In silico identification of bacteriocin gene clusters in the gastrointestinal tract, based on the Human Microbiome Project's reference genome database

Distinct phenotypes of salivaricin-producing Ligilactobacillus salivarius isolated from the gastrointestinal tract of broiler chickens and laying hens

Ligilactobacillus salivarius harbors bacteriocin genes in its repA-type megaplasmid, specifically salivaricin P (salP), a class IIb bacteriocin. This study aimed to differentiate 25 salP-positive Lig. salivarius strains isolated from the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of broilers and laying hens. Results showed that 12 isolates were classified as Type A, with active bacteriocins, while the rest were Type B, with no active bacteriocins. In vitro and in silico characterization of salP bacteriocins revealed narrow-spectrum antibacterial activity against Listeria monocytogenes and Enterococcus faecalis. SalP bacteriocins were predicted as positively charged, hydrophobic, small molecular weight (α, 4.097 kDa; ß, 4.285 kDa) bacteriocins with characteristic GXXXG motif. Investigation of the salP gene cluster based on genomic data revealed that Type B strains lacked the lanT and hlyD genes that encode export proteins dedicated to the modification and extracellular transport of mature salP peptides. However, two Type B strains (B4311 and B5258) showed inhibitory activity against L. monocytogenes ATCC19114. Multiplex PCR analysis and synteny mapping analysis revealed that B4311 and B5258 strains harbored the lanT gene, highlighting the importance of LanT protein in the cleavage of leader peptide and excretion of mature peptides. Further analysis revealed that the resistance of Type B strains to salP was attributable to the presence of a dedicated immunity protein, blurring the evolutionary significance of producing active bacteriocins for competitive advantage. Additionally, the loss of export proteins occurred in a polyphyletic manner, consistent with the genetic plasticity of the repA-type megaplasmid. This suggests that the loss of lanT and hlyD is likely in the presence of limited nutritional competitors. In conclusion, the observed differences in salivaricin production of Lig. salivarius exist independent of isolation host and that Type A and Type B strains can coexist in the same environment. Finally, the functional characterization of active salP allows for a better understanding of its potential to control specific bacteria in human food and animal production.

Health benefits, antimicrobial activities, and potential applications of probiotics: A review

Gut microbiota and its metabolic activities can influence the physiology and pathology of the human body. It is well established that alterations in the balance of living microbiota can contribute to various health problems, such as inflammatory bowel disease and autoimmune disorders. Probiotics administered in sufficient quantities as functional food ingredients provide health benefits to hosts. They help to maintain the stability and composition of the gut microbiota and provide resistance to infection by pathogens. The most important probiotic bacteria are Lactobacillus spp. and Bifidobacteria spp., which protect the intestine through various mechanisms such as the production of organic acids and bacteriocins. Scientific and clinical research has demonstrated that probiotics play a role in modulating immune response and preventing cancer and chronic inflammatory diseases, especially in the gastrointestinal tract. This article summarizes the potential health benefits, antimicrobial activities, and purposes for which probiotics can be used as functional foods to improve human health.

Potential and application of tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) in the analysis and identification of novel bacteriocins: a review

Bacteriocins are antimicrobial peptides synthesised ribosomally by Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacteria to gain a competitive advantage. The majority of bacteriocins are derived from Gram-positive bacteria, with lactic acid bacteria being the most common source. Because they are considered ‘natural’, there is currently significant development of bacteriocins for application as food preservative agents. As a preservative agent, bacteriocin activity is highly dependent on purity, down to the amino acid profile and sequence. Therefore, bacteriocin identification is important. Currently, MS is a cutting-edge tool in bacteriocin identification. This method has high selectivity, sensitivity and resolution. To the best of our knowledge, systematic reviews focusing on the application of MS for bacteriocin identification are currently limited. In light of this, the objective of this study is to provide a comprehensive review and summary of MS technologies in bacteriocin research, with a particular focus on the discovery and characterisation of novel sources of bacteriocin. Additionally, studies related to the discovery of bacteriocins from various sources, their role as antimicrobial agents, and their synthesis are emphasised. Thus, this study presents a comprehensive analysis of the advantages, limitations, and future perspectives of the methods employed.

Gut Distribution, Impact Factor, and Action Mechanism of Bacteriocin-Producing Beneficial Microbes as Promising Antimicrobial Agents in Gastrointestinal Infection

Gastrointestinal (GI) infection by intestinal pathogens poses great threats to human health, and the therapeutic use of antibiotics has reached a bottleneck due to drug resistance. The developments of antimicrobial peptides produced by beneficial bacteria have drawn attention by virtue of effective, safe, and not prone to developing resistance. Though bacteriocin as antimicrobial agent in gut infection has been intensively investigated and reviewed, reviews on that of bacteriocin-producing beneficial microbes are very rare. It is important to explicitly state the prospect of bacteriocin-producing microbes in prevention of gastrointestinal infection towards their application in host. This review discusses the potential of gut as an appropriate resource for mining targeted bacteriocin-producing microbes. Then, host-related factors affecting the bacteriocin production and activity of bacteriocin-producing microbes in the gut are summarized. Accordingly, the multiple mechanisms (direct inhibition and indirect inhibition) behind the preventive effects of bacteriocin-producing microbes on gut infection are discussed. Finally, we propose several targeted strategies for the manipulation of bacteriocin-producing beneficial microbes to improve their performance in antimicrobial outcomes. We anticipate an upcoming emergence of developments and applications of bacteriocin-producing beneficial microbes as antimicrobial agent in gut infection induced by pathogenic bacteria.

Advances in the study of the relationship between gut microbiota and erectile dysfunction

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, in-depth research has revealed that gut microbiota has an inseparable relationship with erectile dysfunction (ED) in men.

OBJECTIVES

(1) To review the correlation between gut microbiota and ED from the perspective of its impact on men's mental health, metabolism, immunity, and endocrine regulation and (2) to provide reference to further explore the pathogenesis of ED and the improvement of clinical treatment plans.

METHODS

PubMed was used for the literature search to identify publications related to ED and gut microbiota.

RESULTS

Gut microbiota may induce depression and anxiety through the microbiota-gut-brain axis, leading to the occurrence of psychological ED. It may also cause vascular endothelial dysfunction and androgen metabolism disorder by interfering with lipid metabolism, immunity, and endocrine regulation, leading to the occurrence of organic ED.

CONCLUSION

Gut microbiota and its metabolites play an important role in the occurrence and development of ED. As a new influencing factor of ED, gut microbiota disorder is expected to become a target for treatment.

High-throughput detection of potential bacteriocin producers in a large strain library using live fluorescent biosensors

The global increase in antibiotic resistances demands for additional efforts to identify novel antimicrobials such as bacteriocins. These antimicrobial peptides of bacterial origin are already used widely in food preservation and promising alternatives for antibiotics in animal feed and some clinical setting. Identification of novel antimicrobials is facilitated by appropriate high throughput screening (HTS) methods. Previously, we have described a rapid, simple and cost-efficient assay based on live biosensor bacteria for detection of antimicrobial compounds that act on membrane integrity using the ratiometric pH-dependent fluorescent protein pHluorin2 (pHin2). Here, we use these biosensors to develop an integrated pipeline for high-throughput identification of bacteriocin producers and their biosynthetic gene clusters. We extend the existing portfolio of biosensors by generating pHin2 expressing strains of Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. These strains were characterized, and control experiments were performed to assess heterogeneity of these biosensors in response to known bacteriocins and develop a robust HTS system. To allow detection of compounds that inhibit target bacteria by inhibiting growth without disturbing membrane integrity, the HTS system was extended with a growth-dependent readout. Using this HTS system, we screened supernatants of a total of 395 strains of a collection of lactic acid bacteria. After two rounds of screening 19 strains of the collection were identified that produced antimicrobial activity against Listeria innocua and Listeria monocytogenes. Genomes of confirmed hits were sequenced and annotated. In silico analysis revealed that the identified strains encode between one and six biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) for bacteriocins. Our results suggest that pHin2 biosensors provides a flexible, cheap, fast, robust and easy to handle HTS system for identification of potential bacteriocins and their BGCs in large strain collections.

