Bitter melon derived extracellular vesicles enhance the therapeutic effects and reduce the drug resistance of 5-fluorouracil on oral squamous cell carcinoma

The metabolic response of HepG2 cells to extracellular vesicles derived from Raphanus sativus L. var. caudatus Alef microgreens probed by chemometrics-assisted LC-MS/MS analysis

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from Thai rat-tailed radish (Raphanus sativus L. var. caudatus Alef) microgreens were previously reported as novel bioactive bioparticles against cancer. This study aimed to investigate the metabolic disruption associated with the antiproliferative effect against HepG2 liver cancer cells, a representative of metabolizing cells and tissue. In this study, the neutral red uptake assay was performed to screen for the antiproliferative effect and determine the cytotoxic concentrations of EVs against HepG2 cells. An untargeted approach to cellular metabolomics was conducted using liquid chromatography coupled with the high-resolution mass spectrometry system with multivariate and univariate analyses to determine the metabolic changes of HepG2 liver cancer cells after EV treatment. EVs showed an antiproliferative effect in HepG2 cells with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 685.5 ± 26.4 and 139.7 ± 4.2 μg/ml at 24 and 48 h, respectively. In the metabolomics study, 163 metabolites were annotated, with 61 significantly altered metabolites. Among these significant metabolites, 18 were related to glycerophospholipid metabolism. Phosphatidylcholine-the important lipid building blocks for cell membranes, lipid mediators for cell proliferation, and immunosuppressive signaling-was mainly decreased by EV treatment. The alteration of cellular phospholipids in cancer was discussed. This finding suggested the possible mechanism of anticancer action of EVs by disrupting phospholipid metabolism and survival signaling in cancer cells. Further studies should be made to confirm EVs' potential as single and combination therapy in vivo to reduce cancer resistance. This may close the gap between in vitro study and clinical setting.

Potential of Exosomes as Multifunctional Nanocarriers for Targeted Drug Delivery

Exosomes are small vesicles that form when multivesicular bodies fuse with the plasma membrane and are released into body fluids. They play a vital role in facilitating communication between cells by transferring different biomolecules, including DNA, RNA, proteins, and lipids, over both short and long distances. They also function as vital mediators in both states of health and disease, exerting an impact on several physiological processes. Exosomes have been modified to overcome the limitations of natural exosomes to enhance their potential as carriers for drug delivery systems, and these modifications aim to improve the drug delivery efficiency, enhance tissue and organ targeting, and prolong the circulating half-life of exosomes. This review discussed recent advancements in exosome nanotechnology, as well as the progression and use of exosomes for drug delivery. The potential commercialisation and challenges associated with the use of exosome-based drug delivery systems were also discussed, aiming to motivate the development of exosome-based theranostic nanoplatforms and nanotechnology for improved healthcare treatments.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles: a synergetic combination of a drug delivery system and a source of natural bioactive compounds

Exosomes are extracellular nanovesicles secreted by all cell types and have been studied to understand and treat many human diseases. Exosomes are involved in numerous physiological and pathological processes, intercellular communication, and the transfer of substances. Over the years, several studies have explored mammalian-derived exosomes for therapeutic and diagnostic uses. Only recently have plant-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) attracted attention for their ability to overcome many defects associated with using mammalian-derived extracellular vesicles, such as safety and scale-up issues. The ease of large-scale production, low toxicity, low immunogenicity, efficient cellular uptake, high biocompatibility, and high stability of these nanovesicles make them attractive for drug delivery systems. In addition, their native contents of proteins, miRNAs and secondary metabolites could be exploited for pharmaceutical applications in combination with other drugs. The present review intends to provide adequate tools for studying and developing drug delivery systems based on plant-derived EVs. Therefore, indications concerning extraction methods, characterisation, and drug loading will be offered. Their biological composition and content will also be reported. Finally, the current applications of these systems as nanocarriers for pharmacologically active substances will be shown.

Emerging Trends in the Application of Extracellular Vesicles as Novel Oral Delivery Vehicles for Therapeutics in Inflammatory Diseases

Inflammation involves complex immune responses where cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1, and IL-6 promote vasodilation and increased vascular permeability to facilitate immune cell migration to inflammation sites. Persistent inflammation is linked to diseases like cancer, arthritis, and neurodegenerative disorders. Although oral anti-inflammatory drugs are favored for their non-invasiveness and cost-effectiveness, their efficacy is often compromised due to gastrointestinal degradation and limited bioavailability. Recent advancements highlight the potential of extracellular vesicles (EVs) as nanocarriers that enhance drug delivery by encapsulating therapeutic agents, ensuring targeted release and reduced toxicity. These EVs, derived from dietary sources and cell cultures, exhibit excellent biocompatibility and stability, presenting a novel approach in anti-inflammatory therapies. This review discusses the classification and advantages of orally administered EVs (O-EVs), their mechanism of action, and their emerging role in treating inflammatory conditions, positioning them as promising vectors in the development of innovative anti-inflammatory drug delivery systems.

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles - from Laboratory to factory, a landscape of application, challenges and prospects

Recent decades have witnessed substantial interest in extracellular vesicles (EVs) due to their crucial role in intercellular communication across various biological processes. Among these, plant-derived exosome-like Nanoparticles (ELNs) have rapidly gained recognition as highly promising candidates. ELNs, characterized by diverse sources, cost-effective production, and straightforward isolation, present a viable option for preventing and treating numerous diseases. Furthermore, ELNs hold significant potential as carriers for natural or engineered drugs, enhancing their attractiveness and drawing considerable attention in science and medicine. However, translating ELNs into clinical applications poses several challenges. This study explores these challenges and offers critical insights into potential research directions. Additionally, it provides a forward-looking analysis of the industrial prospects for ELNs. With their broad applications and remarkable potential, ELNs stand at the forefront of biomedical innovation, poised to revolutionize disease management and drug delivery paradigms in the coming years.

Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles as a Novel Frontier in Cancer Therapeutics

Recent advancements in nanomedicine and biotechnology have unveiled the remarkable potential of plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) as a novel and promising approach for cancer treatment. These naturally occurring nanoscale particles exhibit exceptional biocompatibility, targeted delivery capabilities, and the capacity to load therapeutic agents, positioning them at the forefront of innovative cancer therapy strategies. PDEVs are distinguished by their unique properties that facilitate tumor targeting and penetration, thereby enhancing the efficacy of drug delivery systems. Their intrinsic biological composition allows for the evasion of the immune response, enabling the efficient transport of loaded therapeutic molecules directly to tumor sites. Moreover, PDEVs possess inherent anti-cancer properties, including the ability to induce cell cycle arrest and promote apoptotic pathways within tumor cells. These vesicles have also demonstrated antimetastatic effects, inhibiting the spread and growth of cancer cells. The multifunctional nature of PDEVs allows for the simultaneous delivery of multiple therapeutic agents, further enhancing their therapeutic potential. Engineering and modification techniques, such as encapsulation, and the loading of therapeutic agents via electroporation, sonication, and incubation, have enabled the customization of PDEVs to improve their targeting efficiency and therapeutic load capacity. This includes surface modifications to increase affinity for specific tumor markers and the encapsulation of various types of therapeutic agents, such as small molecule drugs, nucleic acids, and proteins. Their plant-derived origin offers an abundant and renewable source to produce therapeutic vesicles, reducing costs and facilitating scalability for clinical applications. This review provides an in-depth analysis of the latest research on PDEVs as emerging anti-cancer agents in cancer therapy.

