Requirement for Map2k1 (Mek1) in extra-embryonic ectoderm during placentogenesis

Genomic regions associated with Holstein heifer times bred to artificial insemination and embryo transfer services

This study aimed to identify loci (p < 1 × 10-5) and gene sets (normalized enrichment score (NES) ≥ 3.0) associated with the number of times a heifer is bred to attain a successful pregnancy (TBRD) for Holstein heifers bred by artificial insemination (AI, n = 2754) or that were embryo transfer (ET, n = 1566) recipients. Eight loci were associated (p < 1 × 10-5) with TBRD in AI bred heifers and four loci were associated with TBRD in ET recipients. The gene set enrichment analysis with SNP data identified one gene set enriched (NES ≥ 3.0) with TBRD in AI bred heifers and two gene sets that were enriched with TBRD in ET recipients. The estimated pseudo-heritability for times bred to AI was 0.063 and 0.043 for ET. The identification of loci associated with embryonic loss aids in the selection of Holstein heifers with higher reproductive efficiencies that are AI bred or that are ET recipients.

Transcriptome Analysis of Key Genes Involved in the Initiation of Spermatogonial Stem Cell Differentiation

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to screen the genes and pathways that are involved in spermatogonia stem cell (SSC) differentiation regulation during the transition from Aundiff to A1. Methods: RNA sequencing was performed to screen differentially expressed genes at 1 d and 2 d after SSC differentiation culture. KEGG pathway enrichment and GO function analysis were performed to reveal the genes and pathways related to the initiation of early SSC differentiation.

RESULTS

The GO analysis showed that Rpl21, which regulates cell differentiation initiation, significantly increased after 1 day of SSC differentiation. The expressions of Fn1, Cd9, Fgf2, Itgb1, Epha2, Ctgf, Cttn, Timp2 and Fgfr1, which are related to promoting differentiation, were up-regulated after 2 days of SSC differentiation. The analysis of the KEGG pathway revealed that RNA transport is the most enriched pathway 1 day after SSC differentiation. Hspa2, which promotes the differentiation of male reproductive cells, and Cdkn2a, which participates in the cell cycle, were significantly up-regulated. The p53 pathway and MAPK pathway were the most enriched pathways 2 days after SSC differentiation. Cdkn1a, Hmga2, Thbs1 and Cdkn2a, microRNAs that promote cell differentiation, were also significantly up-regulated.

CONCLUSIONS

RNA transport, the MAPK pathway and the p53 pathway may play vital roles in early SSC differentiation, and Rpl21, Fn1, Cd9, Fgf2, Itgb1, Epha2, Ctgf, Cttn, Timp2, Fgfr1, Hspa2, Cdkn2a, Cdkn1a, Hmga2 and Thbs1 are involved in the initiation of SSC differentiation. The findings of this study provide a reference for further revelations of the regulatory mechanism of SSC differentiation.

Roles of the Rlim-Rex1 axis during X chromosome inactivation in mice

In female mice, the gene dosage from X chromosomes is adjusted by a process called X chromosome inactivation (XCI) that occurs in two steps. An imprinted form of XCI (iXCI) that silences the paternally inherited X chromosome (Xp) is initiated at the 2- to 4-cell stages. As extraembryonic cells including trophoblasts keep the Xp silenced, epiblast cells that give rise to the embryo proper reactivate the Xp and undergo a random form of XCI (rXCI) around implantation. Both iXCI and rXCI require the lncRNA Xist, which is expressed from the X to be inactivated. The X-linked E3 ubiquitin ligase Rlim (Rnf12) in conjunction with its target protein Rex1 (Zfp42), a critical repressor of Xist, have emerged as major regulators of iXCI. However, their roles in rXCI remain controversial. Investigating early mouse development, we show that the Rlim-Rex1 axis is active in pre-implantation embryos. Upon implantation Rex1 levels are downregulated independently of Rlim specifically in epiblast cells. These results provide a conceptual framework of how the functional dynamics between Rlim and Rex1 ensures regulation of iXCI but not rXCI in female mice.

Navigating the ERK1/2 MAPK Cascade

The RAS-ERK pathway is a fundamental signaling cascade crucial for many biological processes including proliferation, cell cycle control, growth, and survival; common across all cell types. Notably, ERK1/2 are implicated in specific processes in a context-dependent manner as in stem cells and pancreatic β-cells. Alterations in the different components of this cascade result in dysregulation of the effector kinases ERK1/2 which communicate with hundreds of substrates. Aberrant activation of the pathway contributes to a range of disorders, including cancer. This review provides an overview of the structure, activation, regulation, and mutational frequency of the different tiers of the cascade; with a particular focus on ERK1/2. We highlight the importance of scaffold proteins that contribute to kinase localization and coordinate interaction dynamics of the kinases with substrates, activators, and inhibitors. Additionally, we explore innovative therapeutic approaches emphasizing promising avenues in this field.

The Fgf/Erf/NCoR1/2 repressive axis controls trophoblast cell fate

Placental development relies on coordinated cell fate decisions governed by signalling inputs. However, little is known about how signalling cues are transformed into repressive mechanisms triggering lineage-specific transcriptional signatures. Here, we demonstrate that upon inhibition of the Fgf/Erk pathway in mouse trophoblast stem cells (TSCs), the Ets2 repressor factor (Erf) interacts with the Nuclear Receptor Co-Repressor Complex 1 and 2 (NCoR1/2) and recruits it to key trophoblast genes. Genetic ablation of Erf or Tbl1x (a component of the NCoR1/2 complex) abrogates the Erf/NCoR1/2 interaction. This leads to mis-expression of Erf/NCoR1/2 target genes, resulting in a TSC differentiation defect. Mechanistically, Erf regulates expression of these genes by recruiting the NCoR1/2 complex and decommissioning their H3K27ac-dependent enhancers. Our findings uncover how the Fgf/Erf/NCoR1/2 repressive axis governs cell fate and placental development, providing a paradigm for Fgf-mediated transcriptional control.

Expression of the NUP153 and YWHAB genes from their canonical promoters and alternative promoters of the LINE-1 retrotransposon in the placenta of the first trimester of pregnancy

The placenta has a unique hypomethylated genome. Due to this feature of the placenta, there is a potential possibility of using regulatory elements derived from retroviruses and retrotransposons, which are suppressed by DNA methylation in the adult body. In addition, there is an abnormal increase in the level of methylation of the LINE-1 retrotransposon in the chorionic trophoblast in spontaneous abortions with both normal karyotype and aneuploidy on different chromosomes, which may be associated with impaired gene transcription using LINE-1 regulatory elements. To date, 988 genes that can be expressed from alternative LINE-1 promoters have been identified. Using the STRING tool, genes (NUP153 and YWHAB) were selected, the products of which have significant functional relationships with proteins highly expressed in the placenta and involved in trophoblast differentiation. This study aimed to analyze the expression of the NUP153 and YWHAB genes, highly active in the placenta, from canonical and alternative LINE-1 promoters in the germinal part of the placenta of spontaneous and induced abortions. Gene expression analysis was performed using real-time PCR in chorionic villi and extraembryonic mesoderm of induced abortions (n = 10), adult lymphocytes (n = 10), spontaneous abortions with normal karyotype (n = 10), and with the most frequent aneuploidies in the first trimester of pregnancy (trisomy 16 (n = 8) and monosomy X (n = 6)). The LINE-1 methylation index was assessed in the chorionic villi of spontaneous abortions using targeted bisulfite massive parallel sequencing. The level of expression of both genes from canonical promoters was higher in blood lymphocytes than in placental tissues (p < 0.05). However, the expression level of the NUP153 gene from the alternative LINE-1 promoter was 17 times higher in chorionic villi and 23 times higher in extraembryonic mesoderm than in lymphocytes (p < 0.05). The expression level of NUP153 and YWHAB from canonical promoters was higher in the group of spontaneous abortions with monosomy X compared to all other groups (p <0.05). The LINE-1 methylation index negatively correlated with the level of gene expression from both canonical (NUP153 - R = -0.59, YWHAB - R = -0.52, p < 0.05) and alternative LINE-1 promoters (NUP153 - R = -0.46, YWHAB - R = -0.66, p < 0.05). Thus, the observed increase in the LINE-1 methylation index in the placenta of spontaneous abortions is associated with the level of expression of the NUP153 and YWHAB genes not only from alternative but also from canonical promoters, which can subsequently lead to negative consequences for normal embryogenesis.

