PD-L1 checkpoint blockade prevents immune dysfunction and leukemia development in a mouse model of chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Longitudinal omics data and preclinical treatment suggest the proteasome inhibitor carfilzomib as therapy for ibrutinib-resistant CLL

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia is a malignant lymphoproliferative disorder for which primary or acquired drug resistance represents a major challenge. To investigate the underlying molecular mechanisms, we generate a mouse model of ibrutinib resistance, in which, after initial treatment response, relapse under therapy occurrs with an aggressive outgrowth of malignant cells, resembling observations in patients. A comparative analysis of exome, transcriptome and proteome of sorted leukemic murine cells during treatment and after relapse suggests alterations in the proteasome activity as a driver of ibrutinib resistance. Preclinical treatment with the irreversible proteasome inhibitor carfilzomib administered upon ibrutinib resistance prolongs survival of mice. Longitudinal proteomic analysis of ibrutinib-resistant patients identifies deregulation in protein post-translational modifications. Additionally, cells from ibrutinib-resistant patients effectively respond to several proteasome inhibitors in co-culture assays. Altogether, our results from orthogonal omics approaches identify proteasome inhibition as potentially attractive treatment for chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients resistant or refractory to ibrutinib.

The cross-talk between B cells and macrophages

B cells and macrophages are significant immune cells that maintain the immune balance of the body. B cells are involved in humoral immunity, producing immune effects mainly by secreting antibodies. Macrophages participate in non-specific and specific immune responses. To gain a further understanding of macrophages and B cells, researchers have not only paid attention to the unidirectional influence between B cells and macrophages, but also have focused on the cross-talk between them, and the effect of this cross talk on diseases. Therefore, this review summarizes the influence of macrophages on B cells, the ways and mechanisms by which B cells affect macrophages, and their cross-talk, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanism of the interaction between macrophages and B cells.

Relapsed/refractory CLL: the role of allo-SCT, CAR-T, and T-cell engagers

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) patients who are refractory to both Bruton's tyrosine kinase and B-cell/CLL lymphoma 2 (BCL2) inhibitors face a significant treatment challenge, with limited and short-lasting disease control options. This underscores the urgent need for novel therapeutic strategies. Immunotherapy has emerged as a promising approach to address this unmet need, offering the potential for durable remissions and improved patient outcomes. Historically, allogeneic stem cell transplantation has been used for high-risk CLL patients, demonstrating promising survival rates. However, its applicability is limited by high treatment-related mortality and chronic graft-versus-host disease, especially in older and frail patients. Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy is gaining attention for its potential in relapsed/refractory CLL. Early clinical trials have shown that CAR T cells can induce durable remissions, with encouraging overall response rates in heavily pretreated patients. Additionally, bispecific antibodies are being explored as immunotherapeutic strategies, showing promising preclinical and early clinical results in targeting CLL cells effectively. One of the major challenges in CLL treatment with T-cell-based therapies is the acquired T-cell dysfunction observed in patients. To overcome these limitations, strategies such as combining targeted agents with cellular immunotherapies, modifying CAR designs, and incorporating immunomodulatory compounds into the manufacturing process are being investigated. These innovative approaches aim to enhance T-cell engagement and improve outcomes for CLL patients, offering hope for more effective and sustainable treatments in the future.

The diversity of the microbiome impacts chronic lymphocytic leukemia development in mice and humans

The gut microbiota plays a critical role in maintaining a healthy human body and its dysregulation is associated with various diseases. In this study, we investigated the influence of gut microbiome diversity on the development of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). Analysis of stool samples from 59 CLL patients revealed individual and heterogeneous microbiome compositions, but allowed for grouping of patients according to their microbiome diversity. Interestingly, CLL patients with lower microbiome diversity and an enrichment of bacteria linked to poor health suffered from a more advanced or aggressive form of CLL. In the Eµ-TCL1 mouse model of CLL, we observed a faster course of disease when mice were housed in high hygiene conditions. Shotgun DNA sequencing of fecal samples showed that this was associated with a lower microbiome diversity which was dominated by Mucispirillum and Parabacteroides genera in comparison to mice kept under lower hygiene conditions. In conclusion, we applied taxonomic microbiome analyses to demonstrate a link between gut microbiome diversity and the clinical course of CLL in humans, as well as the development of CLL in mice. Our novel data serve as a basis for further investigations to decipher the pathological and mechanistic role of intestinal microbiota in CLL development.

The Interactions of T Cells with Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells in Peripheral Blood Stem Cell Grafts

The interaction of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) with T cells within G-CSF-mobilized peripheral blood stem cell (PBSC) grafts in patients undergoing autologous or allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation remains to be elucidated. Through studying allo- and auto-PBSC grafts, we observed grafts containing large numbers of T cells and MDSCs with intergraft variability in their percentage and number. T cells from autologous grafts compared to allografts expressed relative higher percentages of inhibitory receptors PD-1, CTLA-4, TIM-3, LAG-3, TIGIT and BTLA. Autograft T cells had decreased cell proliferation and IFN-γ secretion, which supported the possible presence of T cell exhaustion. On the contrary, graft monocytic MDSCs (M-MDSCs) expressed multiple inhibitory receptor ligands, including PD-L1, CD86, Galectin-9, HVEM and CD155. The expression of inhibitory receptor ligands on M-MDSCs was correlated with their corresponding inhibitory receptors on T cells in the grafts. Isolated M-MDSCs had the ability to suppress T cell proliferation and IFN-γ secretion and/or promote Treg expansion. Blocking the PD-L1-PD-1 signaling pathway partially reversed the functions of M-MDSCs. Taken together, our data indicated that T cells and M-MDSCs in PBSC grafts express complementary inhibitory receptor-ligand pairing, which may impact the quality of immune recovery and clinical outcome post transplantation.

Blockade of PD-1 and TIM-3 Ameliorates CD8+ T Cell Exhaustion in a Mouse Model of Chronic Myeloid Leukemia

The immune system plays a pivotal role in controlling chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). CD8+ T cell exhaustion results in reduced effectiveness of T cell-mediated immunity, thereby contributing to disease progression. This study intends to figure out whether the combined blockade of inhibitory molecules TIM-3/PD-1 can affect CD8+ T cell exhaustion in CML. A CML mouse model was established via transplantation of bone marrow cells transduced with BCR-ABL-expressing retrovirus vectors. PD-1 and TIM-3 signaling were blocked using corresponding molecular antibodies. Flow cytometry analysis was conducted to detect cell surface molecules and intracellular cytokines. ELISA was employed for measuring cytokine concentrations in the culture medium. The results showed that TIM-3 and PD-1 were coexpressed on exhausted CD8+ T cells from CML mice. Combined blockade of PD-1/TIM3 synergistically delayed CML progression in mice. Moreover, ex vivo experiments showed that their co-blockade promoted the proliferation and cytokine secretion of CD8+ T cells isolated from CML mice. In conclusion, blocking TIM-3 and PD-1 improves exhausted CD8+ T cell function in CML.

Targeting the tumor microenvironment for treating double-refractory chronic lymphocytic leukemia

ABSTRACT

The introduction of BTK inhibitors and BCL2 antagonists to the treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) has revolutionized therapy and improved patient outcomes. These agents have replaced chemoimmunotherapy as standard of care. Despite this progress, a new group of patients is currently emerging, which has become refractory or intolerant to both classes of agents, creating an unmet medical need. Here, we propose that the targeted modulation of the tumor microenvironment provides new therapeutic options for this group of double-refractory patients. Furthermore, we outline a sequential strategy for tumor microenvironment-directed combination therapies in CLL that can be tested in clinical protocols.

The opportunities and challenges of using PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors for leukemia treatment

Leukemia poses a significant clinical challenge due to its swift onset, rapid progression, and treatment-related complications. Tumor immune evasion, facilitated by immune checkpoints like programmed death receptor 1/programmed death receptor ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1), plays a critical role in leukemia pathogenesis and progression. In this review, we summarized the research progress and therapeutic potential of PD-L1 in leukemia, focusing on targeted therapy and immunotherapy. Recent clinical trials have demonstrated promising outcomes with PD-L1 inhibitors, highlighting their role in enhancing treatment efficacy. This review discusses the implications of PD-L1 expression levels on treatment response and long-term survival rates in leukemia patients. Furthermore, we address the challenges and opportunities in immunotherapy, emphasizing the need for personalized approaches and combination therapies to optimize PD-L1 inhibition in leukemia management. Future research prospects include exploring novel treatment strategies and addressing immune-related adverse events to improve clinical outcomes in leukemia. Overall, this review provides valuable insights into the role of PD-L1 in leukemia and its potential as a therapeutic target in the evolving landscape of leukemia treatment.

