Serum concentrations of organochlorine pesticides and growth among Russian boys

Origin, dietary exposure, and toxicity of endocrine-disrupting food chemical contaminants: A comprehensive review

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are a growing public health concern worldwide. Consumption of foodstuffs is currently thought to be one of the principal exposure routes to EDCs. However, alternative ways of human exposure are through inhalation of chemicals and dermal contact. These compounds in food products such as canned food, bottled water, dairy products, fish, meat, egg, and vegetables are a ubiquitous concern to the general population. Therefore, understanding EDCs' properties, such as origin, exposure, toxicological impact, and legal aspects are vital to control their release to the environment and food. The present paper provides an overview of the EDCs and their possible disrupting impact on the endocrine system and other organs.

Relationship between Prenatal or Postnatal Exposure to Pesticides and Obesity: A Systematic Review

In recent years, the worldwide prevalence of overweight and obesity among adults and children has dramatically increased. The conventional model regarding the onset of obesity is based on an imbalance between energy intake and expenditure. However, other possible environmental factors involved, such as the exposure to chemicals like pesticides, cannot be discarded. These compounds could act as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDC) that may interfere with hormone activity related to several mechanisms involved in body weight control. The main objective of this study was to systematically review the data provided in the scientific literature for a possible association between prenatal and postnatal exposure to pesticides and obesity in offspring. A total of 25 human and 9 animal studies were analyzed. The prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal exposure to organophosphate, organochlorine, pyrethroid, neonicotinoid, and carbamate, as well as a combined pesticide exposure was reviewed. This systematic review reveals that the effects of pesticide exposure on body weight are mostly inconclusive, finding conflicting results in both humans and experimental animals. The outcomes reviewed are dependent on many factors, including dosage and route of administration, species, sex, and treatment duration. More research is needed to effectively evaluate the impact of the combined effects of different pesticides on human health.

Hair versus urine for the biomonitoring of pesticide exposure: Results from a pilot cohort study on pregnant women

BACKGROUND/AIM

The quantitative assessment of human exposure to contaminants such as pesticides is a crucial step in the characterization of exposure-associated risk. For this purpose, biomonitoring is often privileged as it presents the advantage of integrating all the possible sources and routes of exposure and of being representative of the internal dose resulting from exposure. Although biological fluids such as urine and blood have been used to date for this purpose, increasing interest has also been observed over the past decade for hair analysis. The present work aimed at comparing the information obtained from the analysis of urine versus hair regarding exposure to pesticides in a pilot cohort of pregnant women.

METHODS

In ninety-three pregnant women included in the pilot of the French cohort ELFE, one urine and one hair sample were collected simultaneously from each subject at the maternity. Samples were analyzed using GC-MS/MS analytical methods allowing for the detection of both parent pesticides and metabolites, and designed to be as similar as possible between urine and hair for reliable inter-matrix comparison. Fifty-two biomarkers of exposure were targeted, including parents and metabolites of organochlorines, organophosphates, pyrethroids, carbamates, phenylpyrazoles and other pesticides.

RESULTS

The number of different compounds detected ranged from 16 to 27 (median = 22) in hair, and from 3 to 22 (median = 12) in urine. In hair, 24 compounds were found in > 40% of the individuals, whereas only 12 compounds presented the same frequency of detection in urine. Among the chemicals detected in > 80% of both hair and urine samples, only one (pentachlorophenol) showed a signification correlation between hair and urine concentrations.

CONCLUSIONS

The present results highlight the multiple exposure of the pregnant women included in this cohort and suggest that hair provides more comprehensive information on pesticide exposure than urine analysis. This study thus supports the relevance of hair analysis in future epidemiological studies investigating association between exposure and adverse health effects.