Momordica charantia L.-derived exosome-like nanovesicles stabilize p62 expression to ameliorate doxorubicin cardiotoxicity

BACKGROUND

Doxorubicin (DOX) is a first-line chemotherapeutic drug for various malignancies that causes cardiotoxicity. Plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (P-ELNs) are growing as novel therapeutic agents. Here, we investigated the protective effects in DOX cardiotoxicity of ELNs from Momordica charantia L. (MC-ELNs), a medicinal plant with antioxidant activity.

RESULTS

We isolated MC-ELNs using ultracentrifugation and characterized them with canonical mammalian extracellular vesicles features. In vivo studies proved that MC-ELNs ameliorated DOX cardiotoxicity with enhanced cardiac function and myocardial structure. In vitro assays revealed that MC-ELNs promoted cell survival, diminished reactive oxygen species, and protected mitochondrial integrity in DOX-treated H9c2 cells. We found that DOX treatment decreased the protein level of p62 through ubiquitin-dependent degradation pathway in H9c2 and NRVM cells. However, MC-ELNs suppressed DOX-induced p62 ubiquitination degradation, and the recovered p62 bound with Keap1 promoting Nrf2 nuclear translocation and the expressions of downstream gene HO-1. Furthermore, both the knockdown of Nrf2 and the inhibition of p62-Keap1 interaction abrogated the cardioprotective effect of MC-ELNs.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrated the therapeutic beneficials of MC-ELNs via increasing p62 protein stability, shedding light on preventive approaches for DOX cardiotoxicity.

Herbal Medicine-Derived Exosome-Like Nanovesicles: A Rising Star in Cancer Therapy

Plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (PDNVs) are small nanoscale vesicles containing lipids, RNAs, proteins and some plant natural products secreted by plant cells. Over the last decade, PDNVs have garnered significant interest due to its exceptional therapeutic benefits in the treatment of various diseases. Herbal medicine, as a medicinal plant, plays an important role in the treatment of diseases including cancer. Especially in recent years, the function of herbal medicine derived exosome-like nanovesicles (HMDNVs) in the treatment of cancer has been widely concerned, and has become a research hotspot of nanomedicine. In this review, the biological characteristics, functions and the therapeutic advantages of PDNVs are reviewed, as well as the recent achievements and research progress of HMDNVs in cancer treatment, demonstrating its enormous promise as a cancer therapy, and new insights are provided for future research and development of anti-tumor drugs.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles as a promising anti-tumor approach: A comprehensive assessment of effectiveness, safety, and mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEs) are expected to be a compelling alternative for cancer treatment due to their low cytotoxicity, low immunogenicity, high yield, and potential anti-tumor efficacy. Despite the significant advantages of PDEs, the reliable evidence for PDEs as promising anti-tumor approach remains unsystematic and insufficient. Some challenges remain for the clinical application and large-scale industrial production of PDEs.

PURPOSE

Through systematic evaluation and meta-analysis, the objective was to provide scientific, systematic and reliable preclinical evidence to support the clinical use of PDEs in cancer therapy.

METHODS

The search for relevant literature, conducted up to March 2024, encompassed various databases including Web of Science, the Cochrane Library, Embase, PubMed, CNKI, Wanfang Data, and the China Science and Technology Journal Database. The SYRCLE´s risk of bias tool was used to assess the methodological quality of the animal studies. For overall effect analysis and subgroup analysis, RevMan 5.4 and Stata 12.0 were utilized.

RESULTS

The analysis incorporated a total of 38 articles, comprising 29 in vivo studies and 9 in vitro studies. Meta-analysis indicated that PDEs significantly reduced cancer cell activity and induced apoptosis, reduced tumor volume and tumor weight when used as therapeutic agents, as well as exhibited synergistic anti-cancer via combination therapy. Additionally, PDEs-drugs exerted stronger inhibition of tumor volume compared to the free drug or commercial liposome-drugs. Their therapeutic effects were closely related to regulating tumor cell biological behavior and remodeling the tumor microenvironment. The safety was associated with administration route of PDEs, oral administration was currently preferred until more in-depth studies on the safety of other methods are conducted.

CONCLUSIONS

The meta-analysis revealed that PDEs have systematic and reliable preclinical evidence in preclinical studies of cancer therapy, and their efficacy and certain safety could support the clinical application of PDEs in cancer therapy. Of course, further researches are required for large-scale industrial production to meet the needs of clinical applications.

Comparison of nanovesicles derived from Panax notoginseng at different size: physical properties, composition, and bioactivity

Aim

Plant-derived nanovesicles have emerged as potential agents for combating tumors. In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effects of Panax notoginseng-derived nanovesicles (PnNVs) on the proliferation and migration of squamous cell carcinoma. Additionally, we explored the relationship between plant tuber size and the physical properties, composition and bioactivity of these nanovesicles.

Methods

We isolated PnNVs from Panax notoginseng tubers of varying sizes: small-sized (s_PnNVs), medium-sized (m_PnNVs) and large-sized (l_PnNVs), and evaluated for size, potential, and morphology. Cellular uptake efficiency was assessed using confocal microscopy and flow cytometry. The ability of different PnNVs to inhibit oral squamous cell carcinoma cells was evaluated using plate cloning, CCK8 assay, and scratch healing assay. Off-target metabolomics was used to compare metabolic compounds of different PnNVs.

Results

Our findings revealed that s_PnNVs exhibited lower potential but had the highest cellular uptake efficiency, whereas m_PnNVs were characterized by the smallest size and lowest cellular uptake efficiency. Notably, m_PnNVs demonstrated the most effective inhibition of squamous cell carcinoma growth and migration. Compositional analyses showed that PnNVs were rich in proteins and contained lower levels of RNA, with l_PnNVs having the highest protein content. Furthermore, untargeted metabolomics analysis revealed a significant increase in the expression of specific antitumour-related metabolites in m_PnNVs compared to s_PnNVs and l_PnNVs.

Conclusion

Overall, our results underscore the influence of plant tuber size on the bioactivity of the nanovesicles from which they are derived, emphasizing its importance for experimental design and study reproducibility.

Recognition on pharmacodynamic ingredients of natural products

Natural products (NPs) play an irreplaceable role in the intervention of various diseases and have been considered a critical source of drug development. Many new pharmacodynamic compounds with potential clinical applications have recently been derived from NPs. These compounds range from small molecules to polysaccharides, polypeptides, proteins, self-assembled nanoparticles, and extracellular vesicles. This review summarizes various active substances found in NPs. The investigation of active substances in NPs can potentiate new drug development and promote the in-depth comprehension of the mechanism of action of NPs that can be beneficial in the prevention and treatment of human diseases.

Macromolecules with predominant β-pleated sheet proteins in extracellular vesicles released from Raphanus sativus L. var. caudatus Alef microgreens induce DNA damage-mediated apoptosis in HCT116 colon cancer cells

Plant-derived bioactive macromolecules (i.e., proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) were prepared as extracellular vesicles (EVs). Plant-derived EVs are gaining pharmaceutical research interest because of their bioactive components and delivery properties. The spherical nanosized EVs derived from Raphanus sativus L. var. caudatus Alef microgreens previously showed antiproliferative activity in HCT116 colon cancer cells from macromolecular compositions (predominantly proteins). To understand the mechanism of action, the biological activity studies, i.e., antiproliferation, cellular biochemical changes, DNA conformational changes, DNA damage, apoptotic nuclear morphological changes, apoptosis induction, and apoptotic pathways, were determined by neutral red uptake assay, synchrotron radiation-based Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy, circular dichroism spectroscopy, comet assay, 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining, flow cytometry, and caspase activity assay, respectively. EVs inhibited HCT116 cell growth in concentration- and time-dependent manners, with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration of 675.4 ± 33.8 μg/ml at 48 h and a selectivity index of 1.5 ± 0.076. HCT116 treated with EVs mainly changed the cellular biochemical compositions in the nucleic acids and carbohydrates region. The DNA damage caused no changes in DNA conformation. The apoptotic nuclear morphological changes were associated with the increased apoptotic cell population. The apoptotic cell death was induced by both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways. EVs have potential as antiproliferative bioparticles.