Tumor cells impair immunological synapse formation via central nervous system-enriched metabolite

Tumors employ various strategies to evade immune surveillance. Central nervous system (CNS) has multiple features to restrain immune response. Whether tumors and CNS share similar programs of immunosuppression is elusive. Here, we analyze multi-omics data of tumors from HER2+ breast cancer patients receiving trastuzumab and anti-PD-L1 antibody and find that CNS-enriched N-acetyltransferase 8-like (NAT8L) and its metabolite N-acetylaspartate (NAA) are overexpressed in resistant tumors. In CNS, NAA is released during brain inflammation. NAT8L attenuates brain inflammation and impairs anti-tumor immunity by inhibiting cytotoxicity of natural killer (NK) cells and CD8+ T cells via NAA. NAA disrupts the formation of immunological synapse by promoting PCAF-induced acetylation of lamin A-K542, which inhibits the integration between lamin A and SUN2 and impairs polarization of lytic granules. We uncover that tumor cells mimic the anti-inflammatory mechanism of CNS to evade anti-tumor immunity and NAT8L is a potential target to enhance efficacy of anti-cancer agents.

Lessons learned from the Eµ-TCL1 mouse model of CLL

The Eµ-TCL1 mouse model has been used for over 20 years to study the pathobiology of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) and for preclinical testing of novel therapies. A CLL-like disease develops with increasing age in these mice due to a B cell specific overexpression of human TCL1. The reliability of this model to mirror human CLL is controversially discussed, as none of the known driver mutations identified in patients are found in Eµ-TCL1 mice. It has to be acknowledged that this mouse model was key to develop targeted therapies that aim at inhibiting the constitutive B cell receptor (BCR) signaling, a main driver of CLL. Inhibitors of BCR signaling became standard-of-care for a large proportion of patients with CLL as they are highly effective. The Eµ-TCL1 model further advanced our understanding of CLL biology owed to studies that crossed this mouse line with various transgenic mouse models and demonstrated the relevance of CLL-cell intrinsic and -extrinsic drivers of disease. These studies were instrumental in showing the relevance of the tumor microenvironment in the lymphoid tissues for disease progression and immune escape in CLL. It became clear that CLL cells shape and rely on stromal and immune cells, and that immune suppressive mechanisms and T cell exhaustion contribute to CLL progression. Based on this knowledge, new immunotherapy strategies were clinically tested for CLL, but so far with disappointing results. As some of these therapies were effective in the Eµ-TCL1 mouse model, the question arose concerning the translatability of preclinical studies in these mice. The aim of this review is to summarize lessons we have learnt over the last decades by studying CLL-like disease in the Eµ-TCL1 mouse model. The article focuses on pitfalls and limitations of the model, as well as the gained knowledge and potential of using this model for the development of novel treatment strategies to achieve the goal of curing patients with CLL.

Advancing CAR T-cell therapy for chronic lymphocytic leukemia: exploring resistance mechanisms and the innovative strategies to overcome them

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy has ushered in substantial advancements in the management of various B-cell malignancies. However, its integration into chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) treatment has been challenging, attributed largely to the development of very effective chemo-free alternatives. Additionally, CAR T-cell responses in CLL have not been as high as in other B-cell lymphomas or leukemias. However, a critical void exists in therapeutic options for patients with high-risk diseases who are resistant to the current CLL therapies, underscoring the urgency for adoptive immunotherapies in these patients. The diminished CAR T-cell efficacy within CLL can be traced to factors such as compromised T-cell fitness due to persistent antigenic stimulation inherent to CLL. Resistance mechanisms encompass tumor-related factors like antigen escape, CAR T-cell-intrinsic factors like T-cell exhaustion, and a suppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). New strategies to combat CAR T-cell resistance include the concurrent administration of therapies that augment CAR T-cell endurance and function, as well as the engineering of novel CAR T-cells targeting different antigens. Moreover, the concept of "armored" CAR T-cells, armed with transgenic modulators to modify both CAR T-cell function and the tumor milieu, is gaining traction. Beyond this, the development of readily available, allogeneic CAR T-cells and natural killer (NK) cells presents a promising countermeasure to innate T-cell defects in CLL patients. In this review, we explore the role of CAR T-cell therapy in CLL, the intricate tapestry of resistance mechanisms, and the pioneering methods studied to overcome resistance.

Cutaneous malignancies in chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is a common lymphoid malignancy that is associated with an increased risk of developing cutaneous malignancies. Clinical outcomes for these malignancies, including melanoma and keratinocyte cancers (KC), are worse for patients with CLL. Individuals with CLL develop an immunodeficiency of both the adaptive and innate immune system, which plays a role in the increased prevalence of skin cancers. This review focuses on the complex interplay between genetics, immunity, and pathogens that influence the cellular composition and biology of skin tumors and their microenvironment in CLL patients, and in comparison with other chronic hematological malignancies. It is paramount for dermatologists to be aware of the association between CLL (and chronic hematological malignancies more broadly) and cutaneous malignancies. This is a high-risk population who require regular and vigorous dermatologic follow-up.

Progress of research on PD-1/PD-L1 in leukemia

Leukemia cells prevent immune system from clearing tumor cells by inducing the immunosuppression of the bone marrow (BM) microenvironment. In recent years, further understanding of the BM microenvironment and immune landscape of leukemia has resulted in the introduction of several immunotherapies, including checkpoint inhibitors, T-cell engager, antibody drug conjugates, and cellular therapies in clinical trials. Among them, the programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1)/programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) axis is a significant checkpoint for controlling immune responses, the PD-1 receptor on tumor-infiltrating T cells is bound by PD-L1 on leukemia cells. Consequently, the activation of tumor reactive T cells is inhibited and their apoptosis is promoted, preventing the rejection of the tumor by immune system and thus resulting in the occurrence of immune tolerance. The PD-1/PD-L1 axis serves as a significant mechanism by which tumor cells evade immune surveillance, and PD-1/PD-L1 checkpoint inhibitors have been approved for the treatment of lymphomas and varieties of solid tumors. However, the development of drugs targeting PD-1/PD-L1 in leukemia remains in the clinical-trial stage. In this review, we tally up the basic research and clinical trials on PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors in leukemia, as well as discuss the relevant toxicity and impacts of PD-1/PD-L1 on other immunotherapies such as hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, bi-specific T-cell engager, chimeric antigen receptor T-cell immunotherapy.

Efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors for the treatment of advanced melanoma in patients with concomitant chronic lymphocytic leukemia

BACKGROUND

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have revolutionized the management of advanced melanoma (AM). However, data on ICI effectiveness have largely been restricted to clinical trials, thereby excluding patients with co-existing malignancies. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is the most prevalent adult leukemia and is associated with increased risk of melanoma. CLL alters systemic immunity and can induce T-cell exhaustion, which may limit the efficacy of ICIs in patients with CLL. We, therefore, sought to examine the efficacy of ICI in patients with these co-occurring diagnoses.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

In this international multicenter study, a retrospective review of clinical databases identified patients with concomitant diagnoses of CLL and AM treated with ICI (US-MD Anderson Cancer Center, N = 24; US-Mayo Clinic, N = 15; AUS, N = 19). Objective response rates (ORRs), assessed by RECIST v1.1, and survival outcomes [overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS)] among patients with CLL and AM were assessed. Clinical factors associated with improved ORR and survival were explored. Additionally, ORR and survival outcomes were compared between the Australian CLL/AM cohort and a control cohort of 148 Australian patients with AM alone.

RESULTS

Between 1997 and 2020, 58 patients with concomitant CLL and AM were treated with ICI. ORRs were comparable between AUS-CLL/AM and AM control cohorts (53% versus 48%, P = 0.81). PFS and OS from ICI initiation were also comparable between cohorts. Among CLL/AM patients, a majority were untreated for their CLL (64%) at the time of ICI. Patients with prior history of chemoimmunotherapy treatment for CLL (19%) had significantly reduced ORRs, PFS, and OS.

CONCLUSIONS

Our case series of patients with concomitant CLL and melanoma demonstrate frequent, durable clinical responses to ICI. However, those with prior chemoimmunotherapy treatment for CLL had significantly worse outcomes. We found that CLL disease course is largely unchanged by treatment with ICI.