Genome-wide characterization of circRNA expression profile in overexpression of RIP2 chicken macrophages associated with avian pathogenic E.coli infection

Avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC) can cause localized and systemic diseases in poultry, threatening human health via meat or egg contamination and resulting in considerable economic losses to the poultry industry globally. Increasing evidence shows circRNAs were widely involved in various biological processes. However, the role of circRNAs in the host response against APEC infection, especially correlated with the regulation of RIP2, remains unclear. Herein, the RNAseq technology was used to identify the circRNA expression profiles in the overexpression of RIP2 macrophages with or without APEC infection. A total of 256 and 287 differentially expressed (DE) circRNAs were identified in the overexpression of RIP2 group (oeRIP2) vs. the wild-type group (WT) and oeRIP2 + APEC vs. APEC, respectively, whose parental genes were involved in MAPK signalling pathway, Wnt signalling pathway, focal adhesion, tight junction, and VEGF signalling pathways. Specifically, the key circRNAs, such as 5:814443-825127, 10:18922360-18928461, 2:8746306-8750639, and 2:124177751-124184063 might play a critical role in APEC infection and the regulation of RIP2. As a whole, these findings will facilitate understanding the molecular mechanism underlying circRNAs, especially related to the regulation of the RIP2 gene. Meanwhile, the study may offer new ideas to improve host immune and inflammatory response against APEC infection.

Activation of MAP2K signaling by genetic engineering or HF-rTMS promotes corticospinal axon sprouting and functional regeneration

Facilitating axon regeneration in the injured central nervous system remains a challenging task. RAF-MAP2K signaling plays a key role in axon elongation during nervous system development. Here, we show that conditional expression of a constitutively kinase-activated BRAF in mature corticospinal neurons elicited the expression of a set of transcription factors previously implicated in the regeneration of zebrafish retinal ganglion cell axons and promoted regeneration and sprouting of corticospinal tract (CST) axons after spinal cord injury in mice. Newly sprouting axon collaterals formed synaptic connections with spinal interneurons, resulting in improved recovery of motor function. Noninvasive suprathreshold high-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (HF-rTMS) activated the BRAF canonical downstream effectors MAP2K1/2 and modulated the expression of a set of regeneration-related transcription factors in a pattern consistent with that induced by BRAF activation. HF-rTMS enabled CST axon regeneration and sprouting, which was abolished in MAP2K1/2 conditional null mice. These data collectively demonstrate a central role of MAP2K signaling in augmenting the growth capacity of mature corticospinal neurons and suggest that HF-rTMS might have potential for treating spinal cord injury by modulating MAP2K signaling.

Biphasic regulation of osteoblast development via the ERK MAPK-mTOR pathway

Emerging evidence supports that osteogenic differentiation of skeletal progenitors is a key determinant of overall bone formation and bone mass. Despite extensive studies showing the function of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in osteoblast differentiation, none of these studies show in vivo evidence of a role for MAPKs in osteoblast maturation subsequent to lineage commitment. Here, we describe how the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway in osteoblasts controls bone formation by suppressing the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway. We also show that, while ERK inhibition blocks the differentiation of osteogenic precursors when initiated at an early stage, ERK inhibition surprisingly promotes the later stages of osteoblast differentiation. Accordingly, inhibition of the ERK pathway using a small compound inhibitor or conditional deletion of the MAP2Ks Map2k1 (MEK1) and Map2k2 (MEK2), in mature osteoblasts and osteocytes, markedly increased bone formation due to augmented osteoblast differentiation. Mice with inducible deletion of the ERK pathway in mature osteoblasts also displayed similar phenotypes, demonstrating that this phenotype reflects continuous postnatal inhibition of late-stage osteoblast maturation. Mechanistically, ERK inhibition increases mitochondrial function and SGK1 phosphorylation via mTOR2 activation, which leads to osteoblast differentiation and production of angiogenic and osteogenic factors to promote bone formation. This phenotype was partially reversed by inhibiting mTOR. Our study uncovers a surprising dichotomy of ERK pathway functions in osteoblasts, whereby ERK activation promotes the early differentiation of osteoblast precursors, but inhibits the subsequent differentiation of committed osteoblasts via mTOR-mediated regulation of mitochondrial function and SGK1.

MAP2K2 Delays Recovery in Murine Models of Acute Lung Injury and Associates with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Outcome

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) remains a significant problem in need of new pharmaceutical approaches to improve its resolution. Studies comparing gene expression signatures in rodents and humans with lung injury reveal conserved pathways, including MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase)/ERK (extracellular signal-related protein kinase) activation. In preclinical acute lung injury (ALI) models, inhibition of MAP2K1 (MAPK kinase 1)/MAP2K2 (MAPK kinase 2) improves measures of ALI. Myeloid cell deletion of MAP2K1 results in sustained MAP2K2 activation and nonresolving ALI, suggesting that MAP2K2 deactivation may be a key driver of ALI resolution. We used human genomic data from the iSPAAR (Identification of SNPs Predisposing to Altered Acute Lung Injury Risk) Consortium to assess genetic variants in MAP2K1 and MAP2K2 for association with mortality from ARDS. To determine the role of MAP2K2 in ALI recovery, we studied mice deficient in Map2k2 (Mek2-/-) and wild-type control mice in ALI models. We identified a MAP2K2 variant that was associated with death in ARDS and MAP2K2 expression. In Pseudomonas aeruginosa ALI, Mek2-/- mice had similar early alveolar neutrophilic recruitment but faster resolution of alveolar neutrophilia and vascular leak. Gene expression analysis revealed a role for MAP2K2 in promoting and sustaining select proinflammatory pathway activation in ALI. Bone marrow chimera studies indicate that leukocyte MAP2K2 is the key regulator of ALI duration. These studies implicate a role for MAP2K2 in ALI duration via transcriptional regulation of inflammatory programming with potential relevance to ARDS. Targeting leukocyte MAP2K2 may be an effective strategy to promote ALI resolution.

Fine-tuning of MEK signaling is pivotal for limiting B and T cell activation

MEK1 and MEK2, the only known activators of ERK, are attractive therapeutic candidates for both cancer and autoimmune diseases. However, how MEK signaling finely regulates immune cell activation is only partially understood. To address this question, we specifically delete Mek1 in hematopoietic cells in the Mek2 null background. Characterization of an allelic series of Mek mutants reveals the presence of distinct degrees of spontaneous B cell activation, which are inversely proportional to the levels of MEK proteins and ERK activation. While Mek1 and Mek2 null mutants have a normal lifespan, 1Mek1 and 1Mek2 mutants retaining only one functional Mek1 or Mek2 allele in hematopoietic cell lineages die from glomerulonephritis and lymphoproliferative disorders, respectively. This establishes that the fine-tuning of the ERK/MAPK pathway is critical to regulate B and T cell activation and function and that each MEK isoform plays distinct roles during lymphocyte activation and disease development.