An exploratory in silico analysis of bacteriocin gene clusters in the urobiome

Background: The role of the urobiome in health and disease remains an understudied area compared to the rest of the human microbiome. Enhanced culturing techniques and next-generation sequencing technologies have identified the urobiome as an untapped source of potentially novel antimicrobials. The aim of this study was to screen the urobiome for genes encoding bacteriocin production. Methods: The genomes of 181 bacterial urobiome isolates were screened in silico for the presence of bacteriocin gene clusters using the bacteriocin mining tool BAGEL4 and secondary metabolite screening tool antiSMASH7. Results: From these isolates, an initial 263 areas of interest were identified, manually annotated, and evaluated for potential bacteriocin gene clusters. This resulted in 32 isolates containing 80 potential bacteriocin gene clusters, of which 72% were identified as class II, 13.75% as class III, 8.75% as class I, and 5% as unclassified bacteriocins. Conclusion: Overall, 53 novel variants were discovered, including nisin, gassericin, ubericin, and colicins.

In Silico Screening of Bacteriocin Gene Clusters within a Set of Marine Bacillota Genomes

Due to their potential application as an alternative to antibiotics, bacteriocins, which are ribosomally synthesized antimicrobial peptides produced by bacteria, have received much attention in recent years. To identify bacteriocins within marine bacteria, most of the studies employed a culture-based method, which is more time-consuming than the in silico approach. For that, the aim of this study was to identify potential bacteriocin gene clusters and their potential producers in 51 marine Bacillota (formerly Firmicutes) genomes, using BAGEL4, a bacteriocin genome mining tool. As a result, we found out that a majority of selected Bacillota (60.78%) are potential bacteriocin producers, and we identified 77 bacteriocin gene clusters, most of which belong to class I bacteriocins known as RiPPs (ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides). The identified putative bacteriocin gene clusters are an attractive target for further in vitro research, such as the production of bacteriocins using a heterologous expression system.

Revisiting the Multifaceted Roles of Bacteriocins : The Multifaceted Roles of Bacteriocins

Bacteriocins are gene-encoded antimicrobial peptides produced by bacteria. These peptides are heterogeneous in terms of structure, antimicrobial activities, biosynthetic clusters, and regulatory mechanisms. Bacteriocins are widespread in nature and may contribute to microbial diversity due to their capacity to target specific bacteria. Primarily studied as food preservatives and therapeutic agents, their function in natural settings is however less known. This review emphasizes the ecological significance of bacteriocins as multifunctional peptides by exploring bacteriocin distribution, mobility, and their impact on bacterial population dynamics and biofilms.

Heterologous expression and antimicrobial potential of class II bacteriocins

Gut bacteria are known to produce bacteriocins to inhibit the growth of other bacteria. Consequently, bacteriocins have attracted increased attention as potential microbiome-editing tools. In this study we examine the inhibitory spectrum of 75 class II bacteriocins against 48 representative gut microbiota species. The bacteriocins were heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli and evaluated in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo. In vitro assays revealed 22 bacteriocins to inhibit at least one species and showed selective inhibition patterns against species implicated in certain disorders and diseases. Three bacteriocins were selected for ex vivo assessment on mouse feces. Based on 16S rRNA sequencing of the cultivated feces we showed that the two bacteriocins: Actifencin (#13) and Bacteroidetocin A (#22) selectively inhibited the growth of Lactobacillus and Bacteroides, respectively. The probiotic: E. coli Nissle 1917 was engineered to express these two bacteriocins in mice. However, the selective inhibitory patterns found in the in vitro and ex vivo experiments could not be observed in vivo. Our study describes a methodology for heterologous high throughput bacteriocin expression and screening and elucidates the inhibitory patterns of class II bacteriocins on the gut microbiota.

Using metabolomics to understand stress responses in Lactic Acid Bacteria and their applications in the food industry

BACKGROUND

Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) are commonly used as starter cultures, probiotics, to produce lactic acid and other useful compounds, and even as natural preservatives. For use in any food product however, LAB need to survive the various stresses they encounter in the environment and during processing. Understanding these mechanisms may enable direction of LAB biochemistry with potential beneficial impact for the food industry.

AIM OF REVIEW

To give an overview of the use of LAB in the food industry and then generate a deeper biochemical understanding of LAB stress response mechanisms via metabolomics, and methods of screening for robust strains of LAB.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

Uses of LAB in food products were assessed and factors which contribute to survival and tolerance in LAB investigated. Changes in the metabolic profiles of LAB exposed to stress were found to be associated with carbohydrates, amino acids and fatty acid levels and these changes were proposed to be a result of the bacteria trying to maintain cellular homeostasis in response to external conditions and minimise cellular damage from reactive oxygen species. This correlates with morphological analysis which shows that LAB can undergo cell elongation and shortening, as well as thinning and thickening of cell membranes, when exposed to stress. It is proposed that these innate strategies can be utilised to minimise negative effects caused by stress through selection of intrinsically robust strains, genetic modification and/or prior exposure to sublethal stress. This work demonstrates the utility of metabolomics to the food industry.

Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis as widespread bacteriocin gene clusters carrier stands out among the Bifidobacterium

Bifidobacterium is the dominant genus, particularly in the intestinal tract niche of healthy breast-fed infants, and many of these strains have been proven to elicit positive effects on infant development. In addition to its effective antimicrobial activity against detrimental microorganisms, it helps to improve the intestinal microbiota balance. The isolation and identification of bacteriocins from Bifidobacterium have been limited since the mid-1980s, leading to an underestimation of its ability for bacteriocin production. Here, we employed a silicon-based search strategy to mine 354 putative bacteriocin gene clusters (BGCs), most of which have never been reported, from the genomes of 759 Bifidobacterium strains distributed across 9 species. Consistent with previous reports, most Bifidobacterium strains did not carry or carry only a single BGC; however, Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis, in contrast to other Bifidobacterium species, carried numerous BGCs, including lanthipeptides, lasso peptides, thiopeptides, and class IId bacteriocins. The antimicrobial activity of the crude bacteriocins and transcription analysis confirmed its potential for bacteriocin biosynthesis. Additionally, we investigated the association of bacteriocins with the phylogenetic positions of their homologs from other genera and niches. In conclusion, this study re-examines a few Bifidobacterium species traditionally regarded as a poor source of bacteriocins. These bacteriocin genes impart a competitive advantage to Bifidobacterium in colonizing the infant intestinal tract. IMPORTANCE Development of the human gut microbiota commences from birth, with bifidobacteria being among the first colonizers of the newborn intestinal tract and dominating it for a considerable period. To date, the genetic basis for the successful adaptation of bifidobacteria to this particular niche remains unclear since studies have mainly focused on glycoside hydrolase and adhesion-related genes. Bacteriocins are competitive factors that help producers maintain colonization advantages without destroying the niche balance; however, they have rarely been reported in Bifidobacterium. The advancement in sequencing methods and bacteriocin databases enables the use of a silicon-based search strategy for the comprehensive and rapid re-evaluation of the bacteriocin distribution of Bifidobacterium. Our study revealed that B. infantis carries abundant bacteriocin biosynthetic gene clusters for the first time, presenting new evidence regarding the competitive interactions of Bifidobacterium in the infant intestinal tract.