GSK-3 Inhibitor Elraglusib Enhances Tumor-Infiltrating Immune Cell Activation in Tumor Biopsies and Synergizes with Anti-PD-L1 in a Murine Model of Colorectal Cancer

Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) is a serine/threonine kinase that has been implicated in numerous oncogenic processes. GSK-3 inhibitor elraglusib (9-ING-41) has shown promising preclinical and clinical antitumor activity across multiple tumor types. Despite promising early-phase clinical trial results, there have been limited efforts to characterize the potential immunomodulatory properties of elraglusib. We report that elraglusib promotes immune cell-mediated tumor cell killing of microsatellite stable colorectal cancer (CRC) cells. Mechanistically, elraglusib sensitized CRC cells to immune-mediated cytotoxicity and enhanced immune cell effector function. Using western blots, we found that elraglusib decreased CRC cell expression of NF-κB p65 and several survival proteins. Using microarrays, we discovered that elraglusib upregulated the expression of proapoptotic and antiproliferative genes and downregulated the expression of cell proliferation, cell cycle progression, metastasis, TGFβ signaling, and anti-apoptotic genes in CRC cells. Elraglusib reduced CRC cell production of immunosuppressive molecules such as VEGF, GDF-15, and sPD-L1. Elraglusib increased immune cell IFN-γ secretion, which upregulated CRC cell gasdermin B expression to potentially enhance pyroptosis. Elraglusib enhanced immune effector function resulting in augmented granzyme B, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and TRAIL production. Using a syngeneic, immunocompetent murine model of microsatellite stable CRC, we evaluated elraglusib as a single agent or combined with immune checkpoint blockade (anti-PD-1/L1) and observed improved survival in the elraglusib and anti-PD-L1 group. Murine responders had increased tumor-infiltrating T cells, augmented granzyme B expression, and fewer regulatory T cells. Murine responders had reduced immunosuppressive (VEGF, VEGFR2) and elevated immunostimulatory (GM-CSF, IL-12p70) cytokine plasma concentrations. To determine the clinical significance, we then utilized elraglusib-treated patient plasma samples and found that reduced VEGF and BAFF and elevated IL-1 beta, CCL22, and CCL4 concentrations correlated with improved survival. Using paired tumor biopsies, we found that tumor-infiltrating immune cells had a reduced expression of inhibitory immune checkpoints (VISTA, PD-1, PD-L2) and an elevated expression of T-cell activation markers (CTLA-4, OX40L) after elraglusib treatment. These results address a significant gap in knowledge concerning the immunomodulatory mechanisms of GSK-3 inhibitor elraglusib, provide a rationale for the clinical evaluation of elraglusib in combination with immune checkpoint blockade, and are expected to have an impact on additional tumor types, besides CRC.

A phase 2 study of nivolumab combined with ibrutinib in patients with diffuse large B-cell Richter transformation of CLL

Richter transformation (RT) is a rare complication of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) that has dismal outcomes. Upregulation of PD-1/PD-L1 drives immunological evasion in patients with RT. We hypothesized that combining nivolumab, a PD-1 blocking antibody, with the BTK inhibitor (BTKi) ibrutinib could potentiate tumor-cell killing. We conducted an investigator-initiated phase 2 clinical trial to assess the efficacy of combined nivolumab and ibrutinib in patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) RT and CLL. Patients included were ≥18 years of age with adequate hepatic and renal function. Patients received nivolumab every 2 weeks of a 4-week cycle for a maximum of 24 cycles. A standard dose ibrutinib was initiated from cycle 2 onward and continued daily until progression. For patients who were already on ibrutinib at the time of study entry, the same was continued while nivolumab was initiated. A total of 24 patients with RT with a median age of 64.5 years (range, 47-88) were enrolled. Ten patients (42%) had received prior treatment for RT and 13 patients (54%) had received a prior BTKi. A total of 10 patients (42%) responded with a median duration of response of 15 months. The median overall survival was 13 months. Four of 24 (17%) patients had checkpoint inhibition-related immunological toxicities. In the CLL cohort, 10 patients were enrolled, of whom 3 patients converted from partial to complete remission; 1 patient had a grade 2 immunological toxicity. Combined nivolumab and ibrutinib is an active regimen for patients with DLBCL RT with an overall response rate of 42%. Given the limited treatment options for patients with RT, checkpoint inhibition provides a potential therapeutic option. This trial is registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT02420912.

Chronic LCMV infection regulates the effector T cell response by inducing the generation of less immunogenic dendritic cells

Chronic viral infection impairs systemic immunity in the host; however, the mechanism underlying the dysfunction of immune cells in chronic viral infection is incompletely understood. In this study, we studied the lineage differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) during chronic viral infection to elucidate the changes in dendritic cell (DC) differentiation and subsequent impact on T cell functionality using a chronic lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection model. We first investigated the lineage differentiation of HSCs in the bone marrow (BM) to elucidate the modulation of immune cell differentiation and found that the populations highly restrained in their differentiation were common myeloid progenitors (CMPs) and common dendritic cell progenitors (CDPs). Of interest, the main immune cells infected with LCMV Clone 13 (CL13) in the BM were CD11b/c⁺ myeloid DCs. We next characterized CD11b⁺ DCs that differentiated during chronic LCMV infection. These DCs displayed a less immunogenic phenotype than DCs in naive or acutely infected mice, showing low expression of CD80 but high expression of PD-L1, B7-H4, IDO, TGF-β, and IL-10. Consequently, these CD11b⁺ DCs induced less effective CD8⁺ T cells and more Foxp3⁺ regulatory T (Treg) cells. Furthermore, CD11b⁺ DCs generated during CL13 infection could not induce effective CD8⁺ T cells specific to the antigens of newly invading pathogens. Our findings demonstrate that DCs generated from the BM during chronic viral infection cannot activate fully functional effector CD8⁺ T cells specific to newly incoming antigens as well as persistent antigens themselves, suggesting a potential cause of the functional alterations in the T cell immune response during chronic viral infection.

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia presence impairs antigen-specific CD8+ T-cell responses through epigenetic reprogramming towards short-lived effectors

T-cell dysregulation in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) associates with low response rates to autologous T cell-based therapies. How CLL affects antigen-specific T-cell responses remains largely unknown. We investigated (epi)genetic and functional consequences of antigen-specific T-cell responses in presence of CLL in vitro and in an adoptive-transfer murine model. Already at steady-state, antigen-experienced patient-derived T cells were skewed towards short-lived effector cells (SLEC) at the expense of memory-precursor effector cells (MPEC). Stimulation of these T cells in vitro showed rapid induction of effector genes and suppression of key memory transcription factors only in presence of CLL cells, indicating epigenetic regulation. This was investigated in vivo by following antigen-specific responses of naïve OT-I CD8⁺ cells to mCMV-OVA in presence/absence of TCL1 B-cell leukemia. Presence of leukemia resulted in increased SLEC formation, with disturbed inflammatory cytokine production. Chromatin and transcriptome profiling revealed strong epigenetic modifications, leading to activation of an effector and silencing of a memory profile through presence of CLL cells. Secondary challenge in vivo confirmed dysfunctional memory responses by antigen-experienced OT-I cells generated in presence of CLL. Altogether, we show that presence of CLL induces a short-lived effector phenotype and impaired memory responses by epigenetic reprogramming during primary responses.

Anti-PD-L1/PD-L2 therapeutic vaccination in untreated chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients with unmutated IgHV

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) patients with unmutated immunoglobulin heavy chain (IgHV) are at risk of early disease progression compared to patients with mutated IgHV. As a preventive strategy, we treated 19 previously untreated CLL patients with unmutated IgHV in a phase 1/2 trial (clinicaltrials.gov, NCT03939234) exploring the efficacy and toxicity of a therapeutic cancer vaccine containing peptides derived from programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) and ligand 2 (PD-L2), hoping to restore immunological control of the disease. According to the International Workshop on Chronic lymphocytic Leukemia (iwCLL) response criteria, no patients obtained a response; however, during follow-up, one patient had complete normalization of the peripheral lymphocyte count and remained in biochemical remission after a follow-up time of 15 months. At the end of treatment, one patient had progressed, and 17 patients had stable disease. During follow-up with a median time of 23.5 months since inclusion, seven patients had progressed, and eight patients had stable disease. The median time to first treatment (TTFT) from diagnosis was 90.3 months with a median follow-up time of 50.1 months. This apparent favorable outcome in TTFT needs to be investigated in a randomized setting, as our population may have been biased. More than 80% of patients obtained vaccine-specific immune responses, confirming the immunogenicity of the vaccine. The vaccine was generally well tolerated with only grade I-II adverse events. Although there were some signs of clinical effects, the vaccine seems to be insufficient as monotherapy in CLL, possibly due to a high tumor burden. The efficacy of the vaccine should preferably be tested in combination with novel targeted therapies or as a consolidating treatment.

