-arabinofuranoside or retinoic acid. Preventing this increase, abolishes differentiation, and down-regulating PLCβ1 in rat primary astrocytes causes cells to adapt an undifferentiated morphology. Surprisingly, transfecting PLCβ1 into undifferentiated PC12 or NT2 cells induces differentiation without the need for differentiating agents. Studies to uncover the underlying mechanism focused on the transcription factor early growth response 1 (Egr-1) which mediates PLCβ1 expression early in differentiation. Over-expressing PLCβ1 in HEK293 cells enhances Egr-1 expression and induces morphological changes. We show that increased levels of cytosolic PLCβ1 in undifferentiated PC12 cells disrupts the association between Egr-1 and its cytosolic binding partner (Tar RNA binding protein), promoting relocalization of Egr-1 to the nucleus, which promotes transcription of proteins needed for differentiation. These studies show a novel mechanism through which differentiation can be modulated.

Direct early growth response-1 knockdown decreases melanoma viability independent of mitogen-activated extracellular signal-related kinase inhibition

To investigate downstream molecular changes caused by mitogen-activated protein kinase (MEK) inhibitor treatment and further explore the impact of direct knockdown of early growth response-1 ( EGR1 ) in melanoma cell culture. RNA-sequencing (RNA-Seq) was performed to determine gene expression changes with MEK inhibitor treatment. Treatment with MEK inhibitor (trametinib) was then assessed in two cutaneous (MEL888, MEL624) and one conjunctival (YUARGE 13-3064) melanoma cell line. Direct knockdown of EGR1 was accomplished using lentiviral vectors containing shRNA. Cell viability was measured using PrestoBlueHS Cell Viability Reagent. Total RNA and protein were assessed by qPCR and SimpleWestern. RNA-Seq demonstrated a profound reduction in EGR1 with MEK inhibitor treatment, prompting further study of melanoma cell lines. Following trametinib treatment of melanoma cells, viability was reduced in both cutaneous (MEL888 26%, P  < 0.01; MEL624 27%, P  < 0.001) and conjunctival (YUARGE 13-3064 33%, P  < 0.01) melanoma compared with DMSO control, with confirmed EGR1 knockdown to 0.04-, 0.01-, and 0.16-fold DMSO-treated levels (all P  < 0.05) in MEL888, MEL624, and YUARGE 13-3064, respectively. Targeted EGR1 knockdown using shRNA reduced viability in both cutaneous (MEL624 78%, P  = 0.05) and conjunctival melanoma (YUARGE-13-3064 67%, P  = 0.02). RNA-Sequencing in MEK inhibitor-treated cells identified EGR1 as a candidate effector molecule of interest. In a malignant melanoma cell population, MEK inhibition reduced viability in both cutaneous and conjunctival melanoma with a profound downstream reduction in EGR1 expression. Targeted knockdown of EGR1 reduced both cutaneous and conjunctival melanoma cell viability independent of MEK inhibition, suggesting a key role for EGR1 in melanoma pathobiology.

Androgen receptor and hyaluronan-mediated motility receptor as new molecular targets of baicalein: new molecular mechanisms for its anticancer properties

Natural compounds known as phytochemicals have served as valuable resources for the development of new anti-cancer drugs and treatment of malignancies. Among these phytochemicals, baicalein is an emerging anti-tumor flavonoid obtained from Scutellaria baicaleinsis (Lamiaceae), but its underlying mechanisms of action and molecular targets have not yet been completely elucidated. Here, we identified new mechanisms for the anti-tumor activities of baicalein, providing evidence that hyaluronan-mediated motility receptor (HMMR) and androgen receptor (AR) are new molecular targets of baicalein in human cancer cells. We observed that HMMR, known to be highly associated with poor prognosis in a wide range of human cancers, was substantially downregulated by baicalein at mRNA and protein levels. Reporter assays further revealed that the suppression of HMMR by baicalein might occur through a transcriptional regulatory mechanism with the participation of Egr-1, E2F3α, and serum response factor (SRF). We also found that baicalein significantly inhibits androgenic responses in hormone-responsive prostate cancer cells, indicating that this might be attributed to the downregulation of AR promoter activity by baicalein. Additionally, baicalein markedly induced the expression of tumor suppressive miR-30C, which might be partly involved in baicalein-mediated autophagy and anti-cancer effects. Overall, our study sheds light on new diverse mechanisms of the anti-cancer effects exhibited by baicalein, implying that baicalein could be a potential therapeutic agent against human cancers and function as an inhibitor of HMMR and AR.

GDNF-RET signaling and EGR1 form a positive feedback loop that promotes tamoxifen resistance via cyclin D1

BACKGROUND

Rearranged during transfection (RET) tyrosine kinase signaling has been previously implicated in endocrine resistant breast cancer, however the mechanism by which this signaling cascade promotes resistance is currently not well described. We recently reported that glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF)-RET signaling appears to promote a positive feedback loop with the transcription factor early growth response 1 (EGR1). Here we investigate the mechanism behind this feedback loop and test the hypothesis that GDNF-RET signaling forms a regulatory loop with EGR1 to upregulate cyclin D1 (CCND1) transcription, leading to cell cycle progression and tamoxifen resistance.

METHODS

To gain a better understanding of the GDNF-RET-EGR1 resistance mechanism, we studied the GDNF-EGR1 positive feedback loop and the role of GDNF and EGR1 in endocrine resistance by modulating their transcription levels using CRISPR-dCAS9 in tamoxifen sensitive (TamS) and tamoxifen resistant (TamR) MCF-7 cells. Additionally, we performed kinetic studies using recombinant GDNF (rGDNF) treatment of TamS cells. Finally, we performed cell proliferation assays using rGDNF, tamoxifen (TAM), and Palbociclib treatments in TamS cells. Statistical significance for qPCR and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP)-qPCR experiments were determined using a student's paired t-test and statistical significance for the cell viability assay was a one-way ANOVA.

RESULTS

GDNF-RET signaling formed a positive feedback loop with EGR1 and also downregulated estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1) transcription. Upregulation of GDNF and EGR1 promoted tamoxifen resistance in TamS cells and downregulation of GDNF promoted tamoxifen sensitivity in TamR cells. Additionally, we show that rGDNF treatment activated GDNF-RET signaling in TamS cells, leading to recruitment of phospho-ELK-1 to the EGR1 promoter, upregulation of EGR1 mRNA and protein, binding of EGR1 to the GDNF and CCND1 promoters, increased GDNF protein expression, and subsequent upregulation of CCND1 mRNA levels. We also show that inhibition of cyclin D1 with Palbociclib, in the presence of rGDNF, decreases cell proliferation and resensitizes cells to TAM.

CONCLUSION

Outcomes from these studies support the hypotheses that GDNF-RET signaling forms a positive feedback loop with the transcription factor EGR1, and that GDNF-RET-EGR1 signaling promotes endocrine resistance via signaling to cyclin D1. Inhibition of components of this signaling pathway could lead to therapeutic insights into the treatment of endocrine resistant breast cancer.

The Immediate Early Response of Lens Epithelial Cells to Lens Injury

Cataracts are treated by lens fiber cell removal followed by intraocular lens (IOL) implantation into the lens capsule. While effective, this procedure leaves behind numerous lens epithelial cells (LECs) which undergo a wound healing response that frequently leads to posterior capsular opacification (PCO). In order to elucidate the acute response of LECs to lens fiber cell removal which models cataract surgery (post cataract surgery, PCS), RNA-seq was conducted on LECs derived from wild type mice at 0 and 6 h PCS. This analysis found that LECs upregulate the expression of numerous proinflammatory cytokines and profibrotic regulators by 6 h PCS suggesting rapid priming of pathways leading to inflammation and fibrosis PCS. LECs also highly upregulate the expression of numerous immediate early transcription factors (IETFs) by 6 h PCS and immunolocalization found elevated levels of these proteins by 3 h PCS, and this was preceded by the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 in injured LECs. Egr1 and FosB were among the highest expressed of these factors and qRT-PCR revealed that they also upregulate in explanted mouse lens epithelia suggesting potential roles in the LEC injury response. Analysis of lenses lacking either Egr1 or FosB revealed that both genes may regulate a portion of the acute LEC injury response, although neither gene was essential for expression of either proinflammatory or fibrotic markers at later times PCS suggesting that IETFs may work in concert to mediate the LEC injury response following cataract surgery.