Omics-based approaches for discovering active ingredients and regulating gut microbiota of Actinidia arguta exosome-like nanoparticles

Exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs) are novel naturally occurring plant ultrastructures and contain unique bioactive components. However, the potential applications and biological functions of plant ELNs, especially in the context of health promotion and disease prevention, remain largely unexplored. This study aimed to explore the biological activities and functional mechanisms of Actinidia arguta-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (AAELNs). We reported the development of AAELNs, which possess particle sizes of 157.8 nm and a negative surface charge of -23.07 mV, uptaking by RAW264.7 cells, and reduction of oxidative stress by decreasing the activity of GSH-Px and T-SOD and increasing the content of MDA. Through the use of high-throughput sequencing technology, 12 known miRNA families and 23 additional miRNAs were identified in AAELNs, GO and KEGG term enrichment analysis revealed the potential of AAELNs-miRNAs in modulating neural-relevant behaviors. Additionally, LC-MS/MS analysis detected a total of 32 major lipid classes, 430 lipid subclasses, and 1345 proteins in AAELNs. Furthermore, in vivo fluorescence disappearance and in vitro fermentation experiments demonstrated that AAELNs were able to enter the colon and improve the microbial structure. These findings suggest that AAELNs could serve as nanoshuttles in food, potentially offering health-enhancing properties.

Exploring new avenues of health protection: plant-derived nanovesicles reshape microbial communities

Symbiotic microbial communities are crucial for human health, and dysbiosis is associated with various diseases. Plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) have a lipid bilayer structure and contain lipids, metabolites, proteins, and RNA. They offer unique advantages in regulating microbial community homeostasis and treating diseases related to dysbiosis compared to traditional drugs. On the one hand, lipids on PDNVs serve as the primary substances that mediate specific recognition and uptake by bacteria. On the other hand, due to the multifactorial nature of PDNVs, they have the potential to enhance growth and survival of beneficial bacterial while simultaneously reducing the pathogenicity of harmful bacteria. In addition, PDNVs have the capacity to modulate bacterial metabolism, thus facilitating the establishment of a harmonious microbial equilibrium and promoting stability within the microbiota. These remarkable attributes make PDNVs a promising therapeutic approach for various conditions, including periodontitis, inflammatory bowel disease, and skin infection diseases. However, challenges such as consistency, isolation methods, and storage need to be addressed before clinical application. This review aims to explore the value of PDNVs in regulating microbial community homeostasis and provide recommendations for their use as novel therapeutic agents for health protection.

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles for microRNA delivery in cancer treatment

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) are natural nanocarriers and effective delivery systems for plant microRNAs (miRNAs). These PELN-carrying plant miRNAs can regulate mammalian genes across species, thereby increasing the diversity of miRNAs in mammals and exerting multi-target effects that play a crucial role in diseases, particularly cancer. PELNs demonstrate exceptional stability, biocompatibility, and targeting capabilities that protect and facilitate the up-take and cross-kingdom communication of plant miRNAs in mammals. Primarily ingested and absorbed within the gastrointestinal tract of mammals, PELNs preferentially act on the intestine to regulate intestinal homeostasis through functional miRNA activity. The oncogenesis and progression of cancer are closely associated with disruptions in intestinal barriers, ecological imbalances, as well as secondary changes, such as abnormal inflammatory reactions caused by them. Therefore, it is imperative to investigate whether PELNs exert their anticancer effects by regulating mammalian intestinal homeostasis and inflammation. This review aims to elucidate the intrinsic crosstalk relationships and mechanisms of PELNs-mediated miRNAs in maintaining intestinal homeostasis, regulating inflammation and cancer treatment. Furthermore, serving as exceptional drug delivery systems for miRNAs molecules, PELNs offer broad prospects for future applications, including new drug research and development along with drug carrier selection within targeted drug delivery approaches for cancer therapy.

Research status and challenges of plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles

In recent years, there has been an increasing number of related studies on exosomes. Most studies have focused on exosomes derived from mammals, confirming the important role that exosomes play in cell communication. Plants, as a natural ingredient, plant-derived exosomes have been confirmed to have similar structures and functions to mammalian-derived exosomes. Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) are lipid bilayer membrane nanovesicles containing bioactive constituents such as miRNA, mRNA, protein, and lipids obtained from plant cells, that can participate in intercellular communication and mediate transboundary communication, have high bioavailability and low immunogenicity, are relatively safe, and have been shown to play an important role in maintaining cell homeostasis and preventing, and treating a variety of diseases. In this review, we describe the biogenesis, isolation and purification methods, structural composition, stability, safety, function of PELNs and challenges. The functions of PELNs in anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor and drug delivery are mainly described, and the status of research on exosome nanoparticles of Chinese herbal medicines is outlined. Overall, we summarized the importance of PELNs and the latest research results in this field and provided a theoretical basis for the future research and clinical application of PELNs.

Plant-Derived Vesicle-like Nanoparticles: The Next-Generation Drug Delivery Nanoplatforms

A wide variety of natural bioactive compounds derived from plants have demonstrated significant clinical relevance in the treatment of various diseases such as cancer, chronic disease, and inflammation. An increasing number of studies have surfaced that give credence to the potential of plant-derived vesicle-like nanoparticles (PDVLNs) as compelling candidates for a drug delivery system (DDS). PDVLNs are cost-effective production, non-toxicity and non-immunogenicity and fascinating bi-ocompatibility. In this review, we attempt to comprehensively review and consolidate the position of PDVLNs as next-generation drug delivery nanoplatforms. We aim to give a quick glance to readers of the current developments of PDVLNs, including their biogenesis, characteristic features, composition, administration routes, advantages, and application. Further, we discuss the advantages and limitations of PDVLNs. We expect that the role of PDVLNs in drug delivery will be significantly enhanced, thus positioning them as the next generation of therapeutic modalities in the foreseeable future.

The Role of Extracellular Vesicles in the Treatment of Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) has become a public health concern in elderly men due to an ever-increasing number of estimated cases. Unfortunately, the available treatments are unsatisfactory because of a lack of a durable response, especially in advanced disease states. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-bilayer encircled nanoscale vesicles that carry numerous biomolecules (e.g., nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids), mediating the transfer of information. The past decade has witnessed a wide range of EV applications in both diagnostics and therapeutics. First, EV-based non-invasive liquid biopsies provide biomarkers in various clinical scenarios to guide treatment; EVs can facilitate the grading and staging of patients for appropriate treatment selection. Second, EVs play a pivotal role in pathophysiological processes via intercellular communication. Targeting key molecules involved in EV-mediated tumor progression (e.g., proliferation, angiogenesis, metastasis, immune escape, and drug resistance) is a potential approach for curbing PCa. Third, EVs are promising drug carriers. Naïve EVs from various sources and engineered EV-based drug delivery systems have paved the way for the development of new treatment modalities. This review discusses the recent advancements in the application of EV therapies and highlights EV-based functional materials as novel interventions for PCa.