Bioinformatic mining for RiPP biosynthetic gene clusters in Bacteroidales reveals possible new subfamily architectures and novel natural products

The Bacteroidales order, widely distributed among diverse human populations, constitutes a key component of the human microbiota. Members of this Gram-negative order have been shown to modulate the host immune system, play a fundamental role in the gut's microbial food webs, or be involved in pathogenesis. Bacteria inhabiting such a complex environment as the human microbiome are expected to display social behaviors and, hence, possess factors that mediate cooperative and competitive interactions. Different types of molecules can mediate interference competition, including non-ribosomal peptides (NRPs), polyketides, and bacteriocins. The present study investigates the potential of Bacteroidales bacteria to biosynthesize class I bacteriocins, which are ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs). For this purpose, 1,136 genome-sequenced strains from this order were mined using BAGEL4. A total of 1,340 areas of interest (AOIs) were detected. The most commonly identified enzymes involved in RiPP biosynthesis were radical S-adenosylmethionine (rSAM), either alone or in combination with other biosynthetic enzymes such as YcaO. A more comprehensive analysis of a subset of 9 biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) revealed a consistent association in Bacteroidales BGCs between peptidase-containing ATP-binding transporters (PCATs) and precursor peptides with GG-motifs. This finding suggests a possibly shared mechanism for leader peptide cleavage and transport of mature products. Notably, human metagenomic studies showed a high prevalence and abundance of the RiPP BGCs from Phocaeicola vulgatus and Porphyromonas gulae. The mature product of P. gulae BGC is hypothesized to display γ-thioether linkages and a C-terminal backbone amidine, a potential new combination of post-translational modifications (PTM). All these findings highlight the RiPP biosynthetic potential of Bacteroidales bacteria, as a rich source of novel peptide structures of possible relevance in the human microbiome context.

Effects of microbial-derived biotics (meta/pharma/post-biotics) on the modulation of gut microbiome and metabolome; general aspects and emerging trends

Potential effects of metabiotics (probiotics effector molecules or signaling factors), pharmabiotics (pro-functional metabolites produced by gut microbiota (GMB)) and postbiotics (multifunctional metabolites and structural compounds of food-grade microorganisms) on GMB have been rarely reviewed. These multifunctional components have several promising capabilities for prevention, alleviation and treatment of some diseases or disorders. Correlations between these essential biotics and GMB are also very interesting and important in human health and nutrition. Furthermore, these natural bioactives are involved in modulation of the immune function, control of metabolic dysbiosis and regulation of the signaling pathways. This review discusses the potential of meta/pharma/post-biotics as new classes of pharmaceutical agents and their effective mechanisms associated with GMB-host cell to cell communications with therapeutic benefits which are important in balance and the integrity of the host microbiome. In addition, cutting-edge findings about bioinformatics /metabolomics analyses related to GMB and these essential biotics are reviewed.

After a century of nisin research - where are we now?

It is almost a century since nisin was discovered in fermented milk cultures, coincidentally in the same year that penicillin was first described. Over the last 100 years this small, highly modified pentacyclic peptide has not only found success in the food industry as a preservative but has also served as the paradigm for our understanding of the genetic organization, expression, and regulation of genes involved in lantibiotic biosynthesis-one of the few cases of extensive post-translation modification in prokaryotes. Recent developments in understanding the complex biosynthesis of nisin have shed light on the cellular location of the modification and transport machinery and the co-ordinated series of spatio-temporal events required to produce active nisin and provide resistance and immunity. The continued unearthing of new natural variants from within human and animal gastrointestinal tracts has sparked interest in the potential application of nisin to influence the microbiome, given the growing recognition of the role the gastrointestinal microbiota plays in health and disease. Moreover, interdisciplinary approaches have taken advantage of biotechnological advancements to bioengineer nisin to produce novel variants and expand nisin functionality for applications in the biomedical field. This review will discuss the latest progress in these aspects of nisin research.

Bioinformatics and its role in the study of the evolution and probiotic potential of lactic acid bacteria

Due to their numerous well-established applications in the food industry, there have been many studies regarding the adaptation and evolution of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in a wide variety of hosts and environments. Progress in sequencing technology and continual decreases in its costs have led to the availability of LAB genome sequence data. Bioinformatics has been central to the extraction of valuable information from these raw genome sequence data. This paper presents the roles of bioinformatics tools and databases in understanding the adaptation and evolution of LAB, as well as the bioinformatics methods used in the initial screening of LAB for probiotic potential. Moreover, the advantages, challenges, and limitations of employing bioinformatics for these purposes are discussed.

Demystifying Bacteriocins of Human Microbiota by Genome Guided Prospects: An Impetus to Rekindle the Antimicrobial Research

The human microbiome is a reservoir of potential bacteriocins that can counteract multidrug resistant bacterial pathogens. Unlike antibiotics, bacteriocins selectively inhibit a spectrum of competent bacteria and are said to safeguard gut commensals, reducing the chance of dysbiosis. Bacteriocinogenic probiotics or bacteriocins of human origin will be more pertinent in human physiological conditions for therapeutic applications to act against invading pathogens. Recent advancement in the omics approach enables the mining of diverse and novel bacteriocins by identifying biosynthetic gene clusters from the human microbial genome, pangenome or shotgun metagenome, which is a breakthrough in the discovery line of novel bacteriocins. This review summarizes the most recent trends and therapeutic potential of bacteriocins of human microbial origin, the advancement in the in silico algorithms and databases in the discovery of novel bacteriocin, and how to bridge the gap between the discovery of bacteriocin genes from big datasets and their in vitro production. Besides, the later part of the review discussed the various impediments in their clinical applications and possible solution to bring them into the frontline therapeutics to control infections, thereby meeting the challenges of global antimicrobial resistance.

Exploring Bacterial Attributes That Underpin Symbiont Life in the Monogastric Gut

The large bowel of monogastric animals, such as that of humans, is home to a microbial community (microbiota) composed of a diversity of mostly bacterial species. Interrelationships between the microbiota as an entity and the host are complex and lifelong and are characteristic of a symbiosis. The relationships may be disrupted in association with disease, resulting in dysbiosis. Modifications to the microbiota to correct dysbiosis require knowledge of the fundamental mechanisms by which symbionts inhabit the gut. This review aims to summarize aspects of niche fitness of bacterial species that inhabit the monogastric gut, especially of humans, and to indicate the research path by which progress can be made in exploring bacterial attributes that underpin symbiont life in the gut.

Mining Biosynthetic Gene Clusters in Carnobacterium maltaromaticum by Interference Competition Network and Genome Analysis

Carnobacterium maltaromaticum is a non-starter lactic acid bacterium (LAB) of interest in the dairy industry for biopreservation. This study investigated the interference competition network and the specialized metabolites biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) content in this LAB in order to explore the relationship between the antimicrobial properties and the genome content. Network analysis revealed that the potency of inhibition tended to increase when the inhibition spectrum broadened, but also that several strains exhibited a high potency and narrow spectrum of inhibition. The C. maltaromaticum strains with potent anti-L. monocytogenes were characterized by high potency and a wide intraspecific spectrum. Genome mining of 29 strains revealed the presence of 12 bacteriocin BGCs: four of class I and eight of class II, among which seven belong to class IIa and one to class IIc. Overall, eight bacteriocins and one nonribosomal peptide synthetase and polyketide synthase (NRPS-PKS) BGCs were newly described. The comparison of the antimicrobial properties resulting from the analysis of the network and the BGC genome content allowed us to delineate candidate BGCs responsible for anti-L. monocytogenes and anti-C. maltaromaticum activity. However, it also highlighted that genome analysis is not suitable in the current state of the databases for the prediction of genes involved in the antimicrobial activity of strains with a narrow anti-C. maltaromaticum activity.

Et tu, Neisseria? Conflicts of Interest Between Neisseria Species

Neisseria meningitidis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae are two obligate human pathogens that have evolved to be uniquely adapted to their host. The meningococcus is frequently carried asymptomatically in the nasopharynx, while gonococcal infection of the urogenital tract usually elicits a marked local inflammatory response. Other members of the Neisseria genus are abundant in the upper airway where they could engage in co-operative or competitive interactions with both these pathogens. Here, we briefly outline the potential sites of contact between Neisseria spp. in the body, with emphasis on the upper airway, and describe the growing yet circumstantial evidence for antagonism from carriage studies and human volunteer challenge models with Neisseria lactamica. Recent laboratory studies have characterized antagonistic mechanisms that enable competition between Neisseria species. Several of these mechanisms, including Multiple Adhesin family (Mafs), Two Partner Secretion Systems, and Type VI secretion system, involve direct contact between bacteria; the genetic organisation of these systems, and the domain structure of their effector molecules have striking similarities. Additionally, DNA from one species of Neisseria can be toxic to another species, following uptake. More research is needed to define the full repertoire of antagonistic mechanisms in Neisseria spp., their distribution in strains, their range of activity, and contribution to survival in vivo. Understanding the targets of effectors could reveal how antagonistic relationships between close relatives shape subsequent interactions between pathogens and their hosts.