Phase transition specified by a binary code patterns the vertebrate eye cup

The developing vertebrate eye cup is partitioned into the neural retina (NR), the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE), and the ciliary margin (CM). By single-cell analysis, we showed that fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling regulates the CM in its stem cell–like property of self-renewal, differentiation, and survival, which is balanced by an evolutionarily conserved Wnt signaling gradient. FGF promotes Wnt signaling in the CM by stabilizing β-catenin in a GSK3β-independent manner. While Wnt signaling converts the NR to either the CM or the RPE depending on FGF signaling, FGF transforms the RPE to the NR or CM dependent on Wnt activity. The default fate of the eye cup is the NR, but synergistic FGF and Wnt signaling promotes CM formation both in vivo and in human retinal organoid. Our study reveals that the vertebrate eye develops through phase transition determined by a combinatorial code of FGF and Wnt signaling.

Mek1 and Mek2 Functional Redundancy in Erythropoiesis

Several studies have established the crucial role of the extracellular signal–regulated kinase (ERK)/mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway in hematopoietic cell proliferation and differentiation. MEK1 and MEK2 phosphorylate and activate ERK1 and ERK2. However, whether MEK1 and MEK2 differentially regulate these processes is unknown. To define the function of Mek genes in the activation of the ERK pathway during hematopoiesis, we generated a mutant mouse line carrying a hematopoietic-specific deletion of the Mek1 gene function in a Mek2 null background. Inactivation of both Mek1 and Mek2 genes resulted in death shortly after birth with a severe anemia revealing the essential role of the ERK pathway in erythropoiesis. Mek1 and Mek2 functional ablation also affected lymphopoiesis and myelopoiesis. In contrast, mice that retained one functional Mek1 (1Mek1) or Mek2 (1Mek2) allele in hematopoietic cells were viable and fertile. 1Mek1 and 1Mek2 mutants showed mild signs of anemia and splenomegaly, but the half-life of their red blood cells and the response to erythropoietic stress were not altered, suggesting a certain level of Mek redundancy for sustaining functional erythropoiesis. However, subtle differences in multipotent progenitor distribution in the bone marrow were observed in 1Mek1 mice, suggesting that the two Mek genes might differentially regulate early hematopoiesis.

MEK/ERK Signaling in β-Cells Bifunctionally Regulates β-Cell Mass and Glucose-Stimulated Insulin Secretion Response to Maintain Glucose Homeostasis

In diabetic pathology, insufficiency in β-cell mass, unable to meet peripheral insulin demand, and functional defects of individual β-cells in production of insulin are often concurrently observed, collectively causing hyperglycemia. Here we show that the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 is significantly decreased in the islets of db/db mice as well as in those of a cohort of subjects with type 2 diabetes. In mice with abrogation of ERK signaling in pancreatic β-cells through deletion of Mek1 and Mek2, glucose intolerance aggravates under high-fat diet-feeding conditions due to insufficient insulin production with lower β-cell proliferation and reduced β-cell mass, while in individual β-cells dampening of the number of insulin exocytosis events is observed, with the molecules involved in insulin exocytosis being less phosphorylated. These data reveal bifunctional roles for MEK/ERK signaling in β-cells for glucose homeostasis, i.e., in regulating β-cell mass as well as in controlling insulin exocytosis in individual β-cells, thus providing not only a novel perspective for the understanding of diabetes pathophysiology but also a potential clue for new drug development for diabetes treatment.

VEGF receptor 2 (KDR) protects airways from mucus metaplasia through a Sox9-dependent pathway

Mucus-secreting goblet cells are the dominant cell type in pulmonary diseases, e.g., asthma and cystic fibrosis (CF), leading to pathologic mucus metaplasia and airway obstruction. Cytokines including IL-13 are the major players in the transdifferentiation of club cells into goblet cells. Unexpectedly, we have uncovered a previously undescribed pathway promoting mucous metaplasia that involves VEGFa and its receptor KDR. Single-cell RNA sequencing analysis coupled with genetic mouse modeling demonstrates that loss of epithelial VEGFa, KDR, or MEK/ERK kinase promotes excessive club-to-goblet transdifferentiation during development and regeneration. Sox9 is required for goblet cell differentiation following Kdr inhibition in both mouse and human club cells. Significantly, airway mucous metaplasia in asthmatic and CF patients is also associated with reduced KDR signaling and increased SOX9 expression. Together, these findings reveal an unexpected role for VEGFa/KDR signaling in the defense against mucous metaplasia, offering a potential therapeutic target for this common airway pathology.

RAF-MEK-ERK pathway in cancer evolution and treatment

The RAF-MEK-ERK signaling cascade is a well-characterized MAPK pathway involved in cell proliferation and survival. The three-layered MAPK signaling cascade is initiated upon RTK and RAS activation. Three RAF isoforms ARAF, BRAF and CRAF, and their downstream MEK1/2 and ERK1/2 kinases constitute a coherently orchestrated signaling module that directs a range of physiological functions. Genetic alterations in this pathway are among the most prevalent in human cancers, which consist of numerous hot-spot mutations such as BRAF^V600E. Oncogenic mutations in this pathway often override otherwise tightly regulated checkpoints to open the door for uncontrolled cell growth and neoplasia. The crosstalk between the RAF-MEK-ERK axis and other signaling pathways further extends the proliferative potential of this pathway in human cancers. In this review, we summarize the molecular architecture and physiological functions of the RAF-MEK-ERK pathway with emphasis on its dysregulations in human cancers, as well as the efforts made to target the RAF-MEK-ERK module using small molecule inhibitors.

mTOR Activation Initiates Renal Cell Carcinoma Development by Coordinating ERK and p38MAPK

Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) mainly originates from renal proximal tubules. Intriguingly, disruption of genes frequently mutated in human RCC samples thus far has only generated RCC originated from other renal tubule parts in mouse models. This hampers our understanding of the pathogenesis of RCC. Here we show that mTOR signaling, often activated in RCC samples, initiates RCC development from renal proximal tubules. Ablation of Tsc1, encoding an mTOR suppressor, in proximal tubule cells led to multiple precancerous renal cysts. mTOR activation increased MEK1 expression and ERK activation, and Mek1 ablation or inhibition diminished cyst formation in Tsc1-deficient mice. mTOR activation also increased MKK6 expression and p38MAPK activation, and ablation of the p38α-encoding gene further enhanced cyst formation and led to RCC with clear cell RCC features. Mechanistically, Tsc1 deletion induced p53 and p16 expression in a p38MAPK-dependent manner, and deleting Tsc1 and Trp53 or Cdkn2a (encoding p16) enhanced renal cell carcinogenesis. Thus, mTOR activation in combination with inactivation of the p38MAPK-p53/p16 pathway drives RCC development from renal proximal tubules. Moreover, this study uncovers previously unidentified mechanisms by which mTOR controls cell proliferation and suggests the MEK-ERK axis to be a potential target for treatment of RCC. SIGNIFICANCE: Mouse modeling studies show that mTOR activation in combination with inactivation of the p38MAPK-p53/p16 axis initiates renal cell carcinoma that mimics human disease, identifying potential therapeutic targets for RCC treatment.

Extracranial arteriovenous malformations: from bedside to bench

Arteriovenous malformation (AVM) is defined as a fast-flow vascular anomaly that shunts blood from arteries directly to veins. This short circuit of blood flow contributes to progressive expansion of draining veins, resulting in ischaemia, tissue deformation and in some severe cases, congestive heart failure. Various medical interventions have been employed to treat AVM, however, management of which remains a huge challenge because of its high recurrence rate and lethal complications. Thus, understanding the underlying mechanisms of AVM development and progression will help direct discovery and a potential cure. Here, we summarize current findings in the field of extracranial AVMs with the aim to provide insight into their aetiology and molecular influences, in the hope to pave the way for future treatment.