Plant-derived vesicle-like nanoparticles: A new tool for inflammatory bowel disease and colitis-associated cancer treatment

Long-term use of conventional drugs to treat inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) and colitis-associated cancer (CAC) has an adverse impact on the human immune system and easily leads to drug resistance, highlighting the urgent need to develop novel biotherapeutic tools with improved activity and limited side effects. Numerous products derived from plant sources have been shown to exert antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidative stress effects. Plant-derived vesicle-like nanoparticles (PDVLNs) are natural nanocarriers containing lipids, protein, DNA and microRNA (miRNA) with the ability to enter mammalian cells and regulate cellular activity. PDVLNs have significant potential in immunomodulation of macrophages, along with regulation of intestinal microorganisms and friendly antioxidant activity, as well as overcoming drug resistance. PDVLNs have utility as effective drug carriers and potential modification, with improved drug stability. Since immune function, intestinal microorganisms, and antioxidative stress are commonly targeted key phenomena in the treatment of IBD and CAC, PDVLNs offer a novel therapeutic tool. This review provides a summary of the latest advances in research on the sources and extraction methods, applications and mechanisms in IBD and CAC therapy, overcoming drug resistance, safety, stability, and clinical application of PDVLNs. Furthermore, the challenges and prospects of PDVLN-based treatment of IBD and CAC are systematically discussed.

Role of extracellular vesicles in insulin resistance: Signaling pathways, bioactive substances, miRNAs, and therapeutic potential

Extracellular vesicles are small lipid bilayer particles that resemble the structure of cells and range in size from 30 to 1000 nm. They transport a variety of physiologically active molecules, such as proteins, lipids, and miRNAs. Insulin resistance (IR) is a pathological disease in which insulin-responsive organs or components become less sensitive to insulin's physiological effects, resulting in decreased glucose metabolism in target organs such as the liver, muscle, and adipose tissue. Extracellular vesicles have received a lot of attention as essential intercellular communication mediators in the setting of IR. This review looks at extracellular vesicles' role in IR from three angles: signaling pathways, bioactive compounds, and miRNAs. Relevant publications are gathered to investigate the induction, inhibition, and bidirectional regulation of extracellular vesicles in IR, as well as their role in insulin-related illnesses. Furthermore, considering the critical function of extracellular vesicles in regulating IR, the study analyzes the practicality of employing extracellular vesicles for medication delivery and the promise of combination therapy for IR.

Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic application of extracellular vesicles from plants

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) isolated from animal sources are among the most investigated types of cell-free therapeutic tools to cure different diseases. sEVs have been isolated from a variety of sources, ranging from prokaryotes to animals and plants. Human-derived sEVs have many uses in pre- and clinical studies in medicine and drug delivery, while plant-derived EVs, also known as plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs), have not been widely investigated until the second decade of the 21st century. For the past five years, there has been a rapid rise in the use of plant EVs as a therapeutic tool due to the ease of massive production with high efficacy and yield of preparation. Plant EVs contain various active biomolecules such as proteins, regulatory RNAs, and secondary metabolites and play a key role in inter-kingdom communications. Many studies have already investigated the potential application of plant EVs in preventing and treating cancer, inflammation, infectious diseases, and tissue regeneration with no sign of toxicity and are therefore considered safe. However, due to a lack of universal markers, the properties of plant EVs have not been extensively studied. Concerns regarding the safety and therapeutic function of plant EVs derived from genetically modified plants have been raised. In this paper, we review the physiological role of EVs in plants. Moreover, we focus on molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in the therapeutic effects of plant EVs on various human diseases. We also provide detailed information on the methodological aspects of plant EV isolation and analysis, which could pave the way for future clinical translation.

A PANoptosis pattern to predict prognosis and immunotherapy response in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

Individuals diagnosed with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) experience a significant occurrence rate and are susceptible to premature spreading, resulting in a bleak outlook. Therapeutic approaches, such as chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy, may exhibit primary and acquired resistance during the advanced phases of HNSCC. There is currently no viable solution to tackle this issue. PANoptosis-a type of non-apoptotic cell death-is a recently identified mechanism of cellular demise that entails communication and synchronization among thermal apoptosis, apoptosis, and necrosis mechanisms. However, the extent to which PANoptosis-associated genes (PRG) contribute to the forecast and immune reaction of HNSCC remains mostly undisclosed. The present study aimed to thoroughly analyze the potential importance of PRG in HNSCC and report our discoveries. We systematically analyzed 19 PRG from previous studies and clinical data from HNSCC patients to establish a PAN-related signature and assess its prognostic, predictive potential. Afterward, the patient information was separated into two gene patterns that corresponded to each other, and the analysis focused on the connection between patient prognosis, immune status, and cancer immunotherapy. The PAN score was found to correlate with survival rates, immune systems, and cancer-related pathways. We then validated the malignant role of CD27 among them in HNSCC. In summary, we demonstrated the effectiveness of PAN.Score-based molecular clustering and prognostic features in predicting the outcome of HNSCC. The discovery we made could enhance our comprehension of the significance of PAN.Score in HNSCC and facilitate the development of more effective treatment approaches.

Broccoli extracellular vesicles enhance the therapeutic effects and restore the chemosensitivity of 5-fluorouracil on colon cancer

Broccoli contains an amount of biologically active substances, which bring beneficial effects on human health. Plant extracellular vesicles have been shown to be novel key factors in cancer diagnosis and tumor therapy. To date, the challenge of overcoming chemoresistance to 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) to facilitate the clinical management of colorectal cancer (CRC) has not been successful. Nevertheless, the functions of broccoli extracellular vesicles (BEVs) in the progression of CRC and 5-FU resistance are predominantly unclear. Herein, we showed that BEVs isolated from broccoli juice were effectively taken up by colorectal cancer HT-29 cells. The co-administration of BEVs and 5-FU significantly inhibited the proliferation and migration of colorectal cancer HT-29 cells, effectively blocking cell cycle progression. Furthermore, the co-administration of BEVs and 5-FU induced apoptosis by stimulating ROS production and disrupting mitochondrial function. Importantly, we found that BEVs reversed 5-FU resistance in HT-29 cells by suppressing the abnormal activation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. Collectively, our findings represent a novel strategy for utilizing BEVs to improve the efficacy of colorectal cancer treatment and enhance 5-FU chemosensitivity.

Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: A New Revolutionization of Modern Healthy Diets and Biomedical Applications

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) have recently emerged as a promising area of research due to their potential health benefits and biomedical applications. Produced by various plant species, these EVs contain diverse bioactive molecules, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Increasing in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that PDEVs have inherent pharmacological activities that affect cellular processes, exerting anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer activities, which can potentially contribute to disease therapy and improve human health. Additionally, PDEVs have shown potential as efficient and biocompatible drug delivery vehicles in treating various diseases. However, while PDEVs serve as a potential rising star in modern healthy diets and biomedical applications, further research is needed to address their underlying knowledge gaps, especially the lack of standardized protocols for their isolation, identification, and large-scale production. Furthermore, the safety and efficacy of PDEVs in clinical applications must be thoroughly evaluated. In this review, we concisely discuss current knowledge in the PDEV field, including their characteristics, biomedical applications, and isolation methods, to provide an overview of the current state of PDEV research. Finally, we discuss the challenges regarding the current and prospective issues for PDEVs. This review is expected to provide new insights into healthy diets and biomedical applications of vegetables and fruits, inspiring new advances in natural food-based science and technology.

Therapeutic application and potential mechanism of plant-derived extracellular vesicles in inflammatory bowel disease

BACKGROUND

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) are membrane vesicles characterized by a phospholipid bilayer as the basic skeleton that is wrapped by various functional components of proteins and nucleic acids. An increasing number of studies have confirmed that PDEVs can be a potential treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and can, to some extent, compensate for the limitations of existing therapies.