Food and gut originated bacteriocins involved in gut microbe-host interactions

The gut microbes interact with each other as well as host, influencing human health and some diseases. Many gut commensals and food originated bacteria produce bacteriocins which can inhibit pathogens and modulate gut microbiota. Bacteriocins have comparable narrow antimicrobial spectrum and are attractive potentials for precision therapy of gut disorders. In this review, the bacteriocins from food and gut microbiomes and their involvement in the interaction between producers and gut ecosystem, along with their characteristics, types, biosynthesis, and functions are described and discussed. Bacteriocins are produced by many intestinal commensals and food microbes among which lactic acid bacteria (many are probiotics) has been paid more attention. Bacteriocin production has been generally regarded as a probiotic trait. They give a competitive advantage to bacteria, enabling their colonization in human gut, and mediating the interaction between the producers and host ecosystem. They fight against unwanted bacteria and pathogens without significant impact on the composition of commensal microbiota. Bacteriocins assist the producers to survive and colonize in the gut microbial populations. There is a great need to evaluate and utilize the potential of bacteriocins for improved therapeutic implications for intestinal health.

Microbial metabolites: cause or consequence in gastrointestinal disease?

Systems biology studies have established that changes in gastrointestinal microbiome composition and function can adversely impact host physiology. Notable diseases synonymously associated with dysbiosis include inflammatory bowel diseases, cancer, metabolic disorders, and opportunistic and recurrent pathogen infections. However, there is a scarcity of mechanistic data that advances our understanding of taxonomic correlations with pathophysiological host-microbiome interactions. Generally, to survive a hostile gut environment, microbes are highly metabolically active and produce trans-kingdom signaling molecules to interact with competing microorganisms and the host. These specialized metabolites likely play important homeostatic roles, and identifying disease-specific taxa and their effector pathways can provide better strategies for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention, as well as the discovery of innovative therapeutics. The signaling role of microbial biotransformation products such as bile acids, short-chain fatty acids, polysaccharides, and dietary tryptophan is increasingly recognized, but little is known about the identity and function of metabolites that are synthesized by microbial biosynthetic gene clusters, including ribosomally synthesized and posttranslationally modified peptides (RiPPs), nonribosomal peptides (NRPs), polyketides (PKs), PK-NRP hybrids, and terpenes. Here we consider how bioactive natural products directly encoded by the human microbiome can contribute to the pathophysiology of gastrointestinal disease, cancer, autoimmune, antimicrobial-resistant bacterial and viral infections (including COVID-19). We also present strategies used to discover these compounds and the biological activities they exhibit, with consideration of therapeutic interventions that could emerge from understanding molecular causation in gut microbiome research.

Contrasting Health Effects of Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes Lies in Their Genomes: Analysis of P450s, Ferredoxins, and Secondary Metabolite Clusters

Species belonging to the bacterial phyla Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes represent over 90% of the gastrointestinal microbiota. Changes in the ratio of these two bacterial groups were found to have contrasting health effects, including obesity and inflammatory diseases. Despite the availability of many bacterial genomes, comparative genomic studies on the gene pools of these two bacterial groups concerning cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s), ferredoxins, and secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters (smBGCs) are not reported. This study is aimed to address this research gap. The study revealed the presence of diverse sets of P450s, ferredoxins, and smBGCs in their genomes. Bacteroidetes species have the highest number of P450 families, ferredoxin cluster-types, and smBGCs compared to Firmicutes species. Only four P450 families, three ferredoxin cluster types, and five smBGCs are commonly shared between these two bacterial groups. Considering the above facts, we propose that the contrasting effects of these two bacterial groups on the host are partly due to the distinct nature of secondary metabolites produced by these organisms. Thus, the cause of the contrasting health effects of these two bacterial groups lies in their gene pools.

In Vitro and In Silico Based Approaches to Identify Potential Novel Bacteriocins from the Athlete Gut Microbiome of an Elite Athlete Cohort

Exercise reduces inflammation, fatigue, and aids overall health. Additionally, physical fitness has been associated with desirable changes in the community composition of the athlete gut microbiome, with health-associated taxa being shown to be increased in active individuals. Here, using a combination of in silico and in vitro methods, we investigate the antimicrobial activity of the athlete gut microbiome. In vitro approaches resulted in the generation of 284 gut isolates with inhibitory activity against Clostridioides difficile and/or Fusobacterium nucleatum, and the most potent isolates were further characterized, and potential bacteriocins were predicted using both MALDI-TOF MS and whole-genome sequencing. Additionally, metagenomic reads from the faecal samples were used to recover 770 Metagenome Assembled Genomes (MAGs), of which 148 were assigned to be high-quality MAGs and screened for the presence of putative bacteriocin gene clusters using BAGEL4 software, with 339 gene clusters of interest being identified. Class I was the most abundant bacteriocin class predicted, accounting for 91.3% of predictions, Class III had a predicted abundance of 7.5%, and Class II was represented by just 1% of all predictions.

Nicotinamide Riboside-Conditioned Microbiota Deflects High-Fat Diet-Induced Weight Gain in Mice

With obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2D) at epidemic levels, we need to understand the complex nature of these diseases to design better therapeutics. The underlying causes of both obesity and T2D are complex, but both are thought to develop, in part, based on contributions from the gut microbiota.

Diversity of bacteriocins in the microbiome of the Tucuruí Hydroelectric Power Plant water reservoir and three-dimensional structure prediction of a zoocin

Bacteriocins are antimicrobial peptides expressed by bacteria through ribosomal activity. In this study, we analyzed the diversity of bacteriocin-like genes in the Tucuruí-HPP using a whole-metagenome shotgun sequencing approach. Three layers of the water column were analyzed (photic, aphotic and sediment). Detection of bacteriocin-like genes was performed with blastx using the BAGEL4 database as subject sequences. In order to calculate the abundance of bacteriocin-like genes we also determined the number of 16S rRNA genes using blastn. Taxonomic analysis was performed using RAST server and the metagenome was assembled using IDBA-UD in order to recover the full sequence of a zoocin which had its three-dimensional structure determined. The photic zone presented the highest number of reads affiliated to bacteriocins. The most abundant bacteriocins were sonorensin, Klebicin D , pyocin and colicin. The zoocin model was composed of eight anti-parallel β-sheets and two α-helices with a Zn²⁺ ion in the active site. This model was considerably stable during 10 ns of molecular dynamics simulation. We observed a high diversity of bacteriocins in the Tucuruí-HPP, demonstrating that the environment is an inexhaustible source for prospecting these molecules. Finally, the zoocin model can be used for further studies of substrate binding and molecular mechanisms involving peptidoglycan degradation.

The microbiome-shaping roles of bacteriocins

The microbiomes on human body surfaces affect health in multiple ways. They include not only commensal or mutualistic bacteria but also potentially pathogenic bacteria, which can enter sterile tissues to cause invasive infection. Many commensal bacteria produce small antibacterial molecules termed bacteriocins that have the capacity to eliminate specific colonizing pathogens; as such, bacteriocins have attracted increased attention as potential microbiome-editing tools. Metagenome-based and activity-based screening approaches have strongly expanded our knowledge of the abundance and diversity of bacteriocin biosynthetic gene clusters and the properties of a continuously growing list of bacteriocin classes. The dynamic acquisition, diversification or loss of bacteriocin genes can shape the fitness of a bacterial strain that is in competition with bacteriocin-susceptible bacteria. However, a bacteriocin can only provide a competitive advantage if its fitness benefit exceeds the metabolic cost of production, if it spares crucial mutualistic partner strains and if major competitors cannot develop resistance. In contrast to most currently available antibiotics, many bacteriocins have only narrow activity ranges and could be attractive agents for precision therapy and prevention of infections. A common scientific strategy involving multiple disciplines is needed to uncover the immense potential of microbiome-shaping bacteriocins.