Targeting the MAPK Pathway in KRAS-Driven Tumors

KRAS mutations occur in a quarter of all of human cancers, yet no selective drug has been approved to treat these tumors. Despite the recent development of drugs that block KRAS^G12C, the majority of KRAS oncoproteins remain undruggable. Here, we review recent efforts to validate individual components of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway as targets to treat KRAS-mutant cancers by comparing genetic information derived from experimental mouse models of KRAS-driven lung and pancreatic tumors with the outcome of selective MAPK inhibitors in clinical trials. We also review the potential of RAF1 as a key target to block KRAS-mutant cancers.

The road to ERK activation: Do neurons take alternate routes?

The ERK cascade is a central signaling pathway that regulates a wide variety of cellular processes including proliferation, differentiation, learning and memory, development, and synaptic plasticity. A wide range of inputs travel from the membrane through different signaling pathway routes to reach activation of one set of output kinases, ERK1&2. The classical ERK activation pathway beings with growth factor activation of receptor tyrosine kinases. Numerous G-protein coupled receptors and ionotropic receptors also lead to ERK through increases in the second messengers calcium and cAMP. Though both types of pathways are present in diverse cell types, a key difference is that most stimuli to neurons, e.g. synaptic inputs, are transient, on the order of milliseconds to seconds, whereas many stimuli acting on non-neural tissue, e.g. growth factors, are longer duration. The ability to consolidate these inputs to regulate the activation of ERK in response to diverse signals raises the question of which factors influence the difference in ERK activation pathways. This review presents both experimental studies and computational models aimed at understanding the control of ERK activation and whether there are fundamental differences between neurons and other cells. Our main conclusion is that differences between cell types are quite subtle, often related to differences in expression pattern and quantity of some molecules such as Raf isoforms. In addition, the spatial location of ERK is critical, with regulation by scaffolding proteins producing differences due to colocalization of upstream molecules that may differ between neurons and other cells.

MEK1 regulates pulmonary macrophage inflammatory responses and resolution of acute lung injury

The MEK1/2-ERK1/2 pathway has been implicated in regulating the inflammatory response to lung injury and infection, and pharmacologic MEK1/2 inhibitor compounds are reported to reduce detrimental inflammation in multiple animal models of disease, in part through modulation of leukocyte responses. However, the specific contribution of myeloid MEK1 in regulating acute lung injury (ALI) and its resolution remain unknown. Here, the role of myeloid Mek1 was investigated in a murine model of LPS-induced ALI (LPS-ALI) by genetic deletion using the Cre-floxed system (LysMCre × Mekfl), and human alveolar macrophages from healthy volunteers and patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) were obtained to assess activation of the MEK1/2-ERK1/2 pathway. Myeloid Mek1 deletion results in a failure to resolve LPS-ALI, and alveolar macrophages lacking MEK1 had increased activation of MEK2 and the downstream target ERK1/2 on day 4 of LPS-ALI. The clinical significance of these findings is supported by increased activation of the MEK1/2-ERK1/2 pathway in alveolar macrophages from patients with ARDS compared with alveolar macrophages from healthy volunteers. This study reveals a critical role for myeloid MEK1 in promoting resolution of LPS-ALI and controlling the duration of macrophage proinflammatory responses.

The ERK MAPK Pathway Is Essential for Skeletal Development and Homeostasis

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are a family of protein kinases that function as key signal transducers of a wide spectrum of extracellular stimuli, including growth factors and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Dysregulation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) MAPK pathway is associated with human skeletal abnormalities including Noonan syndrome, neurofibromatosis type 1, and cardiofaciocutaneous syndrome. Here, we demonstrate that ERK activation in osteoprogenitors is required for bone formation during skeletal development and homeostasis. Deletion of Mek1 and Mek2, kinases upstream of ERK MAPK, in osteoprogenitors (Mek1^OsxMek2^−/−), resulted in severe osteopenia and cleidocranial dysplasia (CCD), similar to that seen in humans and mice with impaired RUNX2 function. Additionally, tamoxifen-induced deletion of Mek1 and Mek2 in osteoprogenitors in adult mice (Mek1^Osx-ERTMek2^−/−) significantly reduced bone mass. Mechanistically, this corresponded to decreased activation of osteoblast master regulators, including RUNX2, ATF4, and β-catenin. Finally, we identified potential regulators of osteoblast differentiation in the ERK MAPK pathway using unbiased phospho-mass spectrometry. These observations demonstrate essential roles of ERK activation in osteogenesis and bone formation.

MAPK/ERK Signaling in Regulation of Renal Differentiation

Congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT) are common birth defects derived from abnormalities in renal differentiation during embryogenesis. CAKUT is the major cause of end-stage renal disease and chronic kidney diseases in children, but its genetic causes remain largely unresolved. Here we discuss advances in the understanding of how mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (MAPK/ERK) activity contributes to the regulation of ureteric bud branching morphogenesis, which dictates the final size, shape, and nephron number of the kidney. Recent studies also demonstrate that the MAPK/ERK pathway is directly involved in nephrogenesis, regulating both the maintenance and differentiation of the nephrogenic mesenchyme. Interestingly, aberrant MAPK/ERK signaling is linked to many cancers, and recent studies suggest it also plays a role in the most common pediatric renal cancer, Wilms' tumor.

MEK2 Negatively Regulates Lipopolysaccharide-Mediated IL-1β Production through HIF-1α Expression

LPS-activated macrophages require metabolic reprogramming and glucose uptake mediated by hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1 α and glucose transporter 1 (Glut1) expression for proinflammatory cytokine production, especially IL-1β. This process is tightly regulated through activation of MAPK kinases, including the MEK/ERK pathway as well as several transcription factors including HIF-1α. Although MAPK kinase (MEK) 2 deficiency had no significant effect on NO, TNF-α, or IL-12 production in response to LPS challenge, MEK2-deficient murine bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) exhibited lower IL-10 production. Importantly, MEK2-deficient BMDMs exhibited a preserved ERK1/2 phosphorylation, higher HIF-1α and Glut1 levels, and substantially increased IL-1β as well as IL-6 production in response to LPS stimulation. Knockdown of HIF-1α expression via short interference RNA decreased the level of HIF-1α expression in MEK2-deficient BMDMs and decreased IL-1β production in response to LPS treatment. Furthermore, we performed gain of function experiments by overexpressing MEK2 protein in RAW264.7 cells. LPS stimulation of MEK2 overexpressed in RAW264.7 cells led to a marked decreased IL-1β production. Finally, we investigated the role of Mek1 and Mek2 double and triple mutation on ERK phosphorylation, HIF-1α expression, and IL-1β production. We found that MEK2 is the major kinase, which inversely proportionally regulates HIF-1α and IL-1β expression independent of ERK activation. Our findings demonstrate a novel regulatory function for MEK2 in response to TLR4 activation in IL-1β production through modulating HIF-1α expression.