AIM OF REVIEW

This review summarizes the recent advances and potential mechanisms underlying PDEVs obtained from different sources to alleviate IBD. In addition, the review discusses the possible applications and challenges of PDEVs, providing a theoretical basis for exploring novel and practical therapeutic strategies for IBD.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

In IBD, the crosstalk mechanism of PDEVs may regulate the intestinal microenvironment homeostasis, especially immune responses, the intestinal barrier, and the gut microbiota. In addition, drug loading enhances the therapeutic potential of PDEVs, particularly regarding improved tissue targeting and stability. In the future, not only immunotherapy based on PDEVs may be an effective treatment for IBD, but also the intestinal barrier and intestinal microbiota will be a new direction for the treatment of IBD.

Exploring beyond Common Cell Death Pathways in Oral Cancer: A Systematic Review

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is the most common and lethal type of head and neck cancer in the world. Variable response and acquisition of resistance to traditional therapies show that it is essential to develop novel strategies that can provide better outcomes for the patient. Understanding of cellular and molecular mechanisms of cell death control has increased rapidly in recent years. Activation of cell death pathways, such as the emerging forms of non-apoptotic programmed cell death, including ferroptosis, pyroptosis, necroptosis, NETosis, parthanatos, mitoptosis and paraptosis, may represent clinically relevant novel therapeutic opportunities. This systematic review summarizes the recently described forms of cell death in OSCC, highlighting their potential for informing diagnosis, prognosis and treatment. Original studies that explored any of the selected cell deaths in OSCC were included. Electronic search, study selection, data collection and risk of bias assessment tools were realized. The literature search was carried out in four databases, and the extracted data from 79 articles were categorized and grouped by type of cell death. Ferroptosis, pyroptosis, and necroptosis represented the main forms of cell death in the selected studies, with links to cancer immunity and inflammatory responses, progression and prognosis of OSCC. Harnessing the potential of these pathways may be useful in patient-specific prognosis and individualized therapy. We provide perspectives on how these different cell death types can be integrated to develop decision tools for diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of OSCC.

Anti-cancer bioactivity of sweet basil leaf derived extracellular vesicles on pancreatic cancer cells

Most living organisms secrete tiny lipid bilayer particles encapsulating various biomolecular entities, including nucleic acids and proteins. These secreted extracellular vesicles (EVs) are shown to aid in communication between cells and their environment. EVs are mainly involved in the signalling and manipulation of physiological processes. Plant EVs display similar functional activity as seen in mammalian EVs. Medicinal plants have many bioactive constituents with potential applications in cancer treatment. Particularly, Basil (Ocimum basilicum), has wide therapeutic properties including anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and anti-infection, among others. In this study, we focused on using EVs purified from Apoplast Washing Fluid (AWF) of Basil plant leaves as a biological therapeutic agent against cancer. Characterization of Basil EVs revealed a size range of 100-250 nm, which were later assessed for their cell uptake and apoptosis inducing abilities in pancreatic cancer cells. Basil plant EVs (BasEVs) showed a significant cytotoxic effect on pancreatic cancer cell line MIA PaCa-2 at a concentration of 80 and 160 μg/mL in cell viability, as well as clonogenic assays. Similarly, RT-PCR and western blot analysis has shown up regulation in apoptotic gene and protein expression of Bax, respectively, in BasEV treatment groups compared to untreated controls of MIA PaCa-2. Overall, our results suggest that EVs from basil plants have potent anti-cancer effects in pancreatic cancer cells and can serve as a drug delivery system, demanding an investigation into the therapeutic potential of other medicinal plant EVs.

Bioactive compounds and biological functions of medicinal plant-derived extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are tiny lipid bilayer-enclosed membrane particles released from a variety of cell types into the surrounding environment. These EVs have massive participated in cell-to-cell communication and interspecies communication. In recent years, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) and "exosome-like" EVs populations found in distinct plants have attracted widespread attention. Especially, research on medicinal plant-derived extracellular vesicles (MPDEVs) are increasing, which are considered a kind of promising natural compound. This review summarizes current knowledge on MPDEVs in terms of bioactive compounds, including small RNA, protein, lipid, and metabolite, have been found on the surface and/or in the lumen of MPDEVs. Moreover, both in vitro and in vivo experiments have shown that MPDEVs exert broad biomedical functions, such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant, modulate microbiota, etc. MPDEVs may be a better substitute than animal-derived extracellular vesicles (ADEVs) because of safety and biocompatibility in the future.

Prospects of plant-derived exosome-like nanocarriers in oncology and tissue engineering

Almost all cell types, either in vivo or in vitro, create extracellular vesicles (EVs). Among them are exosomes (EXOs), i.e., tiny nanovesicles containing a lipid bilayer, proteins, and RNAs that are actively involved in cellular communication, indicating that they may be exploited as both diagnostics and therapeutics for conditions like cancer. These nanoparticles can also be used as nanocarriers in many types of research to carry agents such as drugs. Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PENs) are currently under investigation as a substitute for EXOs formed from mammalian cells, allowing researchers to get beyond the technical constraints of mammalian vesicles. Because of their physiological, chemical, and biological properties, PENs have a lot of promise for use as nanocarriers in drug delivery systems that can deliver various dosages, especially when it comes to large-scale repeatability. The present study has looked at the origins and isolation techniques of PENs, their anticancer properties, their usage as nanocarriers in the treatment of different illnesses, and their antioxidant properties. These nanoparticles can aid in the achievement of therapeutic objectives, as they have benign, non-immunogenic side effects and can pass biological barriers. Time-consuming and perhaps damaging PEN separation techniques is used. For the current PEN separation techniques to be used in commercial and therapeutic settings, they must be altered. In this regard, the concurrent application of biological sciences can be beneficial for improving PEN separation techniques. PENs' innate metabolic properties provide them a great deal of promise for application in drug delivery systems. However, there could be a risk to both the loaded medications and the intrinsic bioactive components if these particles are heavily armed with drugs. Therefore, to prevent these side effects, more studies are needed to devise sophisticated drug-loading procedures and to learn more about the physiology of PENs.

Plant-derived nanovesicles as an emerging platform for cancer therapy

Plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) derived from natural green products have emerged as an attractive nanoplatform in biomedical application. They are usually characterized by unique structural and biological functions, such as the bioactive lipids/proteins/nucleic acids as therapeutics and targeting groups, immune-modulation, and long-term circulation. With the rapid development of nanotechnology, materials, and synthetic chemistry, PDNVs can be engineered with multiple functions for efficient drug delivery and specific killing of diseased cells, which represent an innovative biomaterial with high biocompatibility for fighting against cancer. In this review, we provide an overview of the state-of-the-art studies concerning the development of PDNVs for cancer therapy. The original sources, methods for obtaining PDNVs, composition and structure are introduced systematically. With an emphasis on the featured application, the inherent anticancer properties of PDNVs as well as the strategies in constructing multifunctional PDNVs-based nanomaterials will be discussed in detail. Finally, some scientific issues and technical challenges of PDNVs as promising options in improving anticancer therapy will be discussed, which are expected to promote the further development of PDNVs in clinical translation.