In silico insights into potential gut microbial modulation of NAD+ metabolism and longevity

Recent evidence has prompted the notion of gut-microbial signatures as an indirect marker of aging and aging-associated decline in humans. However, the underlying host-symbiont molecular interactions contributing to these signatures remain poorly understood. In this study, we address this gap using cheminformatic analyses to elucidate potential gut microbial metabolites that may perturb the longevity-associated NAD+ metabolic network. In silico ADMET, KEGG interaction analysis, molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation, and molecular mechanics calculation predict a large number of safe and bioavailable microbial metabolites to be direct and/or indirect activators of NAD+-dependent sirtuin proteins. Our simulation results suggest dihydropteroate, phenylpyruvic acid, indole-3-propionic acid, phenyllactic acid, all-trans-retinoic acid, and multiple deoxy-, methyl-, and cyclic nucleotides from intestinal microbiota as the best-performing regulators of NAD+ metabolism. Retracing these molecules to their source microorganisms also suggest commensal Escherichia, Bacteroides, Bifidobacteria, and Lactobacilli to be associated with the highest number of pro-longevity metabolites. These findings from our early-stage study, therefore, provide an informatics-based context for previous evidence in the area and grant novel insights for future clinical investigation intersecting anti-aging drug discovery, probiotics, and gut microbial signatures.

Some Important Metabolites Produced by Lactic Acid Bacteria Originated from Kimchi

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) have been used for various food fermentations for thousands of years. Recently, LAB are receiving increased attention due to their great potential as probiotics for man and animals, and also as cell factories for producing enzymes, antibodies, vitamins, exopolysaccharides, and various feedstocks. LAB are safe organisms with GRAS (generally recognized as safe) status and possess relatively simple metabolic pathways easily subjected to modifications. However, relatively few studies have been carried out on LAB inhabiting plants compared to dairy LAB. Kimchi is a Korean traditional fermented vegetable, and its fermentation is carried out by LAB inhabiting plant raw materials of kimchi. Kimchi represents a model food with low pH and is fermented at low temperatures and in anaerobic environments. LAB have been adjusting to kimchi environments, and produce various metabolites such as bacteriocins, γ-aminobutyric acid, ornithine, exopolysaccharides, mannitol, etc. as products of metabolic efforts to adjust to the environments. The metabolites also contribute to the known health-promoting effects of kimchi. Due to the recent progress in multi-omics technologies, identification of genes and gene products responsible for the synthesis of functional metabolites becomes easier than before. With the aid of tools of metabolic engineering and synthetic biology, it can be envisioned that LAB strains producing valuable metabolites in large quantities will be constructed and used as starters for foods and probiotics for improving human health. Such LAB strains can also be useful as production hosts for value-added products for food, feed, and pharmaceutical industries. In this review, recent findings on the selected metabolites produced by kimchi LAB are discussed, and the potentials of metabolites will be mentioned.

Establishing recombinant production of pediocin PA-1 in Corynebacterium glutamicum

Bacteriocins are antimicrobial peptides produced by bacteria to inhibit competitors in their natural environments. Some of these peptides have emerged as commercial food preservatives and, due to the rapid increase in antibiotic resistant bacteria, are also discussed as interesting alternatives to antibiotics for therapeutic purposes. Currently, commercial bacteriocins are produced exclusively with natural producer organisms on complex substrates and are sold as semi-purified preparations or crude fermentates. To allow clinical application, efficacy of production and purity of the product need to be improved. This can be achieved by shifting production to recombinant microorganisms.

Here, we identify Corynebacterium glutamicum as a suitable production host for the bacteriocin pediocin PA-1. C. glutamicum CR099 shows resistance to high concentrations of pediocin PA-1 and the bacteriocin was not inactivated when spiked into growing cultures of this bacterium. Recombinant C. glutamicum expressing a synthetic pedACD^Cgl operon releases a compound that has potent antimicrobial activity against Listeria monocytogenes and Listeria innocua and matches size and mass:charge ratio of commercial pediocin PA-1. Fermentations in shake flasks and bioreactors suggest that low levels of dissolved oxygen are favorable for production of pediocin. Under these conditions, however, reduced activity of the TCA cycle resulted in decreased availability of the important pediocin precursor l-asparagine suggesting options for further improvement. Overall, we demonstrate that C. glutamicum is a suitable host for recombinant production of bacteriocins of the pediocin family.

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C. glutamicum CR099 is resistant to high concentrations of pediocin PA-1.

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Recombinant C. glutamicum CR099/pEKEx-pedACDCg produces of a compound with antimicrobial activity against Listeria sp.

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The purified compound matches size and mass:charge ratio of commercial pediocin PA-1.

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Low oxygen levels are favorable for production of active pediocin by C. glutamicum in batch fermentations.

Recipe for Success: Suggestions and Recommendations for the Isolation and Characterisation of Bacteriocins

Bacteriocins are bacterially produced antimicrobial peptides. Although only two peptides have been approved for use as natural preservatives foods, current research is focusing on expanding their application as potential therapeutics against clinical pathogens. Our laboratory group has been working on bacteriocins for over 25 years, and during that time, we have isolated bacteriocin-producing microorganisms from a variety of sources including human skin, human faeces, and various foods. These bacteriocins were purified and characterised, and their potential applications were examined. We have also identified bioengineered derivatives of the prototype lantibiotic nisin which possess more desirable properties than the wild-type, such as enhanced antimicrobial activity. In the current communication, we discuss the main methods that were employed to identify such peptides. Furthermore, we provide a step-by-step guide to carrying out these methods that include accompanying diagrams. We hope that our recommendations and advice will be of use to others in their search for, and subsequent analysis of, novel bacteriocins, and derivatives thereof.

Current Advancements in Sactipeptide Natural Products

Ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) are a growing class of natural products that benefited from genome sequencing technology in the past two decades. RiPPs are widely distributed in nature and show diverse chemical structures and rich biological activities. Despite the various structural characteristic of RiPPs, they follow a common biosynthetic logic: a precursor peptide containing an N-terminal leader peptide and a C-terminal core peptide; in some cases,a follower peptide is after the core peptide. The precursor peptide undergoes a series of modification, transport, and cleavage steps to form a mature natural product with specific activities. Sactipeptides (Sulfur-to-alpha carbon thioether cross-linked peptides) belong to RiPPs that show various biological activities such as antibacterial, spermicidal and hemolytic properties. Their common hallmark is an intramolecular thioether bond that crosslinks the sulfur atom of a cysteine residue to the α-carbon of an acceptor amino acid, which is catalyzed by a rSAM enzyme. This review summarizes recent achievements concerning the discovery, distribution, structural elucidation, biosynthesis and application prospects of sactipeptides.

Bacteriocins: New Potential Therapeutic Candidates in Cancer Therapy

Cancer is one of the most important disorders which is associated with high mortality and high costs of treatment for patients. Despite several efforts, finding, designing and developing, new therapeutic platforms in the treatment of cancer patients are still required. Utilization of microorganisms, particularly bacteria has emerged as new therapeutic approaches in the treatment of various cancers. Increasing data indicated that bacteria could be used in the production of a wide range of anti-cancer agents, including bacteriocins, antibiotics, peptides, enzymes, and toxins. Among these anti-cancer agents, bacteriocins have attractive properties, which make them powerful anti-cancer drugs. Multiple lines evidence indicated that several bacteriocins (i.e., colcins, nisins, pediocins, pyocins, and bovocins) via activation/inhibition different cellular and molecular signaling pathways are able to suppress tumor growth in various stages. Hence, identification and using various bacteriocins could lead to improve and introduce them to clinical practices. Here, we summarized various bacteriocins which could be employed as anti-cancer agents in the treatment of many cancers.