EGF-Dependent Activation of ELK1 Contributes to the Induction of CLDND1 Expression Involved in Tight Junction Formation

Claudin proteins are intercellular adhesion molecules. Increased claudin domain-containing 1 (CLDND1) expression is associated with the malignant transformation of estrogen receptor-negative breast cancer cells with low sensitivity to hormone therapy. Abnormal CLDND1 expression is also implicated in vascular diseases. Previously, we investigated the regulatory mechanism underlying CLDND1 expression and identified a strong enhancer region near the promoter. In silico analysis of the sequence showed high homology to the ETS domain-containing protein-1 (ELK1)-binding sequence which is involved in cell growth, differentiation, angiogenesis, and cancer. Transcriptional ELK1 activation is associated with the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling cascade originating from the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Here, we evaluated the effect of gefitinib, an EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor, on the suppression of CLDND1 expression using ELK1 overexpression in luciferase reporter and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays. ELK1 was found to be an activator of the enhancer region, and its transient expression increased that of CLDND1 at the mRNA and protein levels. CLDND1 expression was increased following EGF-induced ELK1 phosphorylation. Furthermore, this increase in CLDND1 was significantly suppressed by gefitinib. Therefore, EGF-dependent activation of ELK1 contributes to the induction of CLDND1 expression. These findings open avenues for the development of new anticancer agents targeting CLDND1.

Early Growth Response Factor 1 in Aging Hematopoietic Stem Cells and Leukemia

Aging is associated with various hematological disorders and a higher risk of myeloproliferative disorders. An aged hematopoietic system can be characterized by decreased immune function and increased myeloid cell production. Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) regulate the production of blood cells throughout life. The self-renewal and regenerative potential of HSCs determine the quality and quantity of the peripheral blood cells. External signals from the microenvironment under different conditions determine the fate of the HSCs to proliferate, self-renew, differentiate, or remain quiescent. HSCs respond impromptu to a vast array of extracellular signaling cascades such as cytokines, growth factors, or nutrients, which are crucial in the regulation of HSCs. Early growth response factor 1 (EGR1) is one of the key transcription factors controlling HSC proliferation and their localization in the bone marrow (BM) niche. Downregulation of Egr1 activates and recruits HSCs for their proliferation and differentiation to produce mature blood cells. Increased expression of Egr1 is implicated in immuno-aging of HSCs. However, dysregulation of Egr1 is associated with hematological malignancies such as acute myeloid leukemia (AML), acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), and chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). Here, we summarize the current understanding of the role of EGR1 in the regulation of HSC functionality and the manifestation of leukemia. We also discuss the alternative strategies to rejuvenate the aged HSCs by targeting EGR1 in different settings.

ERK1/2-EGR1-SRSF10 Axis Mediated Alternative Splicing Plays a Critical Role in Head and Neck Cancer

Aberrant alternative splicing is recognized to promote cancer pathogenesis, but the underlying mechanism is yet to be clear. Here, in this study, we report the frequent upregulation of SRSF10 (serine and arginine-rich splicing factor 10), a member of an expanded family of SR splicing factors, in the head and neck cancer (HNC) patients sample in comparison to paired normal tissues. We observed that SRSF10 plays a crucial role in HNC tumorigenesis by affecting the pro-death, pro-survical splice variants of BCL2L1 (BCL2 Like 1: BCLx: Apoptosis Regulator) and the two splice variants of PKM (Pyruvate kinase M), PKM1 normal isoform to PKM2 cancer-specific isoform. SRSF10 is a unique splicing factor with a similar domain organization to that of SR proteins but functions differently as it acts as a sequence-specific splicing activator in its phosphorylated form. Although a body of research studied the role of SRSF10 in the splicing process, the regulatory mechanisms underlying SRSF10 upregulation in the tumor are not very clear. In this study, we aim to dissect the pathway that regulates the SRSF10 upregulation in HNC. Our results uncover the role of transcription factor EGR1 (Early Growth Response1) in elevating the SRSF10 expression; EGR1 binds to the promoter of SRSF10 and promotes TET1 binding leading to the CpG demethylation (hydroxymethylation) in the adjacent position of the EGR1 binding motif, which thereby instigate SRSF10 expression in HNC. Interestingly we also observed that the EGR1 level is in the sink with the ERK1/2 pathway, and therefore, inhibition of the ERK1/2 pathway leads to the decreased EGR1 and SRSF10 expression level. Together, this is the first report to the best of our knowledge where we characterize the ERK 1/2-EGR1-SRSF10 axis regulating the cancer-specific splicing, which plays a critical role in HNC and could be a therapeutic target for better management of HNC patients.

Short-term transcriptomic response to plasma membrane injury

Plasma membrane repair mechanisms are activated within seconds post-injury to promote rapid membrane resealing in eukaryotic cells and prevent cell death. However, less is known about the regeneration phase that follows and how cells respond to injury in the short-term. Here, we provide a genome-wide study into the mRNA expression profile of MCF-7 breast cancer cells exposed to injury by digitonin, a mild non-ionic detergent that permeabilizes the plasma membrane. We focused on the early transcriptional signature and found a time-dependent increase in the number of differentially expressed (> twofold, P < 0.05) genes (34, 114 and 236 genes at 20-, 40- and 60-min post-injury, respectively). Pathway analysis highlighted a robust and gradual three-part transcriptional response: (1) prompt activation of immediate-early response genes, (2) activation of specific MAPK cascades and (3) induction of inflammatory and immune pathways. Therefore, plasma membrane injury triggers a rapid and strong stress and immunogenic response. Our meta-analysis suggests that this is a conserved transcriptome response to plasma membrane injury across different cell and injury types. Taken together, our study shows that injury has profound effects on the transcriptome of wounded cells in the regeneration phase (subsequent to membrane resealing), which is likely to influence cellular status and has been previously overlooked.

Probing the effect of clustering on EphA2 receptor signaling efficiency by subcellular control of ligand-receptor mobility

Clustering of ligand:receptor complexes on the cell membrane is widely presumed to have functional consequences for subsequent signal transduction. However, it is experimentally challenging to selectively manipulate receptor clustering without altering other biochemical aspects of the cellular system. Here, we develop a microfabrication strategy to produce substrates displaying mobile and immobile ligands that are separated by roughly 1 µm, and thus experience an identical cytoplasmic signaling state, enabling precision comparison of downstream signaling reactions. Applying this approach to characterize the ephrinA1:EphA2 signaling system reveals that EphA2 clustering enhances both receptor phosphorylation and downstream signaling activity. Single-molecule imaging clearly resolves increased molecular binding dwell times at EphA2 clusters for both Grb2:SOS and NCK:N-WASP signaling modules. This type of intracellular comparison enables a substantially higher degree of quantitative analysis than is possible when comparisons must be made between different cells and essentially eliminates the effects of cellular response to ligand manipulation.

Promoter Methylation of the MGRN1 Gene Predicts Prognosis and Response to Chemotherapy of High-Grade Serous Ovarian Cancer Patients

Aberrant DNA methylation is considered to play a critical role in the chemoresistance of epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC). In this study, we explored the relationship between hypermethylation of the Mahogunin Ring Finger 1 (MGRN1) gene promoter and primary chemoresistance and clinical outcomes in high-grade serous ovarian cancer (HGSOC) patients. The MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry assays revealed a strong association between hypermethylation of the MGRN1 upstream region and platinum resistance in HGSOC patients. Spearman’s correlation analysis revealed a significantly negative connection between the methylation level of MGRN1 and its expression in HGSOC. In vitro analysis demonstrated that knockdown of MGRN1 reduced the sensitivity of cells to cisplatin and that expression of EGR1 was significantly decreased in SKOV3 cells with low levels of MGRN1 expression. Similarly, EGR1 mRNA expression was lower in platinum-resistant HGSOC patients and was positively correlated with MGRN1 mRNA expression. Kaplan-Meier analyses showed that high methylation of the MGRN1 promoter region and low expression of MGRN1 were associated with worse survival of HGSOC patients. In multivariable models, low MGRN1 expression was an independent factor predicting poor outcome. Furthermore, low expression of EGR1 was also been confirmed to be significantly related to the poor prognosis of HGSOC patients by Kaplan-Meier. The hypermethylation of the MGRN1 promoter region and low expression of MGRN1 were associated with platinum resistance and poor outcomes in HGSOC patients, probably by altering EGR1 expression.