Viral transduction of primary human lymphoma B cells reveals mechanisms of NOTCH-mediated immune escape

Hotspot mutations in the PEST-domain of NOTCH1 and NOTCH2 are recurrently identified in B cell malignancies. To address how NOTCH-mutations contribute to a dismal prognosis, we have generated isogenic primary human tumor cells from patients with Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) and Mantle Cell Lymphoma (MCL), differing only in their expression of the intracellular domain (ICD) of NOTCH1 or NOTCH2. Our data demonstrate that both NOTCH-paralogs facilitate immune-escape of malignant B cells by up-regulating PD-L1, partly dependent on autocrine interferon-γ signaling. In addition, NOTCH-activation causes silencing of the entire HLA-class II locus via epigenetic regulation of the transcriptional co-activator CIITA. Notably, while NOTCH1 and NOTCH2 govern similar transcriptional programs, disease-specific differences in their expression levels can favor paralog-specific selection. Importantly, NOTCH-ICD also strongly down-regulates the expression of CD19, possibly limiting the effectiveness of immune-therapies. These NOTCH-mediated immune escape mechanisms are associated with the expansion of exhausted CD8+ T cells in vivo.

The role of BTK inhibitors on the tumor microenvironment in CLL

The CLL disease course is heterogeneous with many patients never requiring treatment and some having very aggressive rapid onset disease.Innate and adaptive immune compensatory mechanisms driven by malignant cells often lead to clonal proliferation, migration and resistance to treatment in CLL. Cell-to-cell interactions occurring within the tumor Micro-environment (TME) can impact greatly on the course of the disease as well as contribute to the variable spread of CLL cells, known as spatial heterogeneity. Following evidence showing the expression of BTK on many hematopoietic cells (an exception beting T lymphocytes) has given rise to the idea that inhibition of BTK with BTK inhibitors (BTKi) such as ibrutinib can help treat CLL.As BTK has a wide variation of expression among cells the use of BTKi has been shown to not only control CLL clones but also redistribute the balance of humoral immunity back toward those of healthy control. n this review article we look at role of BTK in the pathogenesis of CLL, the use of BTKi and their effect on humoral immunity.

Effects of ibrutinib on T-cell immunity in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), a highly heterogeneous B-cell malignancy, is characterized by tumor microenvironment disorder and T-cell immune dysfunction, which play a major role in the proliferation and survival of CLL cells. Ibrutinib is the first irreversible inhibitor of Bruton’s tyrosine kinase (BTK). In addition to targeting B-cell receptor (BCR) signaling to kill tumor cells, increasing evidence has suggested that ibrutinib regulates the tumor microenvironment and T-cell immunity in a direct and indirect manner. For example, ibrutinib not only reverses the tumor microenvironment by blocking cytokine networks and toll-like receptor signaling but also regulates T cells in number, subset distribution, T-cell receptor (TCR) repertoire and immune function by inhibiting interleukin-2 inducible T-cell kinase (ITK) and reducing the expression of inhibitory receptors, and so on. In this review, we summarize the current evidence for the effects of ibrutinib on the tumor microenvironment and cellular immunity of patients with CLL, particularly for the behavior and function of T cells, explore its potential mechanisms, and provide a basis for the clinical benefits of long-term ibrutinib treatment and combined therapy based on T-cell-based immunotherapies.

CLL-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Impair T-Cell Activation and Foster T-Cell Exhaustion via Multiple Immunological Checkpoints

Background: Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is characterized by the clonal expansion of malignant B-cells and multiple immune defects. This leads, among others, to severe infectious complications and inefficient immune surveillance. T-cell deficiencies in CLL include enhanced immune(-metabolic) exhaustion, impaired activation and cytokine production, and immunological synapse malformation. Several studies have meanwhile reported CLL-cell–T-cell interactions that culminate in T-cell dysfunction. However, the complex entirety of their interplay is incompletely understood. Here, we focused on the impact of CLL cell-derived vesicles (EVs), which are known to exert immunoregulatory effects, on T-cell function. Methods: We characterized EVs secreted by CLL-cells and determined their influence on T-cells in terms of survival, activation, (metabolic) fitness, and function. Results: We found that CLL-EVs hamper T-cell viability, proliferation, activation, and metabolism while fostering their exhaustion and formation of regulatory T-cell subsets. A detailed analysis of the CLL-EV cargo revealed an abundance of immunological checkpoints (ICs) that could explain the detected T-cell dysregulations. Conclusions: The identification of a variety of ICs loaded on CLL-EVs may account for T-cell defects in CLL patients and could represent a barrier for immunotherapies such as IC blockade or adoptive T-cell transfer. Our findings could pave way for improving antitumor immunity by simultaneously targeting EV formation or multiple ICs.

CD73 Promotes Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia

Simple Summary

Many patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) still fail current therapies. CD73 is a novel therapeutic target for solid tumors, but its role in CLL remains unclear. The aim of our study was to investigate the therapeutic potential of targeting CD73 in CLL. Using genetically engineered mice, our study reports a pro-leukemic role for CD73 in an autochthonous mouse model of CLL. Furthermore, we observed an association between PD-L1 expression on CLL cells and adenosine signaling according to sex. Our findings provide a rationale for targeting CD73 in CLL in combination with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapies and suggest that sex may contribute to responses to adenosine-targeting agents.

Abstract

The ecto-nucleotidase CD73 is an important immune checkpoint in tumor immunity that cooperates with CD39 to hydrolyze pro-inflammatory extracellular ATP into immunosuppressive adenosine. While the role of CD73 in immune evasion of solid cancers is well established, its role in leukemia remains unclear. To investigate the role of CD73 in the pathogenesis of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), Eµ-TCL1 transgenic mice that spontaneously develop CLL were crossed with CD73^−/− mice. Disease progression in peripheral blood and spleen, and CLL markers were evaluated by flow cytometry and survival was compared to CD73-proficient Eµ-TCL1 transgenic mice. We observed that CD73 deficiency significantly delayed CLL progression and prolonged survival in Eµ-TCL1 transgenic mice, and was associated with increased accumulation of IFN-γ⁺ T cells and effector-memory CD8⁺ T cells. Neutralizing IFN-γ abrogated the survival advantage of CD73-deficient Eµ-TCL1 mice. Intriguingly, the beneficial effects of CD73 deletion were restricted to male mice. In females, CD73 deficiency was uniquely associated with the upregulation of CD39 in normal lymphocytes and sustained high PD-L1 expression on CLL cells. In vitro studies revealed that adenosine signaling via the A2a receptor enhanced PD-L1 expression on Eµ-TCL1-derived CLL cells, and a genomic analysis of human CLL samples found that PD-L1 correlated with adenosine signaling. Our study, thus, identified CD73 as a pro-leukemic immune checkpoint in CLL and uncovered a previously unknown sex bias for the CD73-adenosine pathway.

miR-15a and miR-15b modulate natural killer and CD8+T-cell activation and anti-tumor immune response by targeting PD-L1 in neuroblastoma

Neuroblastoma (NB) is an enigmatic and deadliest pediatric cancer to treat. The major obstacles to the effective immunotherapy treatments in NB are defective immune cells and the immune evasion tactics deployed by the tumor cells and the stromal microenvironment. Nervous system development during embryonic and pediatric stages is critically mediated by non-coding RNAs such as micro RNAs (miR). Hence, we explored the role of miRs in anti-tumor immune response via a range of data-driven workflows and in vitro & in vivo experiments. Using the TARGET, NB patient dataset (n=249), we applied the robust bioinformatic workflows incorporating differential expression, co-expression, survival, heatmaps, and box plots. We initially demonstrated the role of miR-15a-5p (miR-15a) and miR-15b-5p (miR-15b) as tumor suppressors, followed by their negative association with stromal cell percentages and a statistically significant negative regulation of T and natural killer (NK) cell signature genes, especially CD274 (PD-L1) in stromal-low patient subsets. The NB phase-specific expression of the miR-15a/miR-15b-PD-L1 axis was further corroborated using the PDX (n=24) dataset. We demonstrated miR-15a/miR-15b mediated degradation of PD-L1 mRNA through its interaction with the 3'-untranslated region and the RNA-induced silencing complex using sequence-specific luciferase activity and Ago2 RNA immunoprecipitation assays. In addition, we established miR-15a/miR-15b induced CD8+T and NK cell activation and cytotoxicity against NB in vitro. Moreover, injection of murine cells expressing miR-15a reduced tumor size, tumor vasculature and enhanced the activation and infiltration of CD8+T and NK cells into the tumors in vivo. We further established that blocking the surface PD-L1 using an anti-PD-L1 antibody rescued miR-15a/miR-15b induced CD8+T and NK cell-mediated anti-tumor responses. These findings demonstrate that miR-15a and miR-15b induce an anti-tumor immune response by targeting PD-L1 in NB.