Proof-of-Concept Study on the Use of Tangerine-Derived Nanovesicles as siRNA Delivery Vehicles toward Colorectal Cancer Cell Line SW480

In the last years, the field of nanomedicine and drug delivery has grown exponentially, providing new platforms to carry therapeutic agents into the target sites. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are ready-to-use, biocompatible, and non-toxic nanoparticles that are revolutionizing the field of drug delivery. EVs are involved in cell-cell communication and mediate many physiological and pathological processes by transferring their bioactive cargo to target cells. Recently, nanovesicles from plants (PDNVs) are raising the interest of the scientific community due to their high yield and biocompatibility. This study aims to evaluate whether PDNVs may be used as drug delivery systems. We isolated and characterized nanovesicles from tangerine juice (TNVs) that were comparable to mammalian EVs in size and morphology. TNVs carry the traditional EV marker HSP70 and, as demonstrated by metabolomic analysis, contain flavonoids, organic acids, and limonoids. TNVs were loaded with DDHD1-siRNA through electroporation, obtaining a loading efficiency of 13%. We found that the DDHD1-siRNA complex TNVs were able to deliver DDHD1-siRNA to human colorectal cancer cells, inhibiting the target expression by about 60%. This study represents a proof of concept for the use of PDNVs as vehicles of RNA interference (RNAi) toward mammalian cells.

Therapeutic potential and pharmacological significance of extracellular vesicles derived from traditional medicinal plants

Medicinal plants are the primary sources for the discovery of novel medicines and the basis of ethnopharmacological research. While existing studies mainly focus on the chemical compounds, there is little research about the functions of other contents in medicinal plants. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are functionally active, nanoscale, membrane-bound vesicles secreted by almost all eukaryotic cells. Intriguingly, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) also have been implicated to play an important role in therapeutic application. PDEVs were reported to have physical and chemical properties similar to mammalian EVs, which are rich in lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and pharmacologically active compounds. Besides these properties, PDEVs also exhibit unique advantages, especially intrinsic bioactivity, high stability, and easy absorption. PDEVs were found to be transferred into recipient cells and significantly affect their biological process involved in many diseases, such as inflammation and tumors. PDEVs also could offer unique morphological and compositional characteristics as natural nanocarriers by innately shuttling bioactive lipids, RNA, proteins, and other pharmacologically active substances. In addition, PDEVs could effectively encapsulate hydrophobic and hydrophilic chemicals, remain stable, and cross stringent biological barriers. Thus, this study focuses on the pharmacological action and mechanisms of PDEVs in therapeutic applications. We also systemically deal with facets of PDEVs, ranging from their isolation to composition, biological functions, and biotherapeutic roles. Efforts are also made to elucidate recent advances in re-engineering PDEVs applied as stable, effective, and non-immunogenic therapeutic applications to meet the ever-stringent demands. Considering its unique advantages, these studies not only provide relevant scientific evidence on therapeutic applications but could also replenish and inherit precious cultural heritage.

Kiwi-derived extracellular vesicles for oral delivery of sorafenib

Sorafenib is an oral treatment for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, poor water solubility, harsh gastrointestinal environment and off-target effects contribute to the low bioavailability of oral sorafenib. Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) are biological nanovesicles with various bioactive functions that offer significant advantages in the field of oral drug delivery: protection from degradation by gastrointestinal fluids; crossing the intestinal epithelial barrier; specific targeting; safety; and abundant yield. However, there are fewer studies applying PDEVs for anti-tumor drug delivery to extra-digestive tissues. In this study, kiwifruit-derived extracellular vesicles (KEVs) were isolated and purified from kiwifruit, and their natural hepatic accumulation properties were exploited for targeted delivery of sorafenib (KEVs-SFB). Evidence showed that encapsulation of KEVs reduced the leakage of sorafenib in the gastrointestinal environment and enhanced the ability to cross the intestinal epithelium; KEVs-SFB was able to achieve liver accumulation and was predominantly taken up by HepG2 cells; KEVs-SFB was effective in inhibiting 4T1 cell proliferation; in the orthotopic liver cancer model, oral administration of KEVs-SFB inhibited tumor growth and improved the side effects of SFB. This PDEVs-based oral drug delivery platform is important for improving oral bioavailability and reducing drug side effects.

Plant-Derived Vesicles: A New Era for Anti-Cancer Drug Delivery and Cancer Treatment

Lipid-structured vesicles have been applied for drug delivery system for over 50 years. Based on their origin, lipid-structured vesicles are divided into two main categories, namely synthetic lipid vesicles (SLNVEs) and vesicles of mammalian origin (MDVEs). Although SLNVEs can stably transport anti-cancer drugs, their biocompatibility is poor and degradation of exogenous substances is a potential risk. Unlike SLNVEs, MDVEs have excellent biocompatibility but are limited by a lack of stability and a risk of contamination by dangerous pathogens from donor cells. Since the first discovery of plant-derived vesicles (PDVEs) in carrot cell supernatants in 1967, emerging evidence has shown that PDVEs integrate the advantages of both SLNVEs and MDVEs. Notably, 55 years of dedicated research has indicated that PDVEs are an ideal candidate vesicle for drug preparation, transport, and disease treatment. The current review systematically focuses on the role of PDVEs in cancer therapy and in particular compares the properties of PDVEs with those of conventional lipid vesicles, summarizes the preparation methods and quality control of PDVEs, and discusses the application of PDVEs in delivering anti-cancer drugs and their underlying molecular mechanisms for cancer therapy. Finally, the challenges and future perspectives of PDVEs for the development of novel therapeutic strategies against cancer are discussed.

Plant-Derived Vesicle-Like Nanoparticles: Clinical Application Exploration and Challenges

The utilization of plant-derived vesicle-like nanoparticles (PDVLNs) has shown effectiveness in the prevention/treatment of inflammatory-mediated diseases, malignancies, and immune-related diseases, such as acute liver injury, allergic asthma, gastric cancer and so on. This highlights the promising potential of PDVLNs as biotherapeutics. Furthermore, it should be noted that PDVLNs possess the ability to function as both natural and engineered drug carriers, making them an appealing option. This review aims to present the appropriate extraction methods of PDVLNs, summarize the applications of PDVLNs in different diseases, and provide an outlook on the prospects of PDVLNs. At the same time, the authors also express their discussion on the current limitations of PDVLNs.

Advances in the Study of Plant-Derived Vesicle-Like Nanoparticles in Inflammatory Diseases

All humans are universally affected by inflammatory diseases, and there is an urgent need to identify new anti-inflammatory drugs with good therapeutic benefits and minimal side effects to the organism. Recently, it has been found that plant-derived vesicle-like nanoparticles (PDVLNs) have good biocompatibility, with their active ingredients exhibiting good therapeutic effects on inflammation. They can also be used as drug carriers for targeted delivery of anti-inflammatory drugs. Therefore, PDVLNs represent a popular research area for novel anti-inflammatory drugs. This paper details the origin, biological functions, isolation and purification, and identification of PDVLNs, as well as the therapeutic effects of their intrinsic bioactive components on inflammatory diseases. It also introduces their targets as drug carriers to facilitate the development and application of PDVLNs anti-inflammatory drugs.

High expression of HSP60 and survivin predicts poor prognosis for oral squamous cell carcinoma patients

BACKGROUND

HSP60 is a heat shock proteins (HSPs) family member and help mitochondrial protein to fold correctly. Survivin is one of the inhibitors of apoptosis protein family member, which plays a significant part in cancer progression. They were capable of forming HSP60-survivin complexes and involved in the development of various tumors.

METHODS

The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database demonstrated that HSP60 and survivin and their correlation on mRNA expression level with OSCC patients. Besides, expression of HSP60 and survivin proteins was studied utilizing immunohistochemistry in tissue microarrays (TMA) in OSCC and in adjacent non-cancerous squamous epithelium (Non-CCSE) tissues.