The Role of the Transcription Factor EGR1 in Cancer

Early growth response factor 1 (EGR1) is a transcription factor that is mainly involved in the processes of tissue injury, immune responses, and fibrosis. Recent studies have shown that EGR1 is closely related to the initiation and progression of cancer and may participate in tumor cell proliferation, invasion, and metastasis and in tumor angiogenesis. Nonetheless, the specific mechanism whereby EGR1 modulates these processes remains to be elucidated. This review article summarizes possible mechanisms of action of EGR1 in tumorigenesis and tumor progression and may serve as a reference for clinical efficacy predictions and for the discovery of new therapeutic targets.

A Broad Response to Intracellular Long-Chain Polyphosphate in Human Cells

Polyphosphates (polyPs) are long chains of inorganic phosphates linked by phosphoanhydride bonds. They are found in all kingdoms of life, playing roles in cell growth, infection, and blood coagulation. Unlike in bacteria and lower eukaryotes, the mammalian enzymes responsible for polyP metabolism are largely unexplored. We use RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) and mass spectrometry to define a broad impact of polyP produced inside of mammalian cells via ectopic expression of the E. coli polyP synthetase PPK. We find that multiple cellular compartments can support accumulation of polyP to high levels. Overproduction of polyP is associated with reprogramming of both the transcriptome and proteome, including activation of the ERK1/2-EGR1 signaling axis. Finally, fractionation analysis shows that polyP accumulation results in relocalization of nuclear/cytoskeleton proteins, including targets of non-enzymatic lysine polyphosphorylation. Our work demonstrates that internally produced polyP can activate diverse signaling pathways in human cells.

12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate increases cardiomyogenesis through PKC/ERK signaling

12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) is the most widely used diacylglycerol (DAG) mimetic agent and inducer of protein kinase C (PKC)-mediated cellular response in biomedical studies. TPA has been proposed as a pluripotent cell differentiation factor, but results obtained have been inconsistent. In the present study we show that TPA can be applied as a cardiomyogenesis-promoting factor for the differentiation of mouse embryonic stem (mES) cells in vitro. The mechanism of TPA action is mediated by the induction of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activity and the subsequent phosphorylation of GATA4 transcription factor. Interestingly, general mitogens (FGF, EGF, VEGF and serum) or canonical WNT signalling did not mimic the effect of TPA. Moreover, on the basis of our results, we postulate that a TPA-sensitive population of cardiac progenitor cells exists at a certain time point (after days 6–8 of the differentiation protocol) and that the proposed treatment can be used to increase the multiplication of ES cell-derived cardiomyocytes.

Mechanistic regulation of SPHK1 expression and translocation by EMAP II in pulmonary smooth muscle cells

Phosphorylation of sphingosine by sphingosine kinase 1 (SPHK1) produces the bioactive sphingolipid sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), a microvascular and immuno-modulator associated with vascular remodeling in pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). The low intracellular concentration of S1P is under tight spatial-temporal control. Molecular mechanisms that mediate S1P burden and S1P regulation of vascular remodeling are poorly understood. Similarities between two early response pro-inflammatory cytokine gene transcript activation profiles, S1P and Endothelial Monocyte Activating Polypeptide II (EMAP II), suggested a strategic link between their signaling pathways. We determined that EMAP II triggers a bimodal phosphorylation, transcriptional regulation and membrane translocation of SPHK1 through a common upstream process in both macrophages and pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs). EMAP II initiates a dual function of ERK1/2: phosphorylation of SPHK1 and regulation of the transcription factor EGR1 that induces expression of SPHK1. Activated ERK1/2 induces a bimodal phosphorylation of SPHK1 which reciprocally increases S1P levels. This identified common upstream signaling mechanism between a protein and a bioactive lipid initiates cell specific downstream signaling representing a multifactorial mechanism that contributes to inflammation and PASMC proliferation which are cardinal histopathological phenotypes of PAH.

Human Cytomegalovirus miR-US5-2 Downregulation of GAB1 Regulates Cellular Proliferation and UL138 Expression through Modulation of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Signaling Pathways

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) causes significant disease in immunocompromised individuals, including transplant patients. HCMV establishes latency in hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. The mechanisms governing latency and reactivation of viral replication are complex and not fully understood. HCMV-encoded miRNAs are small regulatory RNAs that reduce protein expression. In this study, we found that the HCMV miRNA miR-US5-2 targets the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) adaptor protein GAB1 which directly affects downstream cellular signaling pathways activated by EGF. Consequently, miR-US5-2 blocks the EGF-mediated proliferation of human fibroblasts. Early growth response gene 1 (EGR1) is a transcription factor activated by EGFR signaling that regulates expression of HCMV UL138. We show that miR-US5-2 regulates UL138 expression through GAB1-mediated downregulation of the signaling pathways that lead to EGR1 expression. These data suggest that miR-US5-2, through downregulation of GAB1, could play a critical role during reactivation from latency by reducing proliferation and UL138 expression.

Regulation of epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor (EGFR) signaling is critical for the replication of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) as well as latency and reactivation in CD34⁺ hematopoietic progenitor cells. HCMV microRNAs (miRNAs) provide a means to modulate the signaling activated by EGF through targeting components of the EGFR signaling pathways. Here, we demonstrate that HCMV miR-US5-2 directly downregulates the critical EGFR adaptor protein GAB1 that mediates activation and sustained signaling through the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and MEK/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathways and cellular proliferation in response to EGF. Expression of HCMV UL138 is regulated by the transcription factor early growth response gene 1 (EGR1) downstream of EGFR-induced MEK/ERK signaling. We show that by targeting GAB1 and attenuating MEK/ERK signaling, miR-US5-2 indirectly regulates EGR1 and UL138 expression, which implicates the miRNA in critical regulation of HCMV latency.

IMPORTANCE Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) causes significant disease in immunocompromised individuals, including transplant patients. HCMV establishes latency in hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. The mechanisms governing latency and reactivation of viral replication are complex and not fully understood. HCMV-encoded miRNAs are small regulatory RNAs that reduce protein expression. In this study, we found that the HCMV miRNA miR-US5-2 targets the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) adaptor protein GAB1 which directly affects downstream cellular signaling pathways activated by EGF. Consequently, miR-US5-2 blocks the EGF-mediated proliferation of human fibroblasts. Early growth response gene 1 (EGR1) is a transcription factor activated by EGFR signaling that regulates expression of HCMV UL138. We show that miR-US5-2 regulates UL138 expression through GAB1-mediated downregulation of the signaling pathways that lead to EGR1 expression. These data suggest that miR-US5-2, through downregulation of GAB1, could play a critical role during reactivation from latency by reducing proliferation and UL138 expression.