Comprehensive Profiling Reveals Prognostic and Immunogenic Characteristics of Necroptosis in Soft Tissue Sarcomas

Soft tissue sarcomas (STSs) are heterogeneous malignancies derived from mesenchymal cells. Due to its rarity, heterogeneity, and limited overall response to chemotherapy, STSs represent a therapeutic challenge. Necroptosis is a novel therapeutic strategy for enhancing immunotherapy of cancer. Nevertheless, no research has explored the relationship between necroptosis-related genes (NRGs) and STSs. In this study, differentially expressed NRGs were identified using The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and The Cancer Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) project. The expression levels of 34 NRGs were significantly different. Several key NRGs were validated using RT-qPCR and our own sequencing data. Patients with STSs were divided into two clusters using consensus cluster analysis, and significant differences were observed in their survival (p=0.002). We found the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the two clusters and carried out subsequent analysis. The necroptosis-related gene signatures with 10 key DEGs were identified with a risk score constructed. The prognosis of TCGA-SARC cohort with low necroptosis-related risk score was better (p<0.001). Meanwhile, the low-risk group had a significantly increased immune infiltration. Using the data of GSE17118 and another immunotherapy cohort as external validations, we observed significant survival differences between the two risk groups (p=0.019). The necroptosis-related risk score proved to be an independent prognostic factor, and a nomogram was further established and integrated with other clinical features. Notably, the necroptosis-related gene signature could also act as the prognostic indicator in other malignancies based on pan-cancer analysis. In summary, the study outlines NRGs in STSs and their potential role in prognosis and will be one of the important directions for future research.

EBAG9 controls CD8+ T cell memory formation responding to tumor challenge in mice

Insight into processes that determine CD8⁺ T cell memory formation has been obtained from infection models. These models are biased toward an inflammatory milieu and often use high-avidity CD8⁺ T cells in adoptive-transfer procedures. It is unclear whether these conditions mimic the differentiation processes of an endogenous repertoire that proceed upon noninflammatory conditions prevailing in premalignant tumor lesions. We examined the role of cytolytic capacity on CD8⁺ T cell fate decisions when primed by tumor cells or by minor histocompatibility antigen–mismatched leukocytes. CD8⁺ memory commitment was analyzed in Ebag9-deficient mice that exhibited enhanced tumor cell lysis. This property endowed Ebag9^–/– mice with extended control of Tcl-1 oncogene–induced chronic lymphocytic leukemia progression. In Ebag9^–/– mice, an expanded memory population was obtained for anti-HY and anti–SV-40 T antigen–specific T cells, despite unchanged effector frequencies in the primary response. By comparing the single-cell transcriptomes of CD8⁺ T cells responding to tumor cell vaccination, we found differential distribution of subpopulations between Ebag9^+/+ and Ebag9^–/– T cells. In Ebag9^–/– cells, these larger clusters contained genes encoding transcription factors regulating memory cell differentiation and anti-apoptotic gene functions. Our findings link EBAG9-controlled cytolytic activity and the commitment to the CD8⁺ memory lineage.

Construction of a Large Size Human Immunoglobulin Heavy Chain Variable (VH) Domain Library, Isolation and Characterization of Novel Human Antibody VH Domains Targeting PD-L1 and CD22

Phage display is a well-established technology for in vitro selection of monoclonal antibodies (mAb), and more than 12 antibodies isolated from phage displayed libraries of different formats have been approved for therapy. We have constructed a large size (10^11) human antibody VH domain library based on thermo-stable, aggregation-resistant scaffolds. This diversity was obtained by grafting naturally occurring CDR2s and CDR3s from healthy donors with optimized primers into the VH library. This phage-displayed library was used for bio-panning against various antigens. So far, panels of binders have been isolated against different viral and tumor targets, including the SARS-CoV-2 RBD, HIV-1 ENV protein, mesothelin and FLT3. In the present study, we discuss domain library construction, characterize novel VH binders against human CD22 and PD-L1, and define our design process for antibody domain drug conjugation (DDC) as tumoricidal reagents. Our study provides examples for the potential applications of antibody domains derived from library screens in therapeutics and provides key information for large size human antibody domain library construction.

A Specific CD44lo CD25lo Subpopulation of Regulatory T Cells Inhibits Anti-Leukemic Immune Response and Promotes the Progression in a Mouse Model of Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are capable of inhibiting the proliferation, activation and function of T cells and play an important role in impeding the immune response to cancer. In chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) a dysfunctional immune response and elevated percentage of effector-like phenotype Tregs have been described. In this study, using the Eµ-TCL1 mouse model of CLL, we evaluated the changes in the Tregs phenotype and their expansion at different stages of leukemia progression. Importantly, we show that Tregs depletion in DEREG mice triggered the expansion of new anti-leukemic cytotoxic T cell clones leading to leukemia eradication. In TCL1 leukemia-bearing mice we identified and characterized a specific Tregs subpopulation, the phenotype of which suggests its role in the formation of an immunosuppressive microenvironment, supportive for leukemia survival and proliferation. This observation was also confirmed by the gene expression profile analysis of these TCL1-specific Tregs. The obtained data on Tregs are consistent with those described so far, however, above all show that the changes in the Tregs phenotype described in CLL result from the formation of a specific, described in this study Tregs subpopulation. In addition, functional tests revealed the ability of Tregs to inhibit T cells that recognize model antigens expressed by leukemic cells. Moreover, inhibition of Tregs with a MALT1 inhibitor provided a therapeutic benefit, both as monotherapy and also when combined with an immune checkpoint inhibitor. Altogether, activation of Tregs appears to be crucial for CLL progression.

Delivery strategies in treatments of leukemia

Leukemia is a hematological malignancy associated with the uncontrolled proliferation of mutant progenitors, suppressing the production of normal blood cells. Current treatments, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy, still lead to unsatisfactory results with a 5 year survival rate of only 30-50%. The poor prognosis is related to both disease relapse and treatment-associated toxicity. Delivery strategies can improve the in vivo pharmacokinetics of drugs, navigating the therapeutics to target cells or the tumor microenvironment and reversing drug resistance, which maximizes tumor elimination and alleviates systematic adverse effects. This review discusses available FDA-approved anti-leukemia drugs and therapies with a focus on the advances in the development of anti-leukemia drug delivery systems. Additionally, challenges in clinical translation of the delivery strategies and future research opportunities in leukemia treatment are also included.

Immunotherapeutic Strategies in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: Advances and Challenges

Immune-based therapeutic strategies have drastically changed the landscape of hematological disorders, as they have introduced the concept of boosting immune responses against tumor cells. Anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies have been the first form of immunotherapy successfully applied in the treatment of CLL, in the context of chemoimmunotherapy regimens. Since then, several immunotherapeutic approaches have been studied in CLL settings, with the aim of exploiting or eliciting anti-tumor immune responses against leukemia cells. Unfortunately, despite initial promising data, results from pilot clinical studies have not shown optimal results in terms of disease control - especially when immunotherapy was used individually - largely due to CLL-related immune dysfunctions hampering the achievement of effective anti-tumor responses. The growing understanding of the complex interactions between immune cells and the tumor cells has paved the way for the development of new combined approaches that rely on the synergism between novel agents and immunotherapy. In this review, we provide an overview of the most successful and promising immunotherapeutic modalities in CLL, including both antibody-based therapy (i.e. monoclonal antibodies, bispecific antibodies, bi- or tri- specific killer engagers) and adoptive cellular therapy (i.e. CAR T cells and NK cells). We also provide examples of successful new combination strategies and some insights on future perspectives.