Mek1Y130C mice recapitulate aspects of human cardio-facio-cutaneous syndrome

The RAS/MAPK signaling pathway is one of the most investigated pathways, owing to its established role in numerous cellular processes and implication in cancer. Germline mutations in genes encoding members of the RAS/MAPK pathway also cause severe developmental syndromes collectively known as RASopathies. These syndromes share overlapping characteristics, including craniofacial dysmorphology, cardiac malformations, cutaneous abnormalities and developmental delay. Cardio-facio-cutaneous syndrome (CFC) is a rare RASopathy associated with mutations in BRAF, KRAS, MEK1 (MAP2K1) and MEK2 (MAP2K2). MEK1 and MEK2 mutations are found in ∼25% of the CFC patients and the MEK1^Y130C substitution is the most common one. However, little is known about the origins and mechanisms responsible for the development of CFC. To our knowledge, no mouse model carrying RASopathy-linked Mek1 or Mek2 gene mutations has been reported. To investigate the molecular and developmental consequences of the Mek1^Y130C mutation, we generated a mouse line carrying this mutation. Analysis of mice from a Mek1 allelic series revealed that the Mek1^Y130C allele expresses both wild-type and Y130C mutant forms of MEK1. However, despite reduced levels of MEK1 protein and the lower abundance of MEK1 Y130C protein than wild type, Mek1^Y130C mutants showed increased ERK (MAPK) protein activation in response to growth factors, supporting a role for MEK1 Y130C in hyperactivation of the RAS/MAPK pathway, leading to CFC. Mek1^Y130C mutant mice exhibited pulmonary artery stenosis, cranial dysmorphia and neurological anomalies, including increased numbers of GFAP⁺ astrocytes and Olig2⁺ oligodendrocytes in regions of the cerebral cortex. These data indicate that the Mek1^Y130C mutation recapitulates major aspects of CFC, providing a new animal model to investigate the physiopathology of this RASopathy.

This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Summary: A mouse model for cardio-facio-cutaneous syndrome caused by MEK1 Y130C mutant protein reveals the role of hyperactivation of the RAS/MAPK pathway in the development of the syndrome.

From the stem of the placental tree: trophoblast stem cells and their progeny

Trophoblast stem cells (TSCs) retain the capacity to self-renew indefinitely and harbour the potential to differentiate into all trophoblast subtypes of the placenta. Recent studies have shown how signalling cascades integrate with transcription factor circuits to govern the fine balance between TSC self-renewal and differentiation. In addition, breakthroughs in reprogramming strategies have enabled the generation of TSCs from fibroblasts, opening up exciting new avenues that may allow the isolation of this stem cell type from other species, notably humans. Here, we review these recent advances in light of their importance for understanding placental pathologies and developing personalised medicine approaches for pregnancy complications.

MEK1/2 Inhibition Promotes Macrophage Reparative Properties

Macrophages have important functional roles in regulating the timely promotion and resolution of inflammation. Although many of the intracellular signaling pathways involved in the proinflammatory responses of macrophages are well characterized, the components that regulate macrophage reparative properties are less well understood. We identified the MEK1/2 pathway as a key regulator of macrophage reparative properties. Pharmacological inhibition of the MEK1/2 pathway by a MEK1/2 inhibitor (MEKi) significantly increased expression of IL-4/IL-13 (M2)-responsive genes in murine bone marrow-derived and alveolar macrophages. Deletion of the MEK1 gene using LysMCre+/+Mek1fl/fl macrophages as an alternate approach yielded similar results. MEKi enhanced STAT6 phosphorylation, and MEKi-induced changes in M2 polarization were dependent on STAT6. In addition, MEKi treatment significantly increased murine and human macrophage efferocytosis of apoptotic cells, independent of macrophage polarization and STAT6. These phenotypes were associated with increased gene and protein expression of Mertk, Tyro3, and Abca1, three proteins that promote macrophage efferocytosis. We also studied the effects of MEKi on in vivo macrophage efferocytosis and polarization. MEKi-treated mice had increased efferocytosis of apoptotic polymorphonuclear leukocytes instilled into the peritoneum. Furthermore, administration of MEKi after LPS-induced lung injury led to improved recovery of weight, fewer neutrophils in the alveolar compartment, and greater macrophage M2 polarization. Collectively, these results show that MEK1/2 inhibition is capable of promoting the reparative properties of murine and human macrophages. These studies suggest that the MEK1/2 pathway may be a therapeutic target to promote the resolution of inflammation via modulation of macrophage functions.

Lung development requires an active ERK/MAPK pathway in the lung mesenchyme

BACKGROUND

Reciprocal epithelial-mesenchymal communications are critical throughout lung development, dictating branching morphogenesis and cell specification. Numerous signaling molecules are involved in these interactions, but the way epithelial-mesenchymal crosstalk is coordinated remains unclear. The ERK/MAPK pathway transduces several important signals in lung formation. Epithelial inactivation of both Mek genes, encoding ERK/MAPK kinases, causes lung agenesis and death. Conversely, Mek mutation in mesenchyme results in lung hypoplasia, trachea cartilage malformations, kyphosis, omphalocele, and death. Considering the negative impact of kyphosis and omphalocele on intrathoracic space and, consequently, on lung growth, the exact role of ERK/MAPK pathway in lung mesenchyme remains unresolved.

RESULTS

To address the role of the ERK/MAPK pathway in lung mesenchyme in absence of kyphosis and omphalocele, we used the Tbx4^Cre deleter mouse line, which acts specifically in lung mesenchyme. These Mek mutants did not develop kyphosis and omphalocele but they presented lung hypoplasia, tracheal defects, and neonatal death. Tracheal cartilage anomalies suggested a role for the ERK/MAPK pathway in the control of chondrocyte hypertrophy. Moreover, expression data indicated potential interactions between the ERK/MAPK and canonical Wnt pathways during lung formation.

CONCLUSIONS

Lung development necessitates a functional ERK/MAPK pathway in the lung mesenchymal layer in order to coordinate efficient epithelial-mesenchymal interactions. Developmental Dynamics 246:72-82, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Layer specific and general requirements for ERK/MAPK signaling in the developing neocortex

Aberrant signaling through the Raf/MEK/ERK (ERK/MAPK) pathway causes pathology in a family of neurodevelopmental disorders known as 'RASopathies' and is implicated in autism pathogenesis. Here, we have determined the functions of ERK/MAPK signaling in developing neocortical excitatory neurons. Our data reveal a critical requirement for ERK/MAPK signaling in the morphological development and survival of large Ctip2⁺ neurons in layer 5. Loss of Map2k1/2 (Mek1/2) led to deficits in corticospinal tract formation and subsequent corticospinal neuron apoptosis. ERK/MAPK hyperactivation also led to reduced corticospinal axon elongation, but was associated with enhanced arborization. ERK/MAPK signaling was dispensable for axonal outgrowth of layer 2/3 callosal neurons. However, Map2k1/2 deletion led to reduced expression of Arc and enhanced intrinsic excitability in both layers 2/3 and 5, in addition to imbalanced synaptic excitation and inhibition. These data demonstrate selective requirements for ERK/MAPK signaling in layer 5 circuit development and general effects on cortical pyramidal neuron excitability.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.11123.001

In the nervous system, cells called neurons form networks that relay information in the form of electrical signals around the brain and the rest of the body. Typically, an electrical signal travels from branch-like structures at one end of the cell, through the cell body and then along a long fiber called an axon to reach junctions with another neurons.

The connections between neurons start to form as the nervous system develops in the embryo, and any errors or delays in this process can cause severe neurological disorders and intellectual disabilities. For example, genetic mutations affecting a communication system within cells known as the ERK/MAPK pathway can lead to a family of syndromes called the “RASopathies”. Abnormalities in this pathway may also contribute to certain types of autism. However, it is not clear how alterations to the ERK/MAPK pathway cause these conditions.

Xing et al. investigated whether ERK/MAPK signaling regulates the formation of connections between neurons and the activity of neurons in mouse brains. The experiments showed that the growth of axons that extend from an area of the brain called the cerebral cortex towards the spinal cord are particularly sensitive to changes in the level of signaling through the ERK/MAPK pathway. On the other hand, inhibiting the pathway has relatively little effect on the growth of axons within the cerebral cortex. Further experiments showed that many neurons in the cerebral cortex require the ERK/MAPK pathway to activate genes that alter neuronal activity and the strength of the connections between neurons.