Non-Phosphorylatable PEA-15 Sensitises SKOV-3 Ovarian Cancer Cells to Cisplatin

The efficacy of cisplatin-based chemotherapy in ovarian cancer is often limited by the development of drug resistance. In most ovarian cancer cells, cisplatin activates extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 (ERK1/2) signalling. Phosphoprotein enriched in astrocytes (PEA-15) is a ubiquitously expressed protein, capable of sequestering ERK1/2 in the cytoplasm and inhibiting cell proliferation. This and other functions of PEA-15 are regulated by its phosphorylation status. In this study, the relevance of PEA-15 phosphorylation state for cisplatin sensitivity of ovarian carcinoma cells was examined. The results of MTT-assays indicated that overexpression of PEA-15AA (a non-phosphorylatable variant) sensitised SKOV-3 cells to cisplatin. Phosphomimetic PEA-15DD did not affect cell sensitivity to the drug. While PEA-15DD facilitates nuclear translocation of activated ERK1/2, PEA-15AA acts to sequester the kinase in the cytoplasm as shown by Western blot. Microarray data indicated deregulation of thirteen genes in PEA-15AA-transfected cells compared to non-transfected or PEA-15DD-transfected variants. Data derived from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) showed that the expression of seven of these genes including EGR1 (early growth response protein 1) and FLNA (filamin A) significantly correlated with the therapy outcome in cisplatin-treated cancer patients. Further analysis indicated the relevance of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2/antioxidant response element (Nrf2/ARE) signalling for the favourable effect of PEA-15AA on cisplatin sensitivity. The results warrant further evaluation of the PEA-15 phosphorylation status as a potential candidate biomarker of response to cisplatin-based chemotherapy.

Transcriptional regulation of adult neural stem/progenitor cells: tales from the subventricular zone

In rodents, well characterized neurogenic niches of the adult brain, such as the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles and the subgranular zone of the hippocampus, support the maintenance of neural/stem progenitor cells (NSPCs) and the production of new neurons throughout the lifespan. The adult neurogenic process is dependent on the intrinsic gene expression signatures of NSPCs that make them competent for self-renewal and neuronal differentiation. At the same time, it is receptive to regulation by various extracellular signals that allow the modulation of neuronal production and integration into brain circuitries by various physiological stimuli. A drawback of this plasticity is the sensitivity of adult neurogenesis to alterations of the niche environment that can occur due to aging, injury or disease. At the core of the molecular mechanisms regulating neurogenesis, several transcription factors have been identified that maintain NSPC identity and mediate NSPC response to extrinsic cues. Here, we focus on REST, Egr1 and Dbx2 and their roles in adult neurogenesis, especially in the subventricular zone. We review recent work from our and other laboratories implicating these transcription factors in the control of NSPC proliferation and differentiation and in the response of NSPCs to extrinsic influences from the niche. We also discuss how their altered regulation may affect the neurogenic process in the aged and in the diseased brain. Finally, we highlight key open questions that need to be addressed to foster our understanding of the transcriptional mechanisms controlling adult neurogenesis.

EGR1 upregulation following Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus infection is regulated by ERK and PERK pathways contributing to cell death

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is a neurotropic virus that causes significant disease in both humans and equines. Here we characterized the impact of VEEV on signaling pathways regulating cell death in human primary astrocytes. VEEV productively infected primary astrocytes and caused an upregulation of early growth response 1 (EGR1) gene expression at 9 and 18 h post infection. EGR1 induction was dependent on extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 (ERK1/2) and protein kinase R (PKR)-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK), but not on p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) or phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling. Knockdown of EGR1 significantly reduced VEEV-induced apoptosis and impacted viral replication. Knockdown of ERK1/2 or PERK significantly reduced EGR1 gene expression, dramatically reduced viral replication, and increased cell survival as well as rescued cells from VEEV-induced apoptosis. These data indicate that EGR1 activation and subsequent cell death are regulated through ERK and PERK pathways in VEEV infected primary astrocytes.

Protease Nexin I is a feedback regulator of EGF/PKC/MAPK/EGR1 signaling in breast cancer cells metastasis and stemness

Breast cancer is the most prevalent cancer in women worldwide, which remains incurable once metastatic. Breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) are a small subset of breast cancer cells, which are the radical cause of drug resistance, tumor relapse, and metastasis in breast cancer. The extracellular serine protease inhibitor serpinE2, also named protease nexin-1 (PN-1), contributes to enhanced metastasis of cancer cells mainly by remodeling the tumor matrix. In this study, we found that PN-1 was up-regulated in breast cancer, which promoted cell invasion, migration and stemness. Furthermore, by using specific inhibitors, we discovered that epidermal growth factor (EGF) up-regulated PN-1 in breast cancer cells through cascade activation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) to the activation of protein kinase Cδ (PKCδ), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MEK) and extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK), which finally led to the up-regulation of early growth response protein 1 (EGR1). Moreover, EGF signaling was further activated as a feedback of PN-1 up-regulation through PN-1 blocking HtrA1. Taken together, our findings revealed a novel signaling axis that up-regulated PN-1 expression in breast cancer cells, and the new mechanism of PN-1-promoted breast cancer metastasis, which may provide new insights into identifying novel therapeutic targets for breast cancer.

MEK inhibitors activate Wnt signalling and induce stem cell plasticity in colorectal cancer

In colorectal cancer (CRC), aberrant Wnt signalling is essential for tumorigenesis and maintenance of cancer stem cells. However, how other oncogenic pathways converge on Wnt signalling to modulate stem cell homeostasis in CRC currently remains poorly understood. Using large-scale compound screens in CRC, we identify MEK1/2 inhibitors as potent activators of Wnt/β-catenin signalling. Targeting MEK increases Wnt activity in different CRC cell lines and murine intestine in vivo. Truncating mutations of APC generated by CRISPR/Cas9 strongly synergize with MEK inhibitors in enhancing Wnt responses in isogenic CRC models. Mechanistically, we demonstrate that MEK inhibition induces a rapid downregulation of AXIN1. Using patient-derived CRC organoids, we show that MEK inhibition leads to increased Wnt activity, elevated LGR5 levels and enrichment of gene signatures associated with stemness and cancer relapse. Our study demonstrates that clinically used MEK inhibitors inadvertently induce stem cell plasticity, revealing an unknown side effect of RAS pathway inhibition.

MEK inhibitors activate Wnt signalling and induce stem cell plasticity in colorectal cancer

In colorectal cancer (CRC), aberrant Wnt signalling is essential for tumorigenesis and maintenance of cancer stem cells. However, how other oncogenic pathways converge on Wnt signalling to modulate stem cell homeostasis in CRC currently remains poorly understood. Using large-scale compound screens in CRC, we identify MEK1/2 inhibitors as potent activators of Wnt/β-catenin signalling. Targeting MEK increases Wnt activity in different CRC cell lines and murine intestine in vivo. Truncating mutations of APC generated by CRISPR/Cas9 strongly synergize with MEK inhibitors in enhancing Wnt responses in isogenic CRC models. Mechanistically, we demonstrate that MEK inhibition induces a rapid downregulation of AXIN1. Using patient-derived CRC organoids, we show that MEK inhibition leads to increased Wnt activity, elevated LGR5 levels and enrichment of gene signatures associated with stemness and cancer relapse. Our study demonstrates that clinically used MEK inhibitors inadvertently induce stem cell plasticity, revealing an unknown side effect of RAS pathway inhibition.

Wnt signaling is necessary for colorectal cancer tumorigenesis and stem cell maintenance. Here, the authors identify MEK1/2 inhibitors as potent activators of Wnt/β-catenin signalling and show that clinically approved MEK inhibitors inadvertently induce stem cell plasticity in colorectal cancer

EPHB6 controls catecholamine biosynthesis by up-regulating tyrosine hydroxylase transcription in adrenal gland chromaffin cells

EPHB6 is a member of the erythropoietin-producing hepatocellular kinase (EPH) family and a receptor tyrosine kinase with a dead kinase domain. It is involved in blood pressure regulation and adrenal gland catecholamine (CAT) secretion, but several facets of EPHB6-mediated CAT regulation are unclear. In this study, using biochemical, quantitative RT-PCR, immunoblotting, and gene microarray assays, we found that EPHB6 up-regulates CAT biosynthesis in adrenal gland chromaffin cells (AGCCs). We observed that epinephrine content is reduced in the AGCCs from male Ephb6-KO mice, caused by decreased expression of tyrosine hydroxylase, the rate-limiting enzyme in CAT biosynthesis. We demonstrate that the signaling pathway from EPHB6 to tyrosine hydroxylase expression in AGCCs involves Rac family small GTPase 1 (RAC1), MAP kinase kinase 7 (MKK7), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), proto-oncogene c-Jun, activator protein 1 (AP1), and early growth response 1 (EGR1). On the other hand, signaling via extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, and ELK1, ETS transcription factor (ELK1) was not affected by EPHB6 deletion. We further report that EPHB6's effect on AGCCs was via reverse signaling through ephrin B1 and that EPHB6 acted in concert with the nongenomic effect of testosterone to control CAT biosynthesis. Our findings elucidate the mechanisms by which EPHB6 modulates CAT biosynthesis and identify potential therapeutic targets for diseases, such as hypertension, caused by dysfunctional CAT biosynthesis.