Preclinical Validation of Tumor-Penetrating and Interfering Peptides against Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is the most common form of leukemia in adults. The disease is characterized by the accumulation of tumoral B cells resulting from a defect of apoptosis. We have in vitro and in vivo preclinically validated a tumor-penetrating peptide (named TT1) coupled to an interfering peptide (IP) that dissociates the interaction between the serine/threonine protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) from its physiological inhibitor, the oncoprotein SET. This TT1-IP peptide has an antitumoral effect on CLL, as shown by the increased survival of mice bearing xenograft models of CLL, compared to control mice. The peptide did not show toxicity, as indicated by the mouse body weight and the biochemical parameters, such as renal and hepatic enzymes. In addition, the peptide-induced apoptosis in vitro of primary tumoral B cells isolated from CLL patients but not of those isolated from healthy patients. Finally, the peptide had approximately 5 h half-life in human serum and showed pharmacokinetic parameters compatible with clinical development as a therapeutic peptide against CLL.

Longitudinal analyses of CLL in mice identify leukemia-related clonal changes including a Myc gain predicting poor outcome in patients

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is a B-cell malignancy mainly occurring at an advanced age with no single major genetic driver. Transgenic expression of TCL1 in B cells leads after a long latency to a CLL-like disease in aged Eµ-TCL1 mice suggesting that TCL1 overexpression is not sufficient for full leukemic transformation. In search for secondary genetic events and to elucidate the clonal evolution of CLL, we performed whole exome and B-cell receptor sequencing of longitudinal leukemia samples of Eµ-TCL1 mice. We observed a B-cell receptor stereotypy, as described in patients, confirming that CLL is an antigen-driven disease. Deep sequencing showed that leukemia in Eµ-TCL1 mice is mostly monoclonal. Rare oligoclonality was associated with inability of tumors to develop disease upon adoptive transfer in mice. In addition, we identified clonal changes and a sequential acquisition of mutations with known relevance in CLL, which highlights the genetic similarities and therefore, suitability of the Eµ-TCL1 mouse model for progressive CLL. Among them, a recurrent gain of chromosome 15, where Myc is located, was identified in almost all tumors in Eµ-TCL1 mice. Interestingly, amplification of 8q24, the chromosomal region containing MYC in humans, was associated with worse outcome of patients with CLL.

Clonal Evolution of High-Risk Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: A Contemporary Perspective

Clonal evolution represents the natural process through which cancer cells continuously search for phenotypic advantages that enable them to develop and expand within microenvironmental constraints. In chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), clonal evolution underpins leukemic progression and therapeutic resistance, with differences in clonal evolutionary dynamics accounting for its characteristically diverse clinical course. The past few years have witnessed profound changes in our understanding of CLL clonal evolution, facilitated by a maturing definition of high-risk CLL and an increasing sophistication of next-generation sequencing technology. In this review, we offer a modern perspective on clonal evolution of high-risk CLL, highlighting recent discoveries, paradigm shifts and unresolved questions. We appraise recent advances in our understanding of the molecular basis of CLL clonal evolution, focusing on the genetic and non-genetic sources of intratumoral heterogeneity, as well as tumor-immune dynamics. We review the technological innovations, particularly in single-cell technology, which have fostered these advances and represent essential tools for future discoveries. In addition, we discuss clonal evolution within several contexts of particular relevance to contemporary clinical practice, including the settings of therapeutic resistance to CLL targeted therapy and immunotherapy, as well as Richter transformation of CLL to high-grade lymphoma.

Interleukin-10 receptor signaling promotes the maintenance of a PD-1int TCF-1+ CD8+ T cell population that sustains anti-tumor immunity

T cell exhaustion limits anti-tumor immunity and responses to immunotherapy. Here, we explored the microenvironmental signals regulating T cell exhaustion using a model of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). Single-cell analyses identified a subset of PD-1^hi, functionally impaired CD8⁺ T cells that accumulated in secondary lymphoid organs during disease progression and a functionally competent PD-1^int subset. Frequencies of PD-1^int TCF-1⁺ CD8⁺ T cells decreased upon Il10rb or Stat3 deletion, leading to accumulation of PD-1^hi cells and accelerated tumor progression. Mechanistically, inhibition of IL-10R signaling altered chromatin accessibility and disrupted cooperativity between the transcription factors NFAT and AP-1, promoting a distinct NFAT-associated program. Low IL10 expression or loss of IL-10R-STAT3 signaling correlated with increased frequencies of exhausted CD8⁺ T cells and poor survival in CLL and in breast cancer patients. Thus, balance between PD-1^hi, exhausted CD8⁺ T cells and functional PD-1^int TCF-1⁺ CD8⁺ T cells is regulated by cell-intrinsic IL-10R signaling, with implications for immunotherapy.

The resistance mechanisms and treatment strategies of BTK inhibitors in B-cell lymphoma

Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitors (BTKi) have revolutionized the treatment of B‐cell lymphoma (BCL). These drugs interfere with the mechanisms underlying malignant B‐cell pathophysiology, allowing better drug response as well as low toxicity. However, these multiple mechanisms also lead to drug resistance, which compromised the treatment outcome and needs to be solved urgently. This review focuses on genomic variations (such as BTK and its downstream PCLG2 mutations as well as Del 8p, 2p+, Del 6q/8p, BIRC3, TRAF2, TRAF3, CARD11, MYD88, and CCND1 mutations) and related pathways (such as PI3K/Akt/mTOR, NF‐κB, MAPK signaling pathways, overexpression of B‐cell lymphoma 6, platelet‐derived growth factor, toll‐like receptors, and microenvironment, cancer stem cells, and exosomes) involved in cancer pathophysiology to discuss the mechanisms underlying resistance to BTKi. We have also reviewed the newly reported drug resistance mechanisms and the proposed potential treatment strategies (the next‐generation BTKi, proteolysis‐targeting chimera‐BTK, XMU‐MP‐3, PI3K‐Akt‐mTOR pathway, MYC or LYN kinase inhibitor, and other small‐molecule targeted drugs) to overcome drug resistance. The findings presented in this review lay a strong foundation for further research in this field.

Harnessing the Power of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells and Gene Editing Technology: Therapeutic Implications in Hematological Malignancies

In vitro modeling of hematological malignancies not only provides insights into the influence of genetic aberrations on cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in disease progression but also aids development and evaluation of therapeutic agents. Owing to their self-renewal and differentiation capacity, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have emerged as a potential source of short in supply disease-specific human cells of the hematopoietic lineage. Patient-derived iPSCs can recapitulate the disease severity and spectrum of prognosis dictated by the genetic variation among patients and can be used for drug screening and studying clonal evolution. However, this approach lacks the ability to model the early phases of the disease leading to cancer. The advent of genetic editing technology has promoted the generation of precise isogenic iPSC disease models to address questions regarding the underlying genetic mechanism of disease initiation and progression. In this review, we discuss the use of iPSC disease modeling in hematological diseases, where there is lack of patient sample availability and/or difficulty of engraftment to generate animal models. Furthermore, we describe the power of combining iPSC and precise gene editing to elucidate the underlying mechanism of initiation and progression of various hematological malignancies. Finally, we discuss the power of iPSC disease modeling in developing and testing novel therapies in a high throughput setting.

Targeting the tumor microenvironment in chronic lymphocytic leukemia

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays an essential role in the development, growth, and survival of the malignant B-cell clone in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). Within the proliferation niches of lymph nodes, bone marrow, and secondary lymphoid organs, a variety of phenotypically and functionally altered cell types, including T cells, natural killer cells, monocytes/macrophages, endothelial and mesenchymal stroma cells, provide crucial survival signals, along with CLL-cellinduced suppression of antitumor immune responses. The B-cell receptor pathway plays a pivotal role in mediating the interaction between CLL cells and the TME. However, an increasing number of additional components of the multifactorial TME are being discovered. Although the majority of therapeutic strategies employed in CLL hitherto have focused on targeting the leukemic cells, emerging evidence implies that modulation of microenvironmental cells and CLL-TME interactions by novel therapeutic agents significantly affect their clinical efficacy. Thus, improving our understanding of CLL-TME interactions and how they are affected by current therapeutic agents may improve and guide treatment strategies. Identification of novel TME interactions may also pave the road for the development of novel therapeutic strategies targeting the TME. In this review, we summarize current evidence on the effects of therapeutic agents on cells and interactions within the TME. With a growing demand for improved and personalized treatment options in CLL, this review aims at inspiring future exploration of smart drug combination strategies, translational studies, and novel therapeutic targets in clinical trials.