Unravelling the potential of gut microbiota in sustaining brain health and their current prospective towards development of neurotherapeutics

Increasing incidences of neurological disorders, such as Parkinson's disease (PD), multiple sclerosis (MS), Alzheimer's disease (AD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are being reported, but an insight into their pathology remains elusive. Findings have suggested that gut microbiota play a major role in regulating brain functions through the gut-brain axis. A unique bidirectional communication between gut microbiota and maintenance of brain health could play a pivotal role in regulating incidences of neurodegenerative diseases. Contrarily, the present life style with changing food habits and disturbed circadian rhythm may contribute to gut homeostatic imbalance and dysbiosis leading to progression of several neurological disorders. Therefore, dysbiosis, as a primary factor behind intestinal disorders, may also augment inflammation, intestinal and blood-brain barrier permeability through microbiota-gut-brain axis. This review primarily focuses on the gut-brain axis functions, specific gut microbial population, metabolites produced by gut microbiota, their role in regulating various metabolic processes and role of gut microbiota towards development of neurodegenerative diseases. However, several studies have reported a decrease in abundance of a specific gut microbial population and a corresponding increase in other microbial family, with few findings revealing some contradictions. Reports also showed that colonization of gut microbiota isolated from patients suffering from neurodegenerative disease leads to the development of enhance pathological outcomes in animal models. Hence, a systematic understanding of the dominant role of specific gut microbiome towards development of different neurodegenerative diseases could possibly provide novel insight into the use of probiotics and microbial transplantation as a substitute approach for treating/preventing such health maladies.

PCR screening reveals abundance of bovicin-like bacteriocins among ruminal Streptococcus spp. isolated from beef and dairy cattle

AIMS

To investigate the inhibitory activity and the distribution of biosynthetic genes encoding bovicin-like bacteriocins among ruminal Streptococcus isolated from beef and dairy cattle.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Most isolates were classified as Streptococcus equinus and Streptococcus lutetiensis based on 16S rRNA sequencing. The antimicrobial activity of 150 ruminal streptococci isolated from beef and dairy cattle were tested by deferred inhibition assays and their genetic diversity was characterized by BOX-PCR. The frequency of biosynthetic genes associated with the biosynthesis of bovicin-like bacteriocins (bovicin HC5 and bovicin 255) was investigated by PCR screening. Approximately 33% of the ruminal streptococci isolated from Nellore heifers showed inhibitory activity in vitro with the majority harbouring genes for bacteriocin biosynthesis. In contrast, streptococci from Holstein cows showed limited inhibitory activity and a lower frequency of bacteriocin biosynthetic genes.

CONCLUSIONS

Streptococcus from the rumen of beef and dairy cattle exhibit remarkable differences in inhibitory activity and distribution of genes associated with the biosynthesis of prototypical bovicins (bovicin HC5 and bovicin 255).

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Our findings demonstrate that bovicin HC5 is distributed among ruminal streptococci from different breeds of cattle. The high degree of conservation of the bovicin HC5 structural gene among strains of ruminal streptococci suggests that random genetic drift is not a dominant force in the evolution of this bacteriocin.

Cell wall homeostasis in lactic acid bacteria: threats and defences

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) encompasses industrially relevant bacteria involved in food fermentations as well as health-promoting members of our autochthonous microbiota. In the last years, we have witnessed major progresses in the knowledge of the biology of their cell wall, the outermost macrostructure of a Gram-positive cell, which is crucial for survival. Sophisticated biochemical analyses combined with mutation strategies have been applied to unravel biosynthetic routes that sustain the inter- and intra-species cell wall diversity within LAB. Interplay with global cell metabolism has been deciphered that improved our fundamental understanding of the plasticity of the cell wall during growth. The cell wall is also decisive for the antimicrobial activity of many bacteriocins, for bacteriophage infection and for the interactions with the external environment. Therefore, genetic circuits involved in monitoring cell wall damage have been described in LAB, together with a plethora of defence mechanisms that help them to cope with external threats and adapt to harsh conditions. Since the cell wall plays a pivotal role in several technological and health-promoting traits of LAB, we anticipate that this knowledge will pave the way for the future development and extended applications of LAB.

Assessment of Safety and Probiotic Traits of Enterococcus durans OSY-EGY, Isolated From Egyptian Artisanal Cheese, Using Comparative Genomics and Phenotypic Analyses

An Enterococcus durans strain, designated OSY-EGY, was previously isolated from artisanal cheese. In this work, comparative genomic and phenotypic analyses were utilized to assess the safety characteristics and probiotic traits of the bacterium. The comparative genomic analysis revealed that the strain is distantly related to potentially pathogenic Enterococcus spp. The genome was devoid of genes encoding acquired antibiotic resistance or marker virulence factors associated with Enterococcus spp. Phenotypically, the bacterium is susceptible to vancomycin, ampicillin, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, and aminoglycosides and does not have any hemolytic or gelatinase activity, or cytotoxic effect on Caco-2 cells. Altogether, these findings confirm the lack of hazardous traits in E. durans OSY-EGY. Mining E. durans OSY-EGY genome, for probiotic-related sequences, revealed genes associated with acid and bile salts tolerance, adhesion, competitiveness, antioxidant activitiy, antimicrobial activity, essential amino acids production, and vitamins biosynthesis. Phenotypically, E. durans OSY-EGY was tolerant to acidic pH (3.0), and presence of 0.3% bile salts. The bacterium showed adhesion capability to Caco-2 cells, cholesterol-lowering effect, DPPH scavenging activity, and antimicrobial activity against several Gram-positive pathogenic bacteria. Based on the current work, we propose that E. durans OSY-EGY is a potentially safe strain with desirable probiotic and antimicrobial traits. Thus, the investigated strain could be a promising candidate for several industrial applications.

Mining, heterologous expression, purification, antibactericidal mechanism, and application of bacteriocins: A review

Bacteriocins are generally considered as low-molecular-weight ribosomal peptides or proteins synthesized by G⁺ and G^- bacteria that inhibit or kill other related or unrelated microorganisms. However, low yield is an important factor restricting the application of bacteriocins. This paper reviews mining methods, heterologous expression in different systems, the purification technologies applied to bacteriocins, and identification methods, as well as the antibacterial mechanism and applications in three different food systems. Bioinformatics improves the efficiency of bacteriocins mining. Bacteriocins can be heterologously expressed in different expression systems (e.g., Escherichia coli, Lactobacillus, and yeast). Ammonium sulfate precipitation, dialysis membrane, pH-mediated cell adsorption/desorption, solvent extraction, macroporous resin column, and chromatography are always used as purification methods for bacteriocins. The bacteriocins are identified through electrophoresis and mass spectrum. Cell envelope (e.g., cell permeabilization and pore formation) and inhibition of gene expression are common antibacterial mechanisms of bacteriocins. Bacteriocins can be added to protect meat products (e.g., beef and sausages), dairy products (e.g., cheese, milk, and yogurt), and vegetables and fruits (e.g., salad, apple juice, and soybean sprouts). The future research directions are also prospected.