Furanodienone overcomes temozolomide resistance in glioblastoma through the downregulation of CSPG4-Akt-ERK signalling by inhibiting EGR1-dependent transcription

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a highly aggressive type of brain tumour. Patients with GBM respond poorly to chemotherapy and have poor survival outcomes. Neuron-glial antigen 2 (NG2), also known as chondroitin sulphate proteoglycan 4 (CSPG4), has been shown to contribute to critical processes, such as cell survival, proliferation, and chemotherapy resistance, during glioma progression. In this study, we found that furanodienone (FUR), a diene-type sesquiterpene isolated from the rhizomes of Rhizoma curcumae, exhibited a potential cytotoxic effect on temozolomide (TMZ)-resistant GBM cells in vitro by inhibiting CSPG4 and related signalling pathways. Studies investigating the mechanism demonstrated that FUR suppressed CSPG4-Akt-ERK signalling, inflammatory responses, and cytokine levels but activated caspase-dependent pathways and mitochondrial dysfunction. Furthermore, an immunofluorescence assay and a dual-luciferase reporter assay revealed that inhibition of EGR1-mediated transcription might have contributed to the FUR-dependent blockade of CSPG4 signalling and glioma cell survival. These results established a link between FUR-induced CSPG4 inhibition and the suppression of EGR1-dependent transcription. Attenuation of ERK1/2 and cytokine signalling might have generated the EGR1-dependent negative feedback loop of the CSPG4 pathway during FUR-induced apoptosis. These findings suggested that FUR could be a therapeutic candidate for the treatment of malignant glioma via targeting CSPG4 signalling.

Hydrodynamic shear stress promotes epithelial-mesenchymal transition by downregulating ERK and GSK3β activities

BACKGROUND

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) occurs in the tumor microenvironment and presents an important mechanism of tumor cell intravasation, stemness acquisition, and metastasis. During metastasis, tumor cells enter the circulation to gain access to distant tissues, but how this fluid microenvironment influences cancer cell biology is poorly understood.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Here, we present both in vivo and in vitro evidence that EMT-like transition also occurs in circulating tumor cells (CTCs) as a result of hydrodynamic shear stress (+SS), which promotes conversion of CD24middle/CD44high/CD133middle/CXCR4low/ALDH1low primary patient epithelial tumor cells into specific high sphere-forming CD24low/CD44low/CD133high/CXCR4high/ALDH1high cancer stem-like cells (CSLCs) or tumor-initiating cells (TICs) with elevated tumor progression and metastasis capacity in vitro and in vivo. We demonstrate that conversion of CSLCs/TICs from epithelial tumor cells via +SS is dependent on reactive oxygen species (ROS)/nitric oxide (NO) generation, and suppression of extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK)/glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)3β, a mechanism similar to that operating in embryonic stem cells to prevent their differentiation while promoting self-renewal.

CONCLUSION

Fluid shear stress experienced during systemic circulation of human breast tumor cells can lead to specific acquisition of mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-like potential that promotes EMT, mesenchymal-epithelial transition, and metastasis to distant organs. Our data revealed that biomechanical forces appeared to be important microenvironmental factors that not only drive hematopoietic development but also lead to acquisition of CSLCs/TIC potential in cancer metastasis. Our data highlight that +SS is a critical factor that promotes the conversion of CTCs into distinct TICs in blood circulation by endowing plasticity to these cells and by maintaining their self-renewal signaling pathways.

EGR-mediated control of STIM expression and function

Ca²⁺ is a ubiquitous, dynamic and pluripotent second messenger with highly context-dependent roles in complex cellular processes such as differentiation, proliferation, and cell death. These Ca²⁺ signals are generated by Ca²⁺-permeable channels located on the plasma membrane (PM) and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and shaped by PM- and ER-localized pumps and transporters. Differences in the expression of these Ca²⁺ homeostasis proteins contribute to cell and context-dependent differences in the spatiotemporal organization of Ca²⁺ signals and, ultimately, cell fate. This review focuses on the Early Growth Response (EGR) family of zinc finger transcription factors and their role in the transcriptional regulation of Stromal Interaction Molecule (STIM1), a critical regulator of Ca²⁺ entry in both excitable and non-excitable cells.

Tumor suppression by the EGR1, DMP1, ARF, p53, and PTEN Network

Recent studies have indicated that EGR1 is a direct regulator of tumor suppressors including TGFβ1, PTEN, and p53. The Myb-like transcription factor Dmp1 is a physiological regulator of the Arf-p53 pathway through transactivation of the Arf promoter and physical interaction of p53. The Dmp1 promoter has binding sites for Egr proteins, and Egr1 is a target for Dmp1. Crosstalks between p53 and PTEN have been reported. The Egr1-Dmp1-Arf-p53-Pten pathway displays multiple modes of interaction with each other, suggesting the existence of a functional network of tumor suppressors that maintain normal cell growth and prevent the emergence of incipient cancer cells.

Induction of early growth response gene 1 (EGR1) by endoplasmic reticulum stress is mediated by the extracellular regulated kinase (ERK) arm of the MAPK pathways

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress activates three principal signaling pathways, collectively known as the unfolded protein response, leading to translational and transcriptional control mechanisms that dictate the cell's response as adaptive or apoptotic. The present study illustrates that for HepG2 human hepatocellular carcinoma cells the signaling pathways triggered by ER stress extend beyond the three principal pathways to include mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling, leading to activation of transcription from the early growth response 1 (EGR1) gene. Analysis provided evidence for a SRC-RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK cascade mechanism that leads to enhanced phosphorylation of the transcription factor ELK1. ELK1 and serum response factor (SRF) are constitutively bound to the EGR1 promoter and are phosphorylated by nuclear localized ERK. The promoter abundance of both phospho-SRF and phopsho-ELK1 was increased by ER stress, but the SRF phosphorylation was transient. Knockdown of ELK1 had little effect on the basal EGR1 mRNA content, but completely blocked the increase in response to ER stress. Conversely, knockdown of SRF suppressed basal EGR1 mRNA content, but had only a small effect on the induction by ER stress. This research highlights the importance of MAPK signaling in response to ER stress and identifies ELK1 as a transcriptional mediator and the EGR1 gene as a target.

Trans-omic Analysis Reveals Selective Responses to Induced and Basal Insulin across Signaling, Transcriptional, and Metabolic Networks

The concentrations of insulin selectively regulate multiple cellular functions. To understand how insulin concentrations are interpreted by cells, we constructed a trans-omic network of insulin action in FAO hepatoma cells using transcriptomic data, western blotting analysis of signaling proteins, and metabolomic data. By integrating sensitivity into the trans-omic network, we identified the selective trans-omic networks stimulated by high and low doses of insulin, denoted as induced and basal insulin signals, respectively. The induced insulin signal was selectively transmitted through the pathway involving Erk to an increase in the expression of immediate-early and upregulated genes, whereas the basal insulin signal was selectively transmitted through a pathway involving Akt and an increase of Foxo phosphorylation and a reduction of downregulated gene expression. We validated the selective trans-omic network in vivo by analysis of the insulin-clamped rat liver. This integrated analysis enabled molecular insight into how liver cells interpret physiological insulin signals to regulate cellular functions.