Xing et al.’s findings suggest that defects in the connections between the cerebral cortex and different regions of the nervous system may contribute to the symptoms observed in patients with conditions linked to alterations in ERK/MAPK activity. Future studies will focus on understanding the molecular mechanisms by which ERK/MAPK pathway influences the organization and activity of neuron circuits during the development of the nervous system.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.11123.002

MEK1 dependent and independent ERK activation regulates IL-10 and IL-12 production in bone marrow derived macrophages

The mitogen activated protein kinases ERK1/2 play an important role in response to toll like receptor (TLR) activation and cytokine production, including IL-10 and IL-12. Here, we examined the role of MEK1 in ERK1/2 activation in response to TLR4 agonist by using bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) from wild type (WT) and Mek1(d/d)Sox2(Cre) mice. Our data demonstrates that MEK1 is essential for ERK1/2 activation in response to LPS. Furthermore, stimulation of the TLR4 receptor of BMDMs derived from Mek1(d/d)Sox2(Cre) mice showed enhanced STAT4 phosphorylation and increased IL-12 secretion, but exhibited a significantly lower IL-10 production as compared to WT macrophages. Most interestingly, TLR ligation in the presence of recombinant IL-10 (rIL-10) or retinoic acid (RA) led to ERK1/2 activation independent of MEK1 in BMDMs derived from Mek1(d/d)Sox2(Cre) mice and led to inhibition of STAT4 and decreased IL-12 levels. Collectively, these data suggest that MEK1 is required for TLR4 mediated ERK activation and in turn regulates the production of IL-10 and IL-12. It also indicates that ERK1/2 can be activated independent of MEK1 in the presence of IL-10 and RA and this activation negatively regulates IL-12, but positively regulates IL-10 production. These findings may have significant implications for the development of drugs that modulate MEK1 activity in the treatment of inflammatory, autoimmune and proliferative diseases such as cancer.

Fgf and Esrrb integrate epigenetic and transcriptional networks that regulate self-renewal of trophoblast stem cells

Esrrb (oestrogen-related receptor beta) is a transcription factor implicated in embryonic stem (ES) cell self-renewal, yet its knockout causes intrauterine lethality due to defects in trophoblast development. Here we show that in trophoblast stem (TS) cells, Esrrb is a downstream target of fibroblast growth factor (Fgf) signalling and is critical to drive TS cell self-renewal. In contrast to its occupancy of pluripotency-associated loci in ES cells, Esrrb sustains the stemness of TS cells by direct binding and regulation of TS cell-specific transcription factors including Elf5 and Eomes. To elucidate the mechanisms whereby Esrrb controls the expression of its targets, we characterized its TS cell-specific interactome using mass spectrometry. Unlike in ES cells, Esrrb interacts in TS cells with the histone demethylase Lsd1 and with the RNA Polymerase II-associated Integrator complex. Our findings provide new insights into both the general and context-dependent wiring of transcription factor networks in stem cells by master transcription factors.

ERK (MAPK) does not phosphorylate tau under physiological conditions in vivo or in vitro

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by the deposition of intracellular aggregates of hyperphosphorylated tau protein. Tau hyperphosphorylation has been attributed in part to the deregulation of kinases and phosphatases activities. Extracellular signal regulated-kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2) were reported to be activated in the first stages of Alzheimer's disease and were proposed as a potential therapeutic target. However, although the phosphorylation of tau by ERK1/2 has been demonstrated in cell-free system, it remains controversial in vivo. Here, we showed that pharmacologic inhibition of ERK1/2 in mice and SH-SY5Y cells did not reduce basal levels of phospho-tau or hypothermia-induced tau hyperphosphorylation. We also found that activating ERK1/2 by hyperthermia did not correlate with increased tau phosphorylation. Finally, ERK1/2 was inhibited, but tau phosphorylation was not altered in Mek1-/- mice. In conclusion, these results do not support the involvement of ERK1/2 in tau phosphorylation under physiological conditions.

Crucial requirement of ERK/MAPK signaling in respiratory tract development

The mammalian genome contains two ERK/MAP kinase genes, Mek1 and Mek2, which encode dual-specificity kinases responsible for ERK/MAP kinase activation. In order to define the function of the ERK/MAPK pathway in the lung development in mice, we performed tissue-specific deletions of Mek1 function on a Mek2 null background. Inactivation of both Mek genes in mesenchyme resulted in several phenotypes, including giant omphalocele, kyphosis, pulmonary hypoplasia, defective tracheal cartilage and death at birth. The absence of tracheal cartilage rings establishes the crucial role of intracellular signaling molecules in tracheal chondrogenesis and provides a putative mouse model for tracheomalacia. In vitro, the loss of Mek function in lung mesenchyme did not interfere with lung growth and branching, suggesting that both the reduced intrathoracic space due to the dysmorphic rib cage and the omphalocele impaired lung development in vivo. Conversely, Mek mutation in the respiratory epithelium caused lung agenesis, a phenotype resulting from the direct impact of the ERK/MAPK pathway on cell proliferation and survival. No tracheal epithelial cell differentiation occurred and no SOX2-positive progenitor cells were detected in mutants, implying a role for the ERK/MAPK pathway in trachea progenitor cell maintenance and differentiation. Moreover, these anomalies were phenocopied when the Erk1 and Erk2 genes were mutated in airway epithelium. Thus, the ERK/MAPK pathway is required for the integration of mesenchymal and epithelial signals essential for the development of the entire respiratory tract.

Anesthesia-induced hypothermia mediates decreased ARC gene and protein expression through ERK/MAPK inactivation

Several anesthetics have been reported to suppress the transcription of a number of genes, including Arc, also known as Arg3.1, an immediate early gene that plays a significant role in memory consolidation. The purpose of this study was to explore the mechanism of anesthesia-mediated depression in Arc gene and protein expression. Here, we demonstrate that isoflurane or propofol anesthesia decreases hippocampal Arc protein expression in rats and mice. Surprisingly, this change was secondary to anesthesia-induced hypothermia. Furthermore, we confirm in vivo and in vitro that hypothermia per se is directly responsible for decreased Arc protein levels. This effect was the result of the decline of Arc mRNA basal levels following inhibition of ERK/MAPK by hypothermia. Overall, our results suggest that anesthesia-induced hypothermia leads to ERK inhibition, which in turns decreases Arc levels. These data give new mechanistic insights on the regulation of immediate early genes by anesthesia and hypothermia.

Essential role of the ERK/MAPK pathway in blood-placental barrier formation

The mammalian genome contains two ERK/MAP kinase kinase genes, Map2k1 and Map2k2, which encode dual-specificity kinases responsible for ERK activation. Loss of Map2k1 function in mouse causes embryonic lethality due to placental defects, whereas Map2k2 mutants have a normal lifespan. The majority of Map2k1(+/-) Map2k2(+/-) embryos die during gestation from the underdevelopment of the placenta labyrinth, demonstrating that both kinases are involved in placenta formation. Map2k1(+/-) Map2k2(+/-) mutants show reduced vascularization of the labyrinth and defective formation of syncytiotrophoblast layer II (SynT-II) leading to the accumulation of multinucleated trophoblast giant cells (MTGs). To define the cell type-specific contribution of the ERK/MAPK pathway to placenta development, we performed deletions of Map2k1 function in different Map2k1 Map2k2 allelic backgrounds. Loss of MAP kinase kinase activity in pericytes or in allantois-derived tissues worsens the MTG phenotype. These results define the contribution of the ERK/MAPK pathway in specific embryonic and extraembryonic cell populations for normal placentation. Our data also indicate that MTGs could result from the aberrant fusion of SynT-I and -II. Using mouse genetics, we demonstrate that the normal development of SynT-I into a thin layer of multinucleated cells depends on the presence of SynT-II. Lastly, the combined mutations of Map2k1 and Map2k2 alter the expression of several genes involved in cell fate specification, cell fusion and cell polarity. Thus, appropriate ERK/MAPK signaling in defined cell types is required for the proper growth, differentiation and morphogenesis of the placenta.