Prenatal exposure to organochlorine pesticides and infant growth: A longitudinal study

BACKGROUND

The association between exposure to organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and infant growth has been reported contradictorily in previous studies. Few studies have investigated the effects of prenatal exposure to OCPs on infant growth assessed longitudinally at multiple time points.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of the study was to examine the associations between prenatal exposure to OCPs and infant growth at birth, 6, 12 and 24 months of age, and further to explore the potential sex-specific effects.

METHODS

The study population included 1039 mother-infant pairs who participated in a birth cohort study in Wuhan, China. The weight, length and body mass index (BMI) z-score of infants were measured and calculated at birth, 6, 12 and 24 months of age. The overweight status was defined as BMI z-score ≥ 85th percentile according to the standard of World Health Organization. The concentrations of OCPs were measured in cord serum, including hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs, consisted of α-HCH, β-HCH, and γ-HCH), p,p'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (p,p'-DDT) and its metabolites: p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (p,p'-DDD), and p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE). Generalized linear models were applied to estimate the associations of cord OCPs with infant growth parameters. A group-based semiparametric mixture model was used to estimate growth patterns of infants. Linear-mixed growth curve models were used to examine relationships between predicted growth trajectories and prenatal exposure to OCPs. Weighted quantile sum regression (WQSR) analyses were used to estimate the mixture effects of OCPs on infant growth.

RESULTS

Higher cord serum β-HCH concentrations were associated with higher BMI z-score at 12 [β = 0.07, 95%CI: 0.01, 0.13] and 24 months of age [β = 0.08, 95% CI: 0.02, 0.14]. Similar patterns were observed for relationships of γ-HCH [β = 0.04, 95%CI: 0.01, 0.07] and p,p'-DDT [β = 0.03, 95% CI: 0.00, 0.06] with BMI z-score at 6 and 12 months of age, respectively. However, higher cord serum p,p'-DDE concentrations were associated with a reduction of BMI z-score at 6 months of age [β = -0.07, 95% CI: -0.12, -0.01]. Cord serum β-HCH was also positively associated with the risk of overweight at 12 months of age [RR = 1.16, 95% CI (1.02, 1.33), for the medium vs the lowest tertile]. Among girls, the effects of β-HCH on BMI z-score and overweight status were stronger than boys at 12 and 24 months of age. No statistically significant relationships of other OCPs with infant growth were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Prenatal exposure to β-HCH was associated with increased BMI z-score and higher risk of overweight status in infants especially at 12 and 24 months of age, which seemed to be stronger in girls.

Sex differences in the effects of lead exposure on growth and development in young children

The adverse effects of lead exposure on children's health have been widely investigated. Physical growth is a central indicator of health in early childhood. However, studies on the associations between lead exposure and the physical growth of young children are still equivocal. This study aimed to investigate the effects of lead exposure on young children's growth. A cross-sectional survey was conducted, and a total of 1678 young children were recruited. Blood lead levels were determined by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometry and anthropometric measurements were obtained by nurses. The weight-for-age Z-score (WAZ), height-for-age Z-score (HAZ) and BMI for-age Z-score (BMIZ) of the children were calculated according to World Health Organization standards. Multivariable linear models after adjustment for potential confounders were used to evaluate the associations between lead exposure and childhood anthropometric characteristics. Meanwhile, the sex differences in these associations were also examined. The median blood lead levels in total subjects, in boys and in girls were 46.44, 49.00 and 43.27 μg/L, respectively. After adjusting for confounders, a significantly negative association of blood lead levels with WAZ and HAZ was observed. After stratification by sex, the blood lead levels in children were negatively associated with WAZ and HAZ in boys but not in girls. Meanwhile, we further provide evidence that blood lead levels below 50 μg/L may also have adverse effects on young children's HAZ. Our findings suggest that lead exposure may have sex-specific effects on physical growth in young children and that blood lead level in a low levels may also have adverse effects on children's physical growth and development.

Comparison of bioimpedance body composition in young adults in the Russian Children's Study

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Body mass index is a simple anthropometric measure (kg/m²) used as an indirect estimate of body fat in individuals, and in assessments of population health