RESULTS

Significantly increased levels of HSP60 and survivin in most cancers compared to normal tissue by pan-cancer analysis. HSP60 and survivin proved a significantly increased expression in OSCC samples compared to Non-CCSE both on mRNA and protein (both P < 0.05). Additionally, elevated HSP60 displayed a positive correlation with survivin in terms of mRNA and protein expression levels (all P < 0.001). Patients with OSCC who had advanced clinical stage or lymph node metastasis (LNM) showed higher HSP60 expression (P = 0.004, P = 0.006, respectively). Higher levels of the proteins HSP60 and survivin were significantly inversely correlated relationship with OSCC patients' overall survival rates in multivariate survival analysis (P = 0.018, P = 0.040). From the above results, overexpression of HSP60 and survivin protein may serve as independent biomarkers predicting poor prognosis in OSCC.

CONCLUSIONS

Elevated HSP60 and survivin might be served as novel poor prognosis biomarkers for surgically resected OSCC patients.

Engineered Plant-Derived Nanovesicles Facilitate Tumor Therapy: Natural Bioactivity Plus Drug Controlled Release Platform

Tumors are the second-most common disease in the world, killing people at an alarming rate. As issues with drug resistance, lack of targeting, and severe side effects are revealed, there is a growing demand for precision-targeted drug delivery systems. Plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs), which arecomposed of proteins, lipids, RNA, and metabolites, are widely distributed and readily accessible. The potential for anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic, and drug-resistant-reversing effects on tumor cells, as well as the ability to alter the tumor microenvironment (TME) by modulating tumor-specific immune cells, make PDNVs promising anti-tumor therapeutics. With a lipid bilayer structure that allows drug loading and a transmembrane capacity readily endocytosed by cells, PDNVs are also expected to become a new drug delivery platform. Exogenous modifications of PDNVs enhance their circulating stability, tumor targeting ability, high cell endocytosis rate, and controlled-release capacity. In this review, we summarize PDNVs' natural antitumor activity, as well as engineered PDNVs as efficient precision-targeted drug delivery tools that enhance therapeutic effects. Additionally, we discuss critical considerations related to the issues raised in this area, which will encourage researchers to improve PDNVs as better anti-tumor therapeutics for clinic applications.

Plant-derived nanovesicles: Further exploration of biomedical function and application potential

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are phospholipid bilayer vesicles actively secreted by cells, that contain a variety of functional nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids, and are important mediums of intercellular communication. Based on their natural properties, EVs can not only retain the pharmacological effects of their source cells but also serve as natural delivery carriers. Among them, plant-derived nanovesicles (PNVs) are characterized as natural disease therapeutics with many advantages such as simplicity, safety, eco-friendliness, low cost, and low toxicity due to their abundant resources, large yield, and low risk of immunogenicity in vivo. This review systematically introduces the biogenesis, isolation methods, physical characterization, and components of PNVs, and describes their administration and cellular uptake as therapeutic agents. We highlight the therapeutic potential of PNVs as therapeutic agents and drug delivery carriers, including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, wound healing, regeneration, and antiaging properties as well as their potential use in the treatment of liver disease and COVID-19. Finally, the toxicity and immunogenicity, the current clinical application, and the possible challenges in the future development of PNVs were analyzed. We expect the functions of PNVs to be further explored to promote clinical translation, thereby facilitating the development of a new framework for the treatment of human diseases.

Plant Exosome-like Nanovesicles and Their Role in the Innovative Delivery of RNA Therapeutics

Exosomes are single membrane-bound spheres released from cells carrying complex cargoes, including lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Exosomes transfer specific cargoes from donor to acceptor cells, playing important roles in cell-to-cell communication. Current studies have reported that plant exosomes are prominent in transferring small RNA between host and pathogens in a cross-kingdom manner. Plant exosomes are excellent RNA interference (RNAi) delivery agents with similar physical and chemical properties to mammalian exosomes and have potential applications in therapeutic delivery systems. Recent data have suggested that plant exosome-like nanovesicles (PENVs) and artificial PENV-derived nano-vectors (APNVs) are beneficial for delivering therapeutic small RNA in mammalian systems and exhibit excellent competitiveness in future clinical applications. This review features their preparation methods, composition, roles in small RNA delivery for health functionalities, and their potency as functional nanomedicine.

Targeting tumor-derived exosome-mediated premetastatic niche formation: The metastasis-preventive value of traditional Chinese medicine

Tumor-derived exosome (TDE)-mediated premetastatic niche (PMN) formation is a potential mechanism underlying the organotropic metastasis of primary tumors. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has shown considerable success in preventing and treating tumor metastasis. However, the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. In this review, we discussed PMN formation from the perspectives of TDE biogenesis, cargo sorting, and TDE recipient cell alterations, which are critical for metastatic outgrowth. We also reviewed the metastasis-preventive effects of TCM, which act by targeting the physicochemical materials and functional mediators of TDE biogenesis, regulating the cargo sorting machinery and secretory molecules in TDEs, and targeting the TDE-recipient cells involved in PMN formation.

Plant-Derived Vesicle-Like Nanoparticles as Promising Biotherapeutic Tools: Present and Future

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are heterogeneous, phospholipid bilayer-enclosed biological particles that regulate cell communication by molecular cargo delivery and surface signaling. EVs are secreted by almost all living cells, including plant cells. Plant-derived vesicle-like nanoparticles (PDVLNs) is a generic term referring to vesicle-like nanostructure particles isolated from plants. Their low immunogenicity and wide availability make PDVLNs safer and more economical to be developed as therapeutic agents and drug carriers. Accumulating evidence indicates the key roles of PDVLNs in regulating interkingdom crosstalk between humans and plants. PDVLNs are capable of entering the human-body systemand delivering effector molecules to cells that modulate cell-signaling pathways. PDVLNs released by or obtained from plants thus have great influenceon human health and diseases. In this review, the biogenesis, detailed preparation methods, various physical and biochemical characteristics, biosafety, and preservation of PDVLNs are introduced, along with how these characteristics pertain to their biosafety and preservability. The potential applications of PDVLNs on different plant and mammalian diseases and PDVLN research standardization are then systematically discussed.

Nanoparticles as drug delivery systems in the treatment of oral squamous cell carcinoma: current status and recent progression

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a common human malignancy with an estimated incidence of around 377,713 new cases worldwide in 2020. Despite the advance in clinical management, some of OSCC patients still miss the opportunity of completable resection of tumor, and have to accept medical therapies, e.g., chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or immunotherapy when the disease develops into the advanced stage. However, these therapies have been reported to be far from ideal due to the low efficiency of conventional delivery approaches. To obtain a better therapeutic effect, considerable attempts have been made toward to develop an effective drug delivery system (DDS). Nanoparticles (NPs) including inorganic NPs, polymer NPs, lipid NP, extracellular vesicles and cell membrane-based NPs have been evaluated as the better DDS candidates that can specifically accumulate in the tumor microenvironment along with a large amount of blood vessels. Emerging evidence suggested that NPs formulated with anticancer drugs including chemotherapeutic drugs, radiotherapy and immunotarget antibodies could remarkably improve the release and increase concentration of these drugs at the tumor site and show a better therapeutic efficacy, suggesting that NPs might serve as promising DDSs in the treatment of OSCC. Therefore, we have conducted this review to summarize recent progression and current status of diverse NPs as DDSs in this research field.