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway regulates branching by remodeling epithelial cell adhesion

Although the growth factor (GF) signaling guiding renal branching is well characterized, the intracellular cascades mediating GF functions are poorly understood. We studied mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway specifically in the branching epithelia of developing kidney by genetically abrogating the pathway activity in mice lacking simultaneously dual-specificity protein kinases Mek1 and Mek2. Our data show that MAPK pathway is heterogeneously activated in the subset of G1- and S-phase epithelial cells, and its tissue-specific deletion results in severe renal hypodysplasia. Consequently to the deletion of Mek1/2, the activation of ERK1/2 in the epithelium is lost and normal branching pattern in mutant kidneys is substituted with elongation-only phenotype, in which the epithelium is largely unable to form novel branches and complex three-dimensional patterns, but able to grow without primary defects in mitosis. Cellular characterization of double mutant epithelium showed increased E-cadherin at the cell surfaces with its particular accumulation at baso-lateral locations. This indicates changes in cellular adhesion, which were revealed by electron microscopic analysis demonstrating intercellular gaps and increased extracellular space in double mutant epithelium. When challenged to form monolayer cultures, the mutant epithelial cells were impaired in spreading and displayed strong focal adhesions in addition to spiky E-cadherin. Inhibition of MAPK activity reduced paxillin phosphorylation on serine 83 while remnants of phospho-paxillin, together with another focal adhesion (FA) protein vinculin, were augmented at cell surface contacts. We show that MAPK activity is required for branching morphogenesis, and propose that it promotes cell cycle progression and higher cellular motility through remodeling of cellular adhesions.

Rapamycin induces mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase phosphatase-1 (MKP-1) expression through activation of protein kinase B and mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase pathways

Mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-1 (MKP-1), also known as dual specificity phosphatase-1 (DUSP-1), plays a crucial role in the deactivation of MAPKs. Several drugs with immune-suppressive properties modulate MKP-1 expression as part of their mechanism of action. We investigated the effect of mTOR inhibition through rapamycin and a dual mTOR inhibitor (AZD2014) on MKP-1 expression. Low dose rapamycin led to a rapid activation of both AKT and ERK pathways with a subsequent increase in MKP-1 expression. Rapamycin treatment led to phosphorylation of CREB, transcription factor 1 (ATF1), and ATF2, three transcription factors that bind to the cyclic AMP-responsive elements on the Mkp-1 promoter. Inhibition of either the MEK/ERK or the AKT pathway attenuated rapamycin-mediated MKP-1 induction. AZD2014 did not activate AKT but activated the ERK pathway, leading to a moderate MKP-1 induction. Using bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) derived from wild-type (WT) mice or mice deficient in AKT1 and AKT2 isoforms or BMDM from targeted deficiency in MEK1 and MEK2, we show that rapamycin treatment led to an increased MKP1 expression in BMDM from WT but failed to do so in BMDMs lacking the AKT1 isoform or MEK1 and MEK2. Importantly, rapamycin pretreatment inhibited LPS-mediated p38 activation and decreased nitric oxide and IL-6 production. Our work provides a conceptual framework for the observed immune modulatory effect of mTOR inhibition.

MEK1 is required for PTEN membrane recruitment, AKT regulation, and the maintenance of peripheral tolerance

The Raf/MEK/ERK and PI3K/Akt pathways are prominent effectors of oncogenic Ras. These pathways negatively regulate each other, but the mechanism involved is incompletely understood. We now identify MEK1 as an essential regulator of lipid/protein phosphatase PTEN, through which it controls phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate accumulation and AKT signaling. MEK1 ablation stabilizes AKT activation and, in vivo, causes a lupus-like autoimmune disease and myeloproliferation. Mechanistically, MEK1 is necessary for PTEN membrane recruitment as part of a ternary complex containing the multidomain adaptor MAGI1. Complex formation is independent of MEK1 kinase activity but requires phosphorylation of T292 on MEK1 by activated ERK. Thus, inhibiting the ERK pathway reduces PTEN membrane recruitment, increasing phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate accumulation and AKT activation. Our data offer a conceptual framework for the observation that activation of the PI3K pathway frequently mediate resistance to MEK inhibitors and for the promising results obtained by combined MEK/PI3K inhibition in preclinical cancer models.

ECM-dependent HIF induction directs trophoblast stem cell fate via LIMK1-mediated cytoskeletal rearrangement

The Hypoxia-inducible Factor (HIF) family of transcriptional regulators coordinates the expression of dozens of genes in response to oxygen deprivation. Mammalian development occurs in a hypoxic environment and HIF-null mice therefore die in utero due to multiple embryonic and placental defects. Mouse embryonic stem cells do not differentiate into placental cells; therefore, trophoblast stem cells (TSCs) are used to study mouse placental development. Consistent with a requirement for HIF activity during placental development in utero, TSCs derived from HIF-null mice exhibit severe differentiation defects and fail to form trophoblast giant cells (TGCs) in vitro. Interestingly, differentiating TSCs induce HIF activity independent of oxygen tension via unclear mechanisms. Here, we show that altering the extracellular matrix (ECM) composition upon which TSCs are cultured changes their differentiation potential from TGCs to multinucleated syncytiotropholasts (SynTs) and blocks oxygen-independent HIF induction. We further find that modulation of Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase Kinase-1/2 (MAP2K1/2, MEK-1/2) signaling by ECM composition is responsible for this effect. In the absence of ECM-dependent cues, hypoxia-signaling pathways activate this MAPK cascade to drive HIF induction and redirect TSC fate along the TGC lineage. In addition, we show that integrity of the microtubule and actin cytoskeleton is critical for TGC fate determination. HIF-2α ensures TSC cytoskeletal integrity and promotes invasive TGC formation by interacting with c-MYC to induce non-canonical expression of Lim domain kinase 1-an enzyme that regulates microtubule and actin stability, as well as cell invasion. Thus, we find that HIF can integrate positional and metabolic cues from within the TSC niche to regulate placental development by modulating the cellular cytoskeleton via non-canonical gene expression.

Sexually dimorphic placental development throughout gestation in the spiny mouse (Acomys cahirinus)

OBJECTIVES

It has been hypothesized that male fetuses down regulate placental growth during periods of accelerated fetal growth. We aimed to investigate this, and determine whether sexual dimorphism was apparent in the spiny mouse placenta. We hypothesized that expression of fetal growth promoters would be higher in placentas of males, whereas genes involved in placental structural development would be more highly expressed in placentas of females.

METHODS

Spiny mouse dams, a precocial rodent with an in utero endocrine milieu dissimilar from other rodents, but akin to humans, were sacrificed at gestational ages 15-37 (term = 39 days). Placentas were collected and processed for histology or qPCR analysis of selected genes (GCM1, MAP2K1, SLC2A1, NR3C1, IGF1, IGF1R).

RESULTS

Fetal and placental weights were similar for both sexes. Placentas of female fetuses had less spongy zone (P(SEX) < 0.0001), and more labyrinth (P(SEX) < 0.0001) than males. Early placenta and labyrinth expression of SLC2A1 was higher in males than females (P(SEX) < 0.05). Labyrinthine IGF1R remained constant until term in the female, compared with male where expression increased until term. Peak MAP2K1 expression occurred earlier in the male placenta than the female. Spongy zone SLC2A1 remained constant until term in the female, compared with male where expression increased until term.