Genome-Guided Mass Spectrometry Expedited the Discovery of Paraplantaricin TC318, a Lantibiotic Produced by Lactobacillus paraplantarum Strain Isolated From Cheese

The quest for potent alternatives to the currently used antimicrobials is urged by health professionals, considering the rapid rise in resistance to preservatives and antibiotics among pathogens. The current study was initiated to search for novel and effective bacteriocins from food microbes, preferably lactic acid bacteria (LAB), for potential use as preservatives. Advances in genome-guided mass spectrometry (MS) were implemented to expedite identifying and elucidating the structure of the recovered antimicrobial agent. A LAB strain, OSY-TC318, was isolated from a Turkish cheese, and the crude extract of the cultured strain inhibited the growth of various pathogenic and spoilage bacteria such as Bacillus cereus, Clostridium sporogenes, Enterococcus faecalis, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica ser. Typhimurium, and Staphylococcus aureus. The antimicrobial producer was identified as Lactobacillus paraplantarum using MS biotyping and genomic analysis. Additionally, L. paraplantarum OSY-TC318 was distinguished from closely related strains using comparative genomic analysis. Based on in silico analysis, the genome of the new strain contained a complete lantibiotic biosynthetic gene cluster, encoding a novel lantibiotic that was designated as paraplantaricin TC318. The bioinformatic analysis of the gene cluster led to the prediction of the biosynthetic pathway, amino acid sequence, and theoretical molecular mass of paraplantaricin TC318. To verify the genomic analysis predictions, paraplantaricin TC318 was purified from the producer cellular crude extract using liquid chromatography, followed by structural elucidation using Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance MS analysis. This genome-guided MS analysis revealed that the molecular mass of paraplantaricin TC318 is 2,263.900 Da, its chemical formula is C₁₀₆H₁₃₃N₂₇O₂₂S₄, and its primary sequence is F-K-S-W-S-L-C-T-F-G-C-G-H-T-G-S-F-N-S-F-C-C. This lantibiotic, which differs from mutacin 1140 at positions 9, 12, 13, and 20, is considered a new member of the epidermin group in class I lantibiotics. In conclusion, the study revealed a new L. paraplantarum strain producing a novel lantibiotic that is potentially useful in food and medical applications.

Distribution and diversity of glycocin biosynthesis gene clusters beyond Firmicutes

Glycocins are the ribosomally synthesized glycosylated bacteriocins discovered and characterized in Firmicutes, only. These peptides have antimicrobial activity against several pathogenic bacteria, including Streptococcus pyogenes , methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and food-spoilage bacteria Listeria monocytogenes. Glycocins exhibit immunostimulatory properties and make a promising source of new antibiotics and food preservatives akin to Nisin. Biochemical studies of Sublancin, Glycocin F, Pallidocin and ASM1 prove that the nested disulfide-bonds are essential for their bioactivities. Using in silico approach of genome mining coupled with manual curation, here we identify 220 new putative glycocin biosynthesis gene clusters (PGBCs) spread across 153 bacterial species belonging to seven different bacterial phyla. Based on gene composition, we have grouped these PGBCs into five distinct conserved cluster Types I-V. All experimentally identified glycocins belong to Type I PGBCs. From protein sequence based phylograms, tanglegrams, global similarity heat-maps and cumulative mutual information analysis, it appears that glycocins may have originated from closely related bacteriocins, whereas recruitment of cognate glycosyltransferases (GTs) might be an independent event. Analysis further suggests that GTs may have coevolved with glycocins in cluster-specific manner to define distinctive donor specificities of GTs or to contribute to glycocin diversity across these clusters. We further identify 162 hitherto unreported PGBCs wherein the corresponding product glycocins have three or less than three cysteines. Secondary structure predictions suggest that these putative glycocins may not form di-nested disulfide-bonds. Therefore, production of such glycocins in heterologous host Escherichia coli is feasible and may provide novel antimicrobial spectrum and or mechanism of action for varied applications.

Influence of moderate beer consumption on human gut microbiota and its impact on fasting glucose and β-cell function

Beer is a beverage that has been consumed worldwide for thousands of years due to social, religious, and cultural reasons; it contains polyphenolic compounds as well as phenolic acids with a potential positive effect on human health. This study aimed to explore the impact of moderate beer consumption on human health and gut microbiota diversity. Three hundred fifty-five mL of non-alcoholic beer (NAB) or alcoholic beer (AB) were consumed daily by the participants for 30 days in each study. Anthropometric measures, blood samples for biochemistry, and fecal samples for microbiota analysis were collected on Day 1 and Day 30. Microbial diversity was characterized by high-throughput sequencing of 16S rDNA libraries, and data were analyzed using the QIIME pipeline. We found that NAB and AB have effects on the composition of the gut microbiota, favoring the proliferation of Bacteroidetes with respect to Firmicutes. No increase in weight, waist, and hip parameters was observed, and the liver and lipid profile values were not modified for NAB. In addition, the consumption of NAB induced a decrease in fasting blood serum glucose and an increase in functional β cells, while, on the other hand, there was an increase in blood serum glucose and a decrease in functional β cells with the consumption of AB. In general, beer consumption neither changed anthropometric values, nor affected liver function. Although the glucose values decreased with NAB or increased with AB, they remained within the normal range. Our conclusion is that moderate consumption of NAB has a positive effect on human health via supplementation of biological active polyphenol and phenolic acids, and by enrichment of the gut microbiota diversity with beneficial bacteria, while the presence of alcohol in AB interferes with this effect. More work should be done on this topic before general conclusions are drawn.

Lactobacillus acidophilus Membrane Vesicles as a Vehicle of Bacteriocin Delivery

Recent reports have shown that Gram-positive bacteria actively secrete spherical nanometer-sized proteoliposome membrane vesicles (MVs) into their surroundings. Though MVs are implicated in a broad range of biological functions, few studies have been conducted to examine their potential as delivery vehicles of antimicrobials. Here, we investigate the natural ability of Lactobacillus acidophilus MVs to carry and deliver bacteriocin peptides to the opportunistic pathogen, Lactobacillus delbrueckii. We demonstrate that upon treatment with lactacin B-inducing peptide, the proteome of the secreted MVs is enriched in putative bacteriocins encoded by the lab operon. Further, we show that purified MVs inhibit growth and compromise membrane integrity in L. delbrueckii, which is confirmed by confocal microscopy imaging and spectrophotometry. These results show that L. acidophilus MVs serve as conduits for antimicrobials to competing cells in the environment, suggesting a potential role for MVs in complex communities such as the gut microbiome. With the potential for controlling their payload through microbial engineering, MVs produced by L. acidophilus may be an interesting platform for effecting change in complex microbial communities or aiding in the development of new biomedical therapeutics.

Resources and tools for the high-throughput, multi-omic study of intestinal microbiota

The human gut microbiome impacts several aspects of human health and disease, including digestion, drug metabolism and the propensity to develop various inflammatory, autoimmune and metabolic diseases. Many of the molecular processes that play a role in the activity and dynamics of the microbiota go beyond species and genic composition and thus, their understanding requires advanced bioinformatics support. This article aims to provide an up-to-date view of the resources and software tools that are being developed and used in human gut microbiome research, in particular data integration and systems-level analysis efforts. These efforts demonstrate the power of standardized and reproducible computational workflows for integrating and analysing varied omics data and gaining deeper insights into microbe community structure and function as well as host-microbe interactions.

Metabolomics technology and bioinformatics for precision medicine

Precision medicine is rapidly emerging as a strategy to tailor medical treatment to a small group or even individual patients based on their genetics, environment and lifestyle. Precision medicine relies heavily on developments in systems biology and omics disciplines, including metabolomics. Combination of metabolomics with sophisticated bioinformatics analysis and mathematical modeling has an extreme power to provide a metabolic snapshot of the patient over the course of disease and treatment or classifying patients into subpopulations and subgroups requiring individual medical treatment. Although a powerful approach, metabolomics have certain limitations in technology and bioinformatics. We will review various aspects of metabolomics technology and bioinformatics, from data generation, bioinformatics analysis, data fusion and mathematical modeling to data management, in the context of precision medicine.