EGR1 interacts with TBX2 and functions as a tumor suppressor in rhabdomyosarcoma

EGR1, one of the immediate-early response genes, can function as a tumor suppressor gene or as an oncogene in cancer. The function of EGR1 has not been fully characterized in rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS), a pediatric cancer derived from the muscle linage. We found that EGR1 is downregulated in the alveolar RMS (ARMS) subtype but expressed at levels comparable to normal skeletal muscle in embryonal RMS (ERMS). We found that overexpression of EGR1 in ARMS significantly decreased cell proliferation, mobility, and anchorage-independent growth while also promoting differentiation. We found that EGR1 interacts with TBX2, which we have shown functions as an oncogene in RMS. The interaction inhibits EGR1 dependent gene expression, which includes the cell cycle regulators p21 and PTEN as well as other important cell growth drivers such as NDRG1 and CST6. We also found that EGR1 induced apoptosis by triggering the intrinsic apoptosis pathway. EGR1 also activated two pro-apoptotic factors, BAX and dephosphorylated BAD, which are both located upstream of the caspase cascades in the intrinsic pathway. EGR1 also sensitized RMS cells to chemotherapeutic agents, suggesting that activating EGR1 may improve therapeutic targeting by inducing apoptosis. Our results establish the important role of EGR1 in understanding RMS pathology.

LY3009120, a panRAF inhibitor, has significant anti-tumor activity in BRAF and KRAS mutant preclinical models of colorectal cancer

Activating mutations in the KRAS and BRAF genes, leading to hyperactivation of the RAS/RAF/MAPK oncogenic signaling cascade, are common in patients with colorectal cancer (CRC). While selective BRAF inhibitors are efficacious in BRAF^mut melanoma, they have limited efficacy in BRAF^mut CRC patients. In a RAS^mut background, selective BRAF inhibitors are contraindicated due to paradoxical activation of the MAPK pathway through potentiation of CRAF kinase activity. A way to overcome such paradoxical activation is through concurrent inhibition of the kinase activity of both RAF isoforms. Here, we further examined the effects of LY3009120, a panRAF and RAF dimer inhibitor, in human models of CRC with various mutational backgrounds. We demonstrate that LY3009120 induced anti-proliferative effects in BRAF^mut and KRAS^mut CRC cell lines through G1-cell cycle arrest. The anti-proliferative effects of LY3009120 in KRAS^mut CRC cell lines phenocopied molecular inhibition of RAF isoforms by simultaneous siRNA-mediated knockdown of ARAF, BRAF and CRAF. Additionally, LY3009120 displayed significant activity in in vivo BRAF^mut and KRAS^mut CRC xenograft models. Examination of potential resistance to LY3009120 demonstrated RAF-independent ERK and AKT activation in the KRAS^mut CRC cell line HCT 116. These findings describe the preclinical activity of a panRAF inhibitor in a BRAF^mut and KRAS^mut CRC setting.

Egr-1 suppresses breast cancer cells proliferation by arresting cell cycle progression via down-regulating CyclinDs

Egr-1 is an important nuclear transcription factor in the early growth response gene family (Egr family). Egr-1 was reportedly involved in the tumorigenesis of diverse tumors. However, there was a paucity of data regarding the role of Egr-1 in the breast cancer. Herein, we investigated the expression of Egr-1 in breast tissues and breast cancer cell lines BT549 and Bcap37. Immunohistochemistry showed that Egr-1 was down-regulated in breast cancer tissues versus the normal paracancerous tissues. Overexpression of Egr-1 could arrest the progression of cell cycle in breast cancer cells. Luciferase reporter assay revealed Egr-1 could bind to the promoters of CyclinD1, CyclinD2 and CyclinD3. Together, these results suggested that Egr-1 could affect the cell cycle of breast cancer cells and defined the mechanism for the cells by inhibiting the process of G0/G1 phase. Our findings provide new insight into Egr-1 in breast cancer.

A triad of telomerase, androgen receptor and early growth response 1 in prostate cancer cells

Telomerase activation is one of the key mechanisms that allow cells to bypass replicative senescence. Telomerase activity is primarily regulated at the level of transcription of its catalytic unit- hTERT. Prostate cancer (PCa), akin to other cancers, is characterized by high telomerase activity. Existing data suggest that hTERT expression and telomerase activity are positively regulated by androgenic stimuli in androgen-dependent prostate cancer (ADPC) cells. A part of the present study reaffirmed this by demonstrating a decline in the hTERT expression and telomerase activity on "loss of AR" in ADPC cells. The study further addressed 2 unresolved queries, i) whether AR-mediated signaling is of any relevance to hTERT expression in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) and ii) whether this signaling involves EGR1. Our data suggest that AR-mediated signaling negatively regulates hTERT expression in CRPC cells. Incidental support for the possibility of EGR1 being a regulator of hTERT expression in PCa was provided by i) immunolocalization of hTERT and EGR1 proteins in the same cell type (secretory epithelium) of PCa and BPH tissues; ii) significantly (p< 0.001) higher levels of both these proteins in CRPC (PC3 and DU145), compared with ADPC (LNCaP) cells. A direct evidence for the role of EGR1 in hTERT expression was evident by a significant (p<0.0001) decrease in the hTERT transcript levels in the EGR1-silenced CRPC cells. Further, "gain of AR" led to a significant reduction in the levels of hTERT and EGR1 in CRPC cells. However, restoration of EGR1 levels prevented the decline in the hTERT transcript levels in these cells. Taken together, our data indicate that AR regulates the expression of EGR1, which in turn acts as a positive regulator of hTERT expression in CRPC cells. Thus, AR exerts an inhibitory effect on hTERT expression and telomerase activity by modulating EGR1 levels in CRPC cells.

The regulatory mechanisms of NG2/CSPG4 expression

Neuron-glial antigen 2 (NG2), also known as chondroitin sulphate proteoglycan 4 (CSPG4), is a surface type I transmembrane core proteoglycan that is crucially involved in cell survival, migration and angiogenesis. NG2 is frequently used as a marker for the identification and characterization of certain cell types, but little is known about the mechanisms regulating its expression. In this review, we provide evidence that the regulation of NG2 expression underlies inflammation and hypoxia and is mediated by methyltransferases, transcription factors, including Sp1, paired box (Pax) 3 and Egr-1, and the microRNA miR129-2. These regulatory factors crucially determine NG2-mediated cellular processes such as glial scar formation in the central nervous system (CNS) or tumor growth and metastasis. Therefore, they are potential targets for the establishment of novel NG2-based therapeutic strategies in the treatment of CNS injuries, cancer and other conditions of these types.

Expression of several cytokines in prostate cancer: Correlation with clinical variables of patients. Relationship with biochemical progression of the malignance

BACKGROUND

This work is focused on finding new markers that complement or diagnoses currently used towards improving knowledge histological and statistical aspects that allow us to predict the local stage carcinomas and to identify and understand all the factors related to the progression of this disease.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Prostates were obtained from: normal prostates from 20 men, diagnosis of BPH (Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia) from 35 men and prostate cancer from 86 men. We studied the behavior of cytokines that have been implicated in inflammatory processes: TNF-alfa, IL-6, IL-1, EGF and TGF-B. Expression of these cytokines and its receptors was analyzed by immunohistochemistry. Spearman's test, Kaplan-Meier curves, univariate and multivariate Cox proportional hazard regression analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Spearman's analysis showed that there was at least one correlation between TGFB-B, IL-6, gp-130, IL-1B, IL-1R, IL-1RII and clinic pathological feature (preoperative serum PSA, clinical t stage, pathological t stage, positive surgical margins, biochemical progression, survival). Immunostaining score was correlated with some of the clinicopathological feature. In Cox multivariate analysis between the prognostic variables (pathological T stage, Gleason score and lymph node) and immunohistochemical parameters (TGF-B, IL-1a, intensity TGFBRI and intensity TGFBRII) only the expression of IL-1a was retained as independent predictors of biochemical progression after radical prostatectomy.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest a role for prostatic expression of TGF-B, IL-1a, TGFBRI and TGFBRII as prognostic markers for prostate cancer. The rational combination of novel agents directed toward the inactivation of TGF-B, IL-1a, TGFBRI and TGFBRII could disrupt complementary tumor cell proliferation pathways.