CONCLUSIONS

The spiny mouse is a species that exhibits sexually dimorphic placental development. We suggest that these sex differences in placental gene expression and structure may underlie or compound the male vulnerability to a sub-optimal in utero environment.

Network rewiring is an important mechanism of gene essentiality change

Gene essentiality changes are crucial for organismal evolution. However, it is unclear how essentiality of orthologs varies across species. We investigated the underlying mechanism of gene essentiality changes between yeast and mouse based on the framework of network evolution and comparative genomic analysis. We found that yeast nonessential genes become essential in mouse when their network connections rapidly increase through engagement in protein complexes. The increased interactions allowed the previously nonessential genes to become members of vital pathways. By accounting for changes in gene essentiality, we firmly reestablished the centrality-lethality rule, which proposed the relationship of essential genes and network hubs. Furthermore, we discovered that the number of connections associated with essential and non-essential genes depends on whether they were essential in ancestral species. Our study describes for the first time how network evolution occurs to change gene essentiality.

Blimp1/Prdm1 governs terminal differentiation of endovascular trophoblast giant cells and defines multipotent progenitors in the developing placenta

Developmental arrest of Blimp1/Prdm1 mutant embryos at around embryonic day 10.5 (E10.5) has been attributed to placental disturbances. Here we investigate Blimp1/Prdm1 requirements in the trophoblast cell lineage. Loss of function disrupts specification of the invasive spiral artery-associated trophoblast giant cells (SpA-TGCs) surrounding maternal blood vessels and severely compromises the ability of the spongiotrophoblast layer to expand appropriately, secondarily causing collapse of the underlying labyrinth layer. Additionally, we identify a population of proliferating Blimp1(+) diploid cells present within the spongiotrophoblast layer. Lineage tracing experiments exploiting a novel Prdm1.Cre-LacZ allele demonstrate that these Blimp1(+) cells give rise to the mature SpA-TGCs, canal TGCs, and glycogen trophoblasts. In sum, the transcriptional repressor Blimp1/Prdm1 is required for terminal differentiation of SpA-TGCs and defines a lineage-restricted progenitor cell population contributing to placental growth and morphogenesis.

Maternal corticosterone exposure in the mouse has sex-specific effects on placental growth and mRNA expression

Maternal exposure to increased synthetic glucocorticoids (GC) during pregnancy is known to disturb fetal development and increase the risk of long-term disease. Maternal exposure to elevated levels of natural GC is likely to be common yet is relatively understudied. The placenta plays an important role in regulating fetal exposure to maternal GC but is itself vulnerable to maternal insults. This study uses a mouse model of maternal corticosterone (Cort) exposure to investigate its effects on the developing placenta. Mice were treated with Cort (33 μg/kg·h) for 60 h starting at embryonic d 12.5 (E12.5) before collection of placentas at E14.5 and E17.5. Although Cort exposure did not affect fetal size, placentas of male fetuses were larger at E17.5 in association with changes in placental Igf2. This increase in size was associated with an increase in placental thickness and an increase in placental junctional zone volume. Placentas from female fetuses were of normal size and had no changes in growth factor mRNA levels. The expression of the protective enzyme 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 was increased at E14.5 but was decreased in males at E17.5. In contrast, the expression of Nr3c1 (which encodes the GC receptor) was increased during the Cort exposure and remained elevated at E17.5 in the placentas of male fetuses. Our study has shown that maternal Cort exposure infers a sex-specific alteration to normal placental growth and growth factor expression, thus further adding to our understanding of the mechanisms of male dominance of programmed disease.

From the transcription of genes involved in ectodermal dysplasias to the understanding of associated dental anomalies

Orodental anomalies are one aspect of rare diseases and are increasingly identified as diagnostic and predictive traits. To understand the rationale behind gene expression during tooth or other ectodermal derivative development and the disruption of odontogenesis or hair and salivary gland formation in human syndromes we analyzed the expression patterns of a set of genes (Irf6, Nfkbia, Ercc3, Evc2, Map2k1) involved in human ectodermal dysplasias in mouse by in situ hybridization. The expression patterns of Nfkbia, Ercc3 and Evc2 during odontogenesis had never been reported previously. All genes were indeed transcribed in different tissues/organs of ectodermal origin. However, for Nfkbia, Ercc3, Evc2, and Map2k1, signals were also present in the ectomesenchymal components of the tooth germs. These expression patterns were consistent in timing and localization with the known dental anomalies (tooth agenesis, microdontia, conical shape, enamel hypoplasia) encountered in syndromes resulting from mutations in those genes. They could also explain the similar orodental anomalies encountered in some of the corresponding mutant mouse models. Translational approaches in development and medicine are relevant to gain understanding of the molecular events underlying clinical manifestations.

FoxO1 in embryonic development

Establishment of the maternal-fetal circulation during embryonic development is a fundamental process required for effective exchange of nutrients, waste products and signaling factors critical to all subsequent stages of fetal growth and development. Recent work has uncovered a previously unrecognized role of the transcription factor FoxO1 in the orchestration of molecular events underlying establishment of maternal-fetal circulatory interaction. These new data contribute to a larger body of literature implicating this protein in the governance of a wide array of processes during development and beyond.

[Mek1 and Mek2 functions in the formation of the blood placental barrier]

The ERK/MAPK signaling pathway is involved in several cellular functions. Inactivation in mice of genes encoding members of this pathway is often associated with embryonic death resulting from abnormal placental development. The placenta is essential for nutritional and gaseous exchanges between maternal and embryonic circulations, as well as for the removal of metabolic wastes. These exchanges take place without direct contact between the two circulations. In mice, the hematoplacental barrier consists in a triple layer of trophoblast cells and endothelial cells of the embryo. MEK1 and MEK2 are double specificity serine-threonine/tyrosine kinases responsible for the activation of ERK1 and ERK2. Mek1 inactivation results in placental anomalies due to trophoblast cell proliferation and differentiation defects leading to severe delays in the development of placenta and causing the death of the embryo. Although Mek2(-/-) mutant mice survived without any apparent phenotype, double heterozygous Mek1(+/-)Mek2(+/-) mutants die during gestation from placental malformations. Together, these data emphasize the crucial role of the ERK/MAPK cascade in the formation of extraembryonic structures.

Implication of MEK1 and MEK2 in the establishment of the blood-placenta barrier during placentogenesis in mouse

The ERK/MAPK signalling cascade is involved in many cellular functions. In mice, the targeted ablation of genes coding for members of this pathway is often associated with embryonic death due to the abnormal development of the placenta. The placenta is essential for nutritional and gaseous exchanges between maternal and embryonic circulations, as well as for the elimination of metabolic waste. These exchanges occur without direct contact between the two circulations. In mice, the blood-placenta barrier consists of a triple layer of trophoblast cells adjacent to endothelial cells from the embryo. In the ERK/MAPK cascade, MEK1 and MEK2 are dual-specificity kinases responsible for the activation of the ERK1 and ERK2 kinases. Inactivation of Mek1 causes placental malformations resulting from defective proliferation and differentiation of the labyrinthine trophoblast cells and leading to a severe delay in the development and the vascularization of the placenta, which explains the embryonic death. Although Mek2(-/-) mutants survive without any apparent phenotype, a large proportion of Mek1(+/-)Mek2(+/-) double heterozygous mutants die during gestation from placenta anomalies affecting the establishment of the blood-placenta barrier. Together, these data reveal how crucial is the role of the ERK/MAPK pathway during the formation of the placenta.