Phylogenetic distribution of the bacteriocin repertoire of lactic acid bacteria species associated with artisanal cheese

The microbiota contributes to artisanal cheese bioprotection and biopreservation through inter and intraspecific competition. This work aimed to investigate the phylogenetic distribution of the repertoire of bacteriocin structural genes of model lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in order to investigate its respective role in the artisanal cheeses microenvironment. A phylogenetic analysis of the rRNA 16S gene from 445 model strains of LAB was conducted using bayesian inference and the repertoire of bacteriocin genes was predicted from these strains by BAGEL software. Bacterial strains were clustered in five monophyletic clades (A, B, C, D and E) with high posterior probability values (PP > 0.99). One bacteriocin structural gene was predicted for 88.5% of the analyzed strains. The majority of the species encoded different classes of bacteriocins. Greater diversity of bacteriocin genes was found for strains included in clade A, comprising Lactococcus lactis, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus thermophilus, Streptococcus macedonicus, Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium. In addition, Lactococcus lactis presented higher diversity of bacteriocin classes, encoding glycocins, lanthipeptides, sactipeptides, cyclic and linear azole-containing peptides, included in bacteriocins class I, besides class II and III. The results suggest that the distribution of bacteriocin structural genes is related to the phylogenetic clades of LAB species, with a higher frequency in some specific clades. Information comprised in this study contributes to comprehend the bacterial competition mechanisms in the artisanal cheese microenvironment.

Identification and characterisation of capidermicin, a novel bacteriocin produced by Staphylococcus capitis

One hundred human-derived coagulase negative staphylococci (CoNS) were screened for antimicrobial activity using agar-based deferred antagonism assays with a range of indicator bacteria. Based on the findings of the screen and subsequent well assays with cell free supernatants and whole cell extracts, one strain, designated CIT060, was selected for further investigation. It was identified as Staphylococcus capitis and herein we describe the purification and characterisation of the novel bacteriocin that the strain produces. This bacteriocin which we have named capidermicin was extracted from the cell-free supernatant of S. capitis CIT060 and purified to homogeneity using reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometric (MS) analysis revealed that the capidermicin peptide has a mass of 5,464 Da. Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) experiments showed that capidermicin was active in the micro-molar range against all the Gram-positive bacteria that were tested. Antimicrobial activity was retained over a range of pHs (2–11) and temperatures (10–121°C x 15 mins). The draft genome sequence of S. capitis CIT060 was determined and the genes predicted to be involved in the biosynthesis of capidermicin were identified. These genes included the predicted capidermicin precursor gene, and genes that are predicted to encode a membrane transporter, an immunity protein and a transcriptional regulator. Homology searches suggest that capidermicin is a novel member of the family of class II leaderless bacteriocins.

Impaired glucose metabolism and altered gut microbiome despite calorie restriction of ob/ob mice

BACKGROUND

Growing evidence supports the role of gut microbiota in obesity and its related disorders including type 2 diabetes. Ob/ob mice, which are hyperphagic due to leptin deficiency, are commonly used models of obesity and were instrumental in suggesting links between gut microbiota and obesity. Specific changes in their gut microbiota such as decreased microbial diversity and increased Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio have been suggested to contribute to obesity via increased microbiota capacity to harvest energy. However, the differential development of ob/ob mouse gut microbiota compared to wild type microbiota and the role of hyperphagia in their metabolic impairment have not been investigated thoroughly.

RESULTS

We performed a 10-week long study in ob/ob (n = 12) and wild type control (n = 12) mice fed ad libitum. To differentiate effects of leptin deficiency from hyperphagia, we pair-fed an additional group of ob/ob mice (n = 11) based on the food consumption of control mice. Compared to control mice, ob/ob mice fed ad libitum exhibited compromised glucose metabolism and increased body fat percentage. Pair-fed ob/ob mice exhibited even more compromised glucose metabolism and maintained strikingly similar high body fat percentage at the cost of lean body mass. Acclimatization of the microbiota to our facility took up to 5 weeks. Leptin deficiency impacted gut microbial composition, explaining 18.3% of the variance. Pair-feeding also altered several taxa, although the overall community composition at the end of the study was not significantly different. We found 24 microbial taxa associations with leptin deficiency, notably enrichment of members of Lactobacillus and depletion of Akkermansia muciniphila. Microbial metabolic functions related to energy harvest, including glycan degradation, phosphotransferase systems and ABC transporters, were enriched in the ob/ob mice. Taxa previously reported as relevant for obesity were associated with body weight, including Oscillibacter and Alistipes (both negatively correlated) and Prevotella (positively correlated).

CONCLUSIONS

Leptin deficiency caused major changes in the mouse gut microbiota composition. Several microbial taxa were associated with body composition. Pair-fed mice maintained a pre-set high proportion of body fat despite reduced calorie intake, and exhibited more compromised glucose metabolism, with major implications for treatment options for genetically obese individuals.

Unveiled feather microcosm: feather microbiota of passerine birds is closely associated with host species identity and bacteriocin-producing bacteria

The functional relevance of microbiota is a key aspect for understanding host-microbiota interactions. Mammalian skin harbours a complex consortium of beneficial microorganisms known to provide health and immune-boosting advantages. As yet, however, little is known about functional microbial communities on avian feathers, including their co-evolution with the host and factors determining feather microbiota (FM) diversity. Using 16S rRNA profiling, we investigated how host species identity, phylogeny and geographic origin determine FM in free-living passerine birds. Moreover, we estimated the relative abundance of bacteriocin-producing bacteria (BPB) and keratinolytic feather damaging bacteria (FDB) and evaluated the ability of BPB to affect FM diversity and relative abundance of FDB. Host species identity was associated with feather bacterial communities more strongly than host geographic origin. FM functional properties differed in terms of estimated BPB and FDB relative abundance, with both showing interspecific variation. FM diversity was negatively associated with BPB relative abundance across species, whereas BPB and FDB relative abundance was positively correlated. This study provides the first thorough evaluation of antimicrobial peptides-producing bacterial communities inhabiting the feather integument, including their likely potential to mediate niche-competition and to be associated with functional species-specific feather microbiota in avian hosts.

Gut Microbiota and Colonization Resistance against Bacterial Enteric Infection

The gut microbiome is critical in providing resistance against colonization by exogenous microorganisms. The mechanisms via which the gut microbiota provide colonization resistance (CR) have not been fully elucidated, but they include secretion of antimicrobial products, nutrient competition, support of gut barrier integrity, and bacteriophage deployment. However, bacterial enteric infections are an important cause of disease globally, indicating that microbiota-mediated CR can be disturbed and become ineffective. Changes in microbiota composition, and potential subsequent disruption of CR, can be caused by various drugs, such as antibiotics, proton pump inhibitors, antidiabetics, and antipsychotics, thereby providing opportunities for exogenous pathogens to colonize the gut and ultimately cause infection. In addition, the most prevalent bacterial enteropathogens, including Clostridioides difficile, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli, Shigella flexneri, Campylobacter jejuni, Vibrio cholerae, Yersinia enterocolitica, and Listeria monocytogenes, can employ a wide array of mechanisms to overcome colonization resistance. This review aims to summarize current knowledge on how the gut microbiota can mediate colonization resistance against bacterial enteric infection and on how bacterial enteropathogens can overcome this resistance.

Production of Bioactive Peptides from Lactic Acid Bacteria: A Sustainable Approach for Healthier Foods

Traditional fermented foods where lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are present have been associated with beneficial effects on human health, and some of those benefits are related to protein-derived products. Peptides produced by LAB have attracted the interest of food industries because of their diverse applications. These peptides include ribosomally produced (bacteriocins) and protein hydrolysates by-products (bioactive peptides), which can participate as natural preservatives and nutraceuticals, respectively. It is essential to understand the biochemical pathways and the effect of growth conditions for the production of bioactive peptides and bacteriocins by LAB, in order to suggest strategies for optimization. LAB is an important food-grade expression system that can be used in the simultaneous production of peptide-based products for the food, animal, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries. This review describes the multifunctional proteinaceous compounds generated by LAB metabolism and discusses a strategy to use a single-step production process, using an alternative protein-based media. This strategy will provide economic advantages in fermentation processes and will also provide an environmental alternative to industrial waste valorization. New technologies that can be used to improve production and bioactivity of LAB-derived peptides are also analyzed.