HE4 promotes collateral resistance to cisplatin and paclitaxel in ovarian cancer cells

Background

Chemotherapy resistance presents a difficult challenge in treating epithelial ovarian cancer patients, particularly when tumors exhibit resistance to multiple chemotherapeutic agents. A few studies have shown that elevated serum levels of the ovarian cancer biomarker HE4 correlate with tumor chemoresistance, response to treatment, and survival. Here, we sought to confirm our previous results that HE4 contributes to collateral resistance to cisplatin and paclitaxel in vitro and uncover factors that may contribute to HE4-mediated chemoresistance.

Methods

MTS assays and western blots for cleaved PARP were used to assess resistance of HE4-overexpressing SKOV3 and OVCAR8 clones to cisplatin and paclitaxel. CRISPR/Cas technology was used to knockdown HE4 in HE4-overexpressing SKOV3 cells. A microarray was conducted to determine differential gene expression between SKOV3 null vector-transfected and HE4-overexpressing clones upon cisplatin exposure, and results were validated by quantitative RT-PCR. Regulation of mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and tubulins were assessed by western blot.

Results

HE4-overexpressing SKOV3 and OVCAR8 clones displayed increased resistance to cisplatin and paclitaxel. Knockdown of HE4 in HE4-overexpressing SKOV3 cells partially reversed chemoresistance. Microarray analysis revealed that HE4 overexpression resulted in suppression of cisplatin-mediated upregulation of EGR1, a MAPK-regulated gene involved in promoting apoptosis. Upregulation of p38, a MAPK activated in response to cisplatin, was suppressed in HE4-overexpressing clones. No differences in extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation were noted in HE4-overexpressing clones treated with 25 μM cisplatin, but ERK activation was partially suppressed in HE4-overexpressing clones treated with 80 μM cisplatin. Furthermore, treatment of cells with recombinant HE4 dramatically affected ERK activation in SKOV3 and OVCAR8 wild type cells. Recombinant HE4 also upregulated α-tubulin and β-tubulin levels in SKOV3 and OVCAR8 cells, and microtubule associated protein tau (MAPT) gene expression was increased in SKOV3 HE4-overexpressing clones.

Conclusions

Overexpression of HE4 promotes collateral resistance to cisplatin and paclitaxel, and downregulation of HE4 partially reverses this chemoresistance. Multiple factors could be involved in HE4-mediated chemoresistance, including deregulation of MAPK signaling, as well as alterations in tubulin levels or stability.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13048-016-0240-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A Positive Feed-forward Loop Associating EGR1 and PDGFA Promotes Proliferation and Self-renewal in Glioblastoma Stem Cells

Glioblastomas are the most common primary brain tumors, highly vascularized, infiltrating, and resistant to current therapies. This cancer leads to a fatal outcome in less than 18 months. The aggressive behavior of glioblastomas, including resistance to current treatments and tumor recurrence, has been attributed to glioma stemlike/progenitor cells. The transcription factor EGR1 (early growth response 1), a member of a zinc finger transcription factor family, has been described as tumor suppressor in gliomas when ectopically overexpressed. Although EGR1 expression in human glioblastomas has been associated with patient survival, its precise location in tumor territories as well as its contribution to glioblastoma progression remain elusive. In the present study, we show that EGR1-expressing cells are more frequent in high grade gliomas where the nuclear expression of EGR1 is restricted to proliferating/progenitor cells. We show in primary cultures of glioma stemlike cells that EGR1 contributes to stemness marker expression and proliferation by orchestrating a PDGFA-dependent growth-stimulatory loop. In addition, we demonstrate that EGR1 acts as a positive regulator of several important genes, including SHH, GLI1, GLI2, and PDGFA, previously linked to the maintenance and proliferation of glioma stemlike cells.

Dynamic macrophage polarization-specific miRNA patterns reveal increased soluble VEGF receptor 1 by miR-125a-5p inhibition

Dynamic, epigenetic mechanisms can regulate macrophage phenotypes following exposure to different stimulating conditions and environments. However, temporal patterns of microRNAs (miRNAs or miRs) across multiple macrophage polarization phenotypes have not been defined. We determined miRNA expression in bone marrow-derived murine macrophages over multiple time points (0.5, 1, 3, 24 h) following exposure to cytokines and/or LPS. We hypothesized that dynamic changes in miRNAs regulate macrophage phenotypes. Changes in macrophage polarization markers were detected as early as 0.5 and as late as 24 h; however, robust responses for most markers occurred within 3 h. In parallel, many polarization-specific miRNAs were also changed by 3 h and expressed divergent patterns between M1 and M2a conditions, with increased expression in M1 (miR-155, 199a-3p, 214-3p, 455-3p, and 125a) or M2a (miR-511 and 449a). Specifically, miR-125a-5p exhibited divergent patterns: increased at 12-24 h in M1 macrophages and decreasing trend in M2a. VEGF in the culture media of macrophages was dependent upon the polarization state, with greatly diminished VEGF in M2a compared with M1 macrophage culture media despite similar VEGF in cell lysates. Inhibition of miR-125a-5p in media-only controls (MO) and M1 macrophages greatly increased expression and secretion of soluble VEGF receptor-1 (sVEGFR1) leading to diminished VEGF in the culture media, partially converting MO and M1 into an M2a phenotype. Thus, the divergent expression patterns of polarization-specific miRNAs led to the identification and demonstrated the regulation of a specific macrophage polarization phenotype, sVEGFR1 by inhibition of miR-125a-5p.

STAT3 and its phosphorylation are involved in HIV-1 Tat-induced transactivation of glial fibrillary acidic protein

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Tat protein is a major pathogenic factor in HIV-associated neurological diseases; it exhibits direct neurotoxicity and indirect astrocyte-mediated neurotoxicity. We have shown that Tat alone is capable of activating glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression and inducing astrocytosis involving sequential activation of early growth response protein 1 (Egr-1) and p300. In this study, we determined the roles of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) in Tat-induced GFAP transactivation. STAT3 expression and phosphorylation led to significant increases in GFAP transcription and protein expression. Tat expression was associated with increased STAT3 expression and phosphorylation in Tat-expressing astrocytes and HIV-infected astrocytes. GFAP, Egr-1 and p300 transcription and protein expression all showed positive response to STAT3 and its phosphorylation. Importantly, knockdown of STAT3 resulted in significant decreases in Tat-induced GFAP and Egr-1 transcription and protein expression. Taken together, these findings show that STAT3 is involved in and acts upstream of Egr1 and p300 in the Tat-induced GFAP transactivation cascade and suggest important roles of STAT3 in controlling astrocyte proliferation and activation in the HIV-infected central nervous system.

Ground State Conditions Induce Rapid Reorganization of Core Pluripotency Factor Binding before Global Epigenetic Reprogramming

Mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) cultured under serum/LIF conditions exhibit heterogeneous expression of pluripotency-associated factors that can be overcome by two inhibitors (2i) of the MEK and GSK3 pathways. Several studies have shown that the "ground state" induced by 2i is characterized by global hypomethylation and specific transcriptional profiles, but little is known about the contributing effectors. Here we show that 2i conditions rapidly alter the global binding landscape of OCT4, SOX2, and NANOG. The dynamic binding influences enhancer activity and shows enrichment for regulators linked to Wnt and Erk signaling. Epigenomic characterization provided limited insights to the immediate transcriptional dynamics, suggesting that these are likely more secondary effects. Likewise, loss of the PRC2 component EED to prevent H3K27me3 deposition had minimal effect on the transcriptome, implying that it is largely dispensable for continued repression of bivalent genes and de novo silencing in 2i.

CArG-driven GADD45α activated by resveratrol inhibits lung cancer cells

We report anticarcinogenic effects of suicide gene therapy that relies on the use of resveratrol-responsive CArG elements from the Egr-1 promoter to induce GADD45α. In A549 lung cancer cells, endogenous GADD45α was not induced upon resveratrol treatment. Therefore, induction of exogenous GADD45α resulted in growth inhibition. Resveratrol transiently induced Egr-1 through ERK/JNK-ElK-1. Hence, we cloned natural or synthetic Egr-1 promoter upstream of GADD45α cDNA to create a suicide gene therapy vector. Since natural promoter may have antagonized effects, we tested synthetic promoter that contains either five, six or nine repeats of CArG elements essential in the Egr-1 promoter to drive the expression of GADD45α upon resveratrol treatment. Further analysis confirmed that both synthetic promoter and natural Egr-1 promoter were able to “turn on” the expression of GADD45α when combined with resveratrol, and subsequently led to suppression of cell proliferation and apoptosis.