Blockade of PD-1 and TIM-3 immune checkpoints fails to restore the function of exhausted CD8+ T cells in early clinical stages of chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Blocking antibodies targeting immune checkpoint molecules achieved invaluable success in tumor therapy and amazing clinical responses in a variety of cancers. Although common treatment protocols have improved overall survival in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), they continue to relapse and progress. In the present in vitro study, the application of anti-PD-1 and anti-TIM-3 blocking antibodies was studied to restore the function of exhausted CD8⁺ T cells in CLL. CD8⁺ T cells were isolated from peripheral blood of 20 patients with CLL, treated with blocking antibodies, and cocultured with mitomycin-frozen non-CD8⁺ T cell fraction as target cells. Cultures were stimulated with anti-CD3/CD28 antibodies to assess the proliferation of CD8⁺ T cells by MTT and stimulated with PMA/ionomycin to measure the levels of CD107a expression and cytokine production by flow cytometry and ELISA, respectively. Our results showed that the blockade of PD-1 and TIM-3 does not improve the proliferation of CD8⁺ T cells in CLL patients. No significant difference was found between control and blocked groups in terms of degranulation properties and production of IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2, and IL-10 by CD8⁺ T cells. We observed that pre-treatment of CD8⁺ T cells with blocking antibodies in CLL patients at early clinical stages had no effects on restoring their functional properties. Further in vitro and in vivo complementary studies are required to more explore the utility of checkpoint inhibitors for CLL patients.

EOMES and IL-10 regulate antitumor activity of T regulatory type 1 CD4+ T cells in chronic lymphocytic leukemia

The transcription factor eomesodermin (EOMES) promotes interleukin (IL)-10 expression in CD4+ T cells, which has been linked to immunosuppressive and cytotoxic activities. We detected cytotoxic, programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1) and EOMES co-expressing CD4+ T cells in lymph nodes (LNs) of patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) or diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Transcriptome and flow cytometry analyses revealed that EOMES does not only drive IL-10 expression, but rather controls a unique transcriptional signature in CD4+ T cells, that is enriched in genes typical for T regulatory type 1 (TR1) cells. The TR1 cell identity of these CD4+ T cells was supported by their expression of interferon gamma and IL-10, as well as inhibitory receptors including PD-1. TR1 cells with cytotoxic capacity accumulate also in Eµ-TCL1 mice that develop CLL-like disease. Whereas wild-type CD4+ T cells control TCL1 leukemia development after adoptive transfer in leukopenic Rag2-/- mice, EOMES-deficient CD4+ T cells failed to do so. We further show that TR1 cell-mediated control of TCL1 leukemia requires IL-10 receptor (IL-10R) signaling, as Il10rb-deficient CD4+ T cells showed impaired antileukemia activity. Altogether, our data demonstrate that EOMES is indispensable for the development of IL-10-expressing, cytotoxic TR1 cells, which accumulate in LNs of CLL patients and control TCL1 leukemia in mice in an IL-10R-dependent manner.

PD-1 Involvement in Peripheral Blood CD8+ T Lymphocyte Dysfunction in Patients with Acute-on-chronic Liver Failure

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) plays an important role in downregulating T lymphocytes but the mechanisms are still poorly understood. This study aimed to explore the role of PD-1 in CD8⁺ T lymphocyte dysfunction in hepatitis B virus (HBV)-related acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF).

METHODS

Thirty patients with HBV-ACLF and 30 healthy controls (HCs) were recruited. The differences in the numbers and functions of CD8⁺ T lymphocytes, PD-1 and glucose transporter-1 (Glut1) expression from the peripheral blood of patients with HBV-ACLF and HCs were analyzed. In vitro, the CD8⁺ T lymphocytes from HCs were cultured (HC group) and the CD8⁺ T lymphocytes from ACLF patients were cultured with PD-L1-IgG (ACLF+PD-1 group) or IgG (ACLF group). The numbers and functions of CD8⁺ T lymphocytes, PD-1 expression, glycogen uptake capacity, and Glut1, hexokinase-2 (HK2), and pyruvate kinase (PKM2) expression were analyzed among the HC group, ACLF group and ACLF+ PD-1group.

RESULTS

The absolute numbers of CD8⁺ T lymphocytes in the peripheral blood from patients with HBV-ACLF were lower than in the HCs (p<0.001). The expression of PD-1 in peripheral blood CD8⁺ T lymphocytes was lower in HCs than in patients with HBV-ACLF (p=0.021). Compared with HCs, PD-1 expression was increased (p=0.021) and Glut1 expression was decreased (p=0.016) in CD8⁺ T lymphocytes from the HBV-ACLF group. In vitro, glycogen uptake and functions of ACLF CD8⁺ T lymphocytes were significantly lower than that in HCs (p=0.017; all p<0.001). When PD-1/PD-L1 was activated, the glycogen uptake rate and expression levels of Glut1, HK2, and PKM2 showed a decreasing trend (ACLF+PD-1 group compared to ACLF group , all p<0.05). The functions of CD8⁺ T lymphocytes in the ACLF+PD-1 group [using biomarkers of Ki67, CD69, IL-2, interferon-gamma, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha- were lower than in the ACLF group (all p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

CD8⁺ T lymphocyte dysfunction is observed in patients with HBV-ACLF. PD-1-induced T lymphocyte dysfunction might involve glycolysis inhibition.

Time-limited, Combined Regimen in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: A Promising Strategy to Achieve a Drug Holiday

Chemoimmunotherapy (CIT) is defined as standard first line treatment for chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) patients while patients with unfavorable biological characteristics such as unmutated immunoglobulin heavy chain (UM-IGHV) and TP53 aberration failed to benefit from it. The emergency of the small molecular targeted agents including Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitor (BTKi) leads to a brand-new era, from a CIT to a chemo-free era in CLL. However, the treatment of target agents is not enough to attain a deep remission and high rate of complete remission (CR), especially in patients with high risks. The long duration brought about problems, such as cost, drug resistance and toxicity. To benefit CLL in progression free survival (PFS) and long-term remission, exploration of time-limited therapies, mainly with BTKi plus CIT and BCL2i based combination therapy has become a mainstream in clinical trials. The time-limited combination therapy shed light on the promising potentiality to attain sustainable deep remission and partly overcame the risk factors, although long term follow-up is required to consolidate the conclusion. In this review, we intend to introduce key results of clinical trials with combination therapy, discuss the achievements and limitations and put forward future direction for clinical trial design in this field.

NK Cells in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia and Their Therapeutic Implications

Key features of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) are defects in the immune system and the ability of leukemic cells to evade immune defenses and induce immunosuppression, resulting in increased susceptibility to infections and disease progression. Several immune effectors are impaired in CLL, including T and natural killer (NK) cells. The role of T cells in defense against CLL and in CLL progression and immunotherapy has been extensively studied. Less is known about the role of NK cells in this leukemia, and data on NK cell alterations in CLL are contrasting. Besides studies showing that NK cells have intrinsic defects in CLL, there is a large body of evidence indicating that NK cell dysfunctions in CLL mainly depend on the escape mechanisms employed by leukemic cells. In keeping, it has been shown that NK cell functions, including antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), can be retained and/or restored after adequate stimulation. Therefore, due to their preserved ADCC function and the reversibility of CLL-related dysfunctions, NK cells are an attractive source for novel immunotherapeutic strategies in this disease, including chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) therapy. Recently, satisfying clinical responses have been obtained in CLL patients using cord blood-derived CAR-NK cells, opening new possibilities for further exploring NK cells in the immunotherapy of CLL. However, notwithstanding the promising results of this clinical trial, more evidence is needed to fully understand whether and in which CLL cases NK cell-based immunotherapy may represent a valid, alternative/additional therapeutic option for this leukemia. In this review, we provide an overview of the current knowledge about phenotypic and functional alterations of NK cells in CLL and the mechanisms by which CLL cells circumvent NK cell-mediated immunosurveillance. Additionally, we discuss the potential relevance of using NK cells in CLL immunotherapy.

Proteomic and bioinformatic profiling of neutrophils in CLL reveals functional defects that predispose to bacterial infections

Patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) typically suffer from frequent and severe bacterial infections. Although it is well known that neutrophils are critical innate immune cells facilitating the early defense, the underlying phenotypical and functional changes in neutrophils during CLL remain largely elusive. Using a murine adoptive transfer model of CLL, we demonstrate aggravated bacterial burden in CLL-bearing mice upon a urinary tract infection with uropathogenic Escherichia coli. Bioinformatic analyses of the neutrophil proteome revealed increased expression of proteins associated with interferon signaling and decreased protein expression associated with granule composition and neutrophil migration. Functional experiments validated these findings by showing reduced levels of myeloperoxidase and acidification of neutrophil granules after ex vivo phagocytosis of bacteria. Pathway enrichment analysis indicated decreased expression of molecules critical for neutrophil recruitment, and migration of neutrophils into the infected urinary bladder was significantly reduced. These altered migratory properties of neutrophils were also associated with reduced expression of CD62L and CXCR4 and correlated with an increased incidence of infections in patients with CLL. In conclusion, this study describes a molecular signature of neutrophils through proteomic, bioinformatic, and functional analyses that are linked to a reduced migratory ability, potentially leading to increased bacterial infections in patients with CLL.