Extracellular Vesicle-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma: A Systematic Review

It is estimated that there are over 890,000 new cases of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) worldwide each year, accounting for approximately 5% of all cancer cases. Current treatment options for HNSCC often cause significant side effects and functional impairments, thus there is a challenge to discover more acceptable treatment technologies. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) can be utilized for HNSCC treatment in several ways, for example, for drug delivery, immune modulation, as biomarkers for diagnostics, gene therapy, or tumor microenvironment modulation. This systematic review summarizes new knowledge regarding these options. Articles published up to 11 December 2022, were identified by searching the electronic databases PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane. Only full-text original research papers written in English were considered eligible for analysis. The quality of studies was assessed using the Office of Health Assessment and Translation (OHAT) Risk of Bias Rating Tool for Human and Animal Studies, modified for the needs of this review. Of 436 identified records, 18 were eligible and included. It is important to note that the use of EVs as a treatment for HNSCC is still in the early stages of research, so we summarized information on challenges such as EV isolation, purification, and standardization of EV-based therapies in HNSCC.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) in nanomedicine for human disease and therapeutic modalities

BACKGROUND

The past few years have witnessed a significant increase in research related to plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) in biological and medical applications. Using biochemical technologies, multiple independent groups have demonstrated the important roles of PDEVs as potential mediators involved in cell-cell communication and the exchange of bio-information between species. Recently, several contents have been well identified in PDEVs, including nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and other active substances. These cargoes carried by PDEVs could be transferred into recipient cells and remarkably influence their biological behaviors associated with human diseases, such as cancers and inflammatory diseases. This review summarizes the latest updates regarding PDEVs and focuses on its important role in nanomedicine applications, as well as the potential of PDEVs as drug delivery strategies to develop diagnostic and therapeutic agents for the clinical management of diseases, especially like cancers.

CONCLUSION

Considering its unique advantages, especially high stability, intrinsic bioactivity and easy absorption, further elaboration on molecular mechanisms and biological factors driving the function of PDEVs will provide new horizons for the treatment of human disease.

Anticancer Activity of Bitter Melon-Derived Vesicles Extract against Breast Cancer

Due to their low immunogenicity, high biocompatibility and ready availability in large quantities, plant-derived vesicles extracts have attracted considerable interest as a novel nanomaterial in tumor therapy. Bitter melon, a medicinal and edible plant, has been reported to exhibit excellent antitumor effects. It is well-documented that breast cancer gravely endangers women’s health, and more effective therapeutic agents must be urgently explored. Therefore, we investigated whether bitter melon-derived vesicles extract (BMVE) has antitumor activity against breast cancer. Ultracentrifugation was used to isolate BMVE with a typical “cup-shaped” structure and an average size of approximately 147 nm from bitter melon juice. The experimental outcomes indicate that 4T1 breast cancer cells could efficiently internalize BMVE, which shows apparent anti-proliferative and migration-inhibiting effects. In addition, BMVE also possesses apoptosis-inducing effects on breast cancer cells, which were achieved by stimulating the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and disrupting mitochondrial function. Furthermore, BMVE could dramatically inhibit tumor growth in vivo with negligible adverse effects. In conclusion, BMVE exhibits a pronounced antitumor effect on 4T1 breast cancer cells, which has great potential for use in tumor therapy.

Exploiting the Opportunity to Use Plant-Derived Nanoparticles as Delivery Vehicles

The scientific community has become increasingly interested in plant-derived nanoparticles (PDNPs) over the past ten years. Given that they possess all the benefits of a drug carrier, including non-toxicity, low immunogenicity, and a lipid bilayer that protects its content, PDNPs are a viable model for the design of innovative delivery systems. In this review, a summary of the prerequisites for mammalian extracellular vesicles to serve as delivery vehicles will be given. After that, we will concentrate on providing a thorough overview of the studies investigating the interactions of plant-derived nanoparticles with mammalian systems as well as the loading strategies for encapsulating therapeutic molecules. Finally, the existing challenges in establishing PDNPs as reliable biological delivery systems will be emphasized.

A Meta-analysis on the Effectiveness of Extracellular Vesicles as Nanosystems for Targeted Delivery of Anticancer Drugs

While the efficacy of anticancer drugs is hampered by low bioavailability and systemic toxicity, the uncertainty remains whether encapsulation of these drugs into natural nanovesicles such as extracellular vesicles (EVs) could improve controlled drug release and efficacy for targeted tumor therapy. Thus, we performed a meta-analysis for studies reporting the efficacy of EVs as nanosystems to deliver drugs and nucleic acid, protein, and virus (NPV) to tumors using the random-effects model. The electronic search of articles was conducted through Cochrane, PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, and Clinical Trials Registry from inception up till September 2022. The pooled summary estimate and 95% confidence interval of tumor growth inhibition, survival, and tumor targeting were obtained to assess the efficacy. The search yielded a total of 119 studies that met the inclusion criteria having only 1 clinical study. It was observed that the drug-loaded EV was more efficacious than the free drug in reducing tumor volume and weight with the standardized mean difference (SMD) of -1.99 (95% CI: -2.36, -1.63; p < 0.00001) and -2.12 (95% CI: -2.48, -1.77; p < 0.00001). Similarly, the mean estimate of tumor volume and weight for NPV were the following: SMD: -2.30, 95% CI: -3.03, -1.58; p < 0.00001 and SMD: -2.05, 95% CI: -2.79, -1.30; p < 0.00001. Treatment of tumors with EV-loaded anticancer agents also prolonged survival (HR: 0.15, 95% CI: 0.10, 0.22, p < 0.00001). Furthermore, EVs significantly delivered drugs to tumors as revealed by the higher concentration at the tumor site (SMD: -2.73, 95% CI: -3.77, -1.69; p < 0.00001). This meta-analysis revealed that EV-loaded drugs and NPV performed significantly better in tumor growth inhibition with improved survival than the free anticancer agents, suggesting EVs as safe nanoplatforms for targeted tumor therapy.

A mini-review: Advances in plant-derived extracellular vesicles as nano-delivery systems for tumour therapy

Extracellular vesicles are functionally active, nanoscale, membrane-bound vesicles that can be secreted by all cells. They have a key role in most health and disease states and have gradually become a promising class of delivery vehicles for targeted therapies for a variety of diseases. Plant-derived extracellular vesicles have received increasing attention based on their easy availability, non-toxicity and high absorption. However, compared with mammalian extracellular vesicles, the role of these nanoparticles as nano-delivery systems in tumour therapy has been underestimated. In this paper, the application of plant-derived extracellular vesicles and their nano-derivatives as nano-delivery systems in tumour therapy is reviewed to illustrate their great application potential.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles: Recent advancements and current challenges on their use for biomedical applications

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent a diverse class of lipid bilayer membrane vesicles released by both animal and plant cells. These ubiquitous vesicles are involved in intercellular communication and transport of various biological cargos, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. In recent years, interest in plant-derived EVs has increased tremendously, as they serve as a scalable and sustainable alternative to EVs derived from mammalian sources. In vitro and in vivo findings have demonstrated that these plant-derived vesicles (PDVs) possess intrinsic therapeutic activities that can potentially treat diseases and improve human health. In addition, PDVs can also act as efficient and biocompatible drug carriers. While preclinical studies have shown promising results, there are still several challenges and knowledge gaps that have to be addressed for the successful translation of PDVs into clinical applications, especially in view of the lack of standardised protocols for material handling and PDV isolation from various plant sources. This review provides the readers with a quick overview of the current understanding and research on PDVs, critically analysing the current challenges and highlighting the immense potential of PDVs as a novel class of therapeutics to treat human diseases. It is expected that this work will guide scientists to address the knowledge gaps currently associated with PDVs and promote new advances in plant-based therapeutic solutions.