Sequential activation of Elk-1/Egr-1/GADD45α by arsenic

Long-term exposure to arsenic, an environmental contaminant, leads to increased risks of cancers. In the present study, we investigated the sequential regulation of Elk-1 and Egr-1 on As³⁺-induced GADD45α, an effector of G2/M checkpoint. We found that As3+ transcriptionally induced both Elk-1 and Egr-1, and NF-κB binding site was necessary for As³⁺-induced Egr-1 promoter activity. However, specific inhibition of JNK, ERK, and Elk-1 inhibited Egr-1 induction. Furthermore, silencing of Egr-1 downregulated As³⁺-induced expression of GADD45α and ChIP assay confirmed the direct binding of Egr-1 to GADD45α promoter. Taken together, our data indicated that the increase of GADD45α in response to As³⁺ was mediated sequentially by Elk-1 and Egr-1.

ECM1 promotes the Warburg effect through EGF-mediated activation of PKM2

The Warburg effect is an oncogenic metabolic switch that allows cancer cells to take up more glucose than normal cells and favors anaerobic glycolysis. Extracellular matrix protein 1 (ECM1) is a secreted glycoprotein that is overexpressed in various types of carcinoma. Using two-dimensional digest-liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)/MS, we showed that the expression of proteins associated with the Warburg effect was upregulated in trastuzumab-resistant BT-474 cells that overexpressed ECM1 compared to control cells. We further demonstrated that ECM1 induced the expression of genes that promote the Warburg effect, such as glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1), lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA), and hypoxia-inducible factor 1 α (HIF-1α). The phosphorylation status of pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM-2) at Ser37, which is responsible for the expression of genes that promote the Warburg effect, was affected by the modulation of ECM1 expression. Moreover, EGF-dependent ERK activation that was regulated by ECM1 induced not only PKM2 phosphorylation but also gene expression of GLUT1 and LDHA. These findings provide evidence that ECM1 plays an important role in promoting the Warburg effect mediated by PKM2.

Enthalpic factors override the polyelectrolyte effect in the binding of EGR1 transcription factor to DNA

Protein-DNA interactions are highly dependent upon salt such that the binding affinity precipitously decreases with increasing salt concentration in a phenomenon termed as the polyelectrolyte effect. In this study, we provide evidence that the binding of early growth response (EGR) 1 transcription factor to DNA displays virtually zero dependence on ionic strength under physiological salt concentrations and that such feat is accomplished via favorable enthalpic contributions. Importantly, we unearth the molecular origin of such favorable enthalpy and attribute it to the ability of H382 residue to stabilize the EGR1-DNA interaction via both intermolecular hydrogen bonding and van der Waals contacts against the backdrop of salt. Consistent with this notion, the substitution of H382 residue with other amino acids faithfully restores salt-dependent binding of EGR1 to DNA in a canonical fashion. Remarkably, H382 is highly conserved across other members of the EGR family, implying that changes in bulk salt concentration are unlikely to play a significant role in modulating protein-DNA interactions central to this family of transcription factors. Taken together, our study reports the first example of a eukaryotic protein-DNA interaction capable of overriding the polyelectrolyte effect.

Integrating genomics and proteomics data to predict drug effects using binary linear programming

The Library of Integrated Network-Based Cellular Signatures (LINCS) project aims to create a network-based understanding of biology by cataloging changes in gene expression and signal transduction that occur when cells are exposed to a variety of perturbations. It is helpful for understanding cell pathways and facilitating drug discovery. Here, we developed a novel approach to infer cell-specific pathways and identify a compound's effects using gene expression and phosphoproteomics data under treatments with different compounds. Gene expression data were employed to infer potential targets of compounds and create a generic pathway map. Binary linear programming (BLP) was then developed to optimize the generic pathway topology based on the mid-stage signaling response of phosphorylation. To demonstrate effectiveness of this approach, we built a generic pathway map for the MCF7 breast cancer cell line and inferred the cell-specific pathways by BLP. The first group of 11 compounds was utilized to optimize the generic pathways, and then 4 compounds were used to identify effects based on the inferred cell-specific pathways. Cross-validation indicated that the cell-specific pathways reliably predicted a compound's effects. Finally, we applied BLP to re-optimize the cell-specific pathways to predict the effects of 4 compounds (trichostatin A, MS-275, staurosporine, and digoxigenin) according to compound-induced topological alterations. Trichostatin A and MS-275 (both HDAC inhibitors) inhibited the downstream pathway of HDAC1 and caused cell growth arrest via activation of p53 and p21; the effects of digoxigenin were totally opposite. Staurosporine blocked the cell cycle via p53 and p21, but also promoted cell growth via activated HDAC1 and its downstream pathway. Our approach was also applied to the PC3 prostate cancer cell line, and the cross-validation analysis showed very good accuracy in predicting effects of 4 compounds. In summary, our computational model can be used to elucidate potential mechanisms of a compound's efficacy.

EGR1 decreases the malignancy of human non-small cell lung carcinoma by regulating KRT18 expression

Early growth response 1 (EGR1) is a multifunctional transcription factor; Positive and negative functions of EGR1 in various tumors rely on the integrated functions of various genes it regulates. In this study, we observed the role of EGR1 in non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) and identified genes that influence cell fate and tumor development. Various assays showed that EGR1 arrested cell mobility, inhibited migration, and induced apoptosis. Microarray analysis revealed that 100 genes, including CDKN1C, CDC27 and PRKDC, changed their mRNA expressions with the increase of EGR1 and contributed to intervention of tumor progression. Bioinformatics analysis and promoter analysis indicated that an EGR1 binding site was situated in the promoter of KRT18 (also named CK18) and KRT18 could assist in inhibition of NSCLC development. The expression level of EGR1 and KRT18 in NSCLC clinical cases was investigated by immunohistochemistry, in which the protein expression of KRT18 was found to be significantly associated with EGR1 and lymph node metastasis. The results collectively confirm that EGR1 functions as a tumor suppressor in NSCLC. This study is the first to report KRT18 expression is directly regulated by EGR1, and contributes to decrease malignancy of NSCLC.

Androgen deprivation therapy induces androgen receptor-dependent upregulation of Egr1 in prostate cancers

Early growth response gene-1 (Egr1) has a crucial function in the development and progression of prostate cancer. However, whether Egr1 contributes to the transition of advanced androgen-independent prostate cancer (AIPC) from androgen-dependent prostate cancer (ADPC) remains largely unknown. To the best of our knowledge, through immunohistochemical staining methods, we were the first to identify that Egr1 is more highly expressed in AIPC clinical specimens than in androgen-dependent prostate cancer (ADPC). An in vitro study with quantitative RT-PCR and Western blot demonstrated that Egr1 also has a higher expression in androgen-independent PC3 cells than in the androgen-dependent LNCaP cells. Egr1 expression in LNCaP cells was significantly upregulated during the androgen deprivation treatment (ADT) and was re-downregulated through the addition of dihydrotestosterone. Although no variation in PC3 cells was identified, Egr1 responded to dihydrotestosterone and flutamide in the androgen receptor (AR)-transfected PC3 cells. Further investigation with Egr1 agonist and specific siRNA-targeting Egr1 revealed that Egr1 upregulation or downregulation was accompanied by a change in inhibitors of differentiation and DNA binding-1 (Id1) in the same direction in both LNCaP and PC3 cells. The variation is shown to be negatively regulated by androgen through AR during ADT. Our data suggested that upregulated Egr1 might partially contribute to the emergence of AIPC after prolonged ADT. This study also elucidated the potential mechanism underlying Id1 participation in the progression of prostate cancer. Understanding the key molecular events in the transition from ADPC to AIPC may provide new therapeutic intervention strategies for patients with AIPC.