Genetically Engineered Mouse Models Support a Major Role of Immune Checkpoint-Dependent Immunosurveillance Escape in B-Cell Lymphomas

These last 20 years, research on immune tumor microenvironment led to identify some critical recurrent mechanisms used in cancer to escape immune response. Through immune checkpoints, which are cell surface molecules involved in the immune system control, it is now established that tumor cells are able to shutdown the immune response. Due to the complexity and heterogeneity of Non Hodgkin B-cell Lymphomas (NHBLs), it is difficult to understand the precise mechanisms of immune escape and to explain the mitigated effect of immune checkpoints blockade for their treatment. Because genetically engineered mouse models are very reliable tools to improve our understanding of molecular mechanisms involved in B-cell transformation and, at the same time, can be useful preclinical models to predict immune response, we reviewed hereafter some of these models that highlight the immune escape mechanisms of NHBLs and open perspectives on future therapies.

PD-1 suppresses TCR-CD8 cooperativity during T-cell antigen recognition

Despite the clinical success of blocking its interactions, how PD-1 inhibits T-cell activation is incompletely understood, as exemplified by its potency far exceeding what might be predicted from its affinity for PD-1 ligand-1 (PD-L1). This may be partially attributed to PD-1's targeting the proximal signaling of the T-cell receptor (TCR) and co-stimulatory receptor CD28 via activating Src homology region 2 domain-containing phosphatases (SHPs). Here, we report PD-1 signaling regulates the initial TCR antigen recognition manifested in a smaller spreading area, fewer molecular bonds formed, and shorter bond lifetime of T cell interaction with peptide-major histocompatibility complex (pMHC) in the presence than absence of PD-L1 in a manner dependent on SHPs and Leukocyte C-terminal Src kinase. Our results identify a PD-1 inhibitory mechanism that disrupts the cooperative TCR-pMHC-CD8 trimolecular interaction, which prevents CD8 from augmenting antigen recognition, explaining PD-1's potent inhibitory function and its value as a target for clinical intervention.

Targeting of the A2A adenosine receptor counteracts immunosuppression in vivo in a mouse model of chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Tumor immunosuppression is a major cause for treatment failure and disease relapse, both in solid tumors and leukemia. Local hypoxia is among the conditions that cause immunosuppression, acting at least in part through the upregulation of extracellular adenosine levels, which potently suppress T cell responses and skew macrophages towards an M2 phenotype. Hence, there is intense investigation to identify drugs that target this axis. By using the TCL1 adoptive transfer CLL mouse model, we show that adenosine production and signaling are upregulated in the hypoxic lymphoid niches, where intense colonization of leukemic cells occurs. This leads to a progressive remodeling of the immune system towards tolerance, with expansion of T regulatory cells (Tregs), loss of CD8+ T cell cytotoxicity and differentiation of murine macrophages towards the patrolling (M2-like) subset. In vivo administration of SCH58261, an inhibitor the A2A adenosine receptor, re-awakens T cell responses, while limiting Tregs expansion, and re-polarizes monocytes towards the inflammatory (M1-like) phenotype. These results show for the first time the in vivo contribution of adenosine signaling to immune tolerance in CLL, and the translational implication of drugs interrupting this pathway. Although the effects of SCH58261 on leukemic cells are limited, interfering with adenosine signaling may represent an appealing strategy for combination-based therapeutic approaches.

Multi-Factor Clustering Incorporating Cell Motility Predicts T Cell Expansion Potential

Expansion of an initial population of T cells is essential for cellular immunotherapy. In Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL), expansion is often complicated by lack of T cell proliferation, as these cells frequently show signs of exhaustion. This report seeks to identify specific biomarkers or measures of cell function that capture the proliferative potential of a starting population of cells. Mixed CD4+/CD8+ T cells from healthy donors and individuals previously treated for CLL were characterized on the basis of proliferative potential and in vitro cellular functions. Single-factor analysis found little correlation between the number of populations doublings reached during expansion and either Rai stage (a clinical measure of CLL spread) or PD-1 expression. However, inclusion of in vitro IL-2 secretion and the propensity of cells to align onto micropatterned features of activating proteins as factors identified three distinct groups of donors. Notably, these group assignments provided an elegant separation of donors with regards to proliferative potential. Furthermore, these groups exhibited different motility characteristics, suggesting a mechanism that underlies changes in proliferative potential. This study describes a new set of functional readouts that augment surface marker panels to better predict expansion outcomes and clinical prognosis.

BTLA/HVEM Axis Induces NK Cell Immunosuppression and Poor Outcome in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia

Simple Summary

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) represents the most frequent B cell malignancy in Western countries and still remains as an incurable disease. Despite recent advances in targeted therapies including ibrutinib, idelalisib or venetoclax, resistance mechanisms have been described and patients develop a progressive immunosuppression. Since immune checkpoint blockade has demonstrated to reinvigorate T and NK cell-mediated anti-tumor responses, the aim of this work was to elucidate whether this immunosuppression relies, at least in part, in BTLA/HVEM axis in patients with CLL. Our results demonstrate that BTLA and HVEM expression is deeply dysregulated on leukemic and NK cells and correlates with poor outcome. Moreover, soluble BTLA levels correlated with adverse cytogenetics and shorter time to treatment. BTLA blockade restored, at least in part, NK cell-mediated responses in patients with CLL. Altogether, our results provide the rationale to further investigate the role of BTLA/HVEM axis in the pathogenesis of CLL.

Abstract

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is characterized by progressive immunosuppression and diminished cancer immunosurveillance. Immune checkpoint blockade (ICB)-based therapies, a major breakthrough against cancer, have emerged as a powerful tool to reinvigorate antitumor responses. Herein, we analyzed the role of the novel inhibitory checkpoint BTLA and its ligand, HVEM, in the regulation of leukemic and natural killer (NK) cells in CLL. Flow cytometry analyses showed that BTLA expression is upregulated on leukemic cells and NK cells from patients with CLL, whereas HVEM is downregulated only in leukemic cells, especially in patients with advanced Rai-Binet stage. In silico analysis revealed that increased HVEM, but not BTLA, mRNA expression in leukemic cells correlated with diminished overall survival. Further, soluble BTLA (sBTLA) was found to be increased in the sera of patients with CLL and highly correlated with poor prognostic markers and shorter time to treatment. BTLA blockade with an anti-BTLA monoclonal antibody depleted leukemic cells and boosted NK cell-mediated responses ex vivo by increasing their IFN-γ production, cytotoxic capability, and antibody-dependent cytotoxicity (ADCC). In agreement with an inhibitory role of BTLA in NK cells, surface BTLA expression on NK cells was associated with poor outcome in patients with CLL. Overall, this study is the first to bring to light a role of BTLA/HVEM in the suppression of NK cell-mediated immune responses in CLL and its impact on patient’s prognosis, suggesting that BTLA/HVEM axis may be a potential therapeutic target in this disease.

Combining ibrutinib and checkpoint blockade improves CD8+ T-cell function and control of chronic lymphocytic leukemia in Em-TCL1 mice

Ibrutinib is a Bruton’s tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitor approved for the treatment of multiple B-cell malignancies, including chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). In addition to blocking B-cell receptor signaling and chemokine receptor-mediated pathways in CLL cells, that are known drivers of disease, ibrutinib also affects the microenvironment in CLL via targeting BTK in myeloid cells and IL-2–inducible T-cell kinase (ITK) in T cells. These non-BTK effects were suggested to contribute to the success of ibrutinib in CLL. By using the Eμ-TCL1 adoptive transfer mouse model of CLL, we observed that ibrutinib effectively controls leukemia development, but also results in significantly lower numbers of CD8+ effector T cells, with lower expression of activation markers, as well as impaired proliferation and effector function. Using CD8+ T cells from a T-cell receptor (TCR) reporter mouse, we verified that this is due to a direct effect of ibrutinib on TCR activity, and demonstrate that co-stimulation via CD28 overcomes these effects. Most interestingly, combination of ibrutinib with blocking antibodies targeting PD-1/PD-L1 axis in vivo improved CD8+ T-cell effector function and control of CLL. In summary, these data emphasize the strong immunomodulatory effects of ibrutinib and the therapeutic potential of its combination with immune checkpoint blockade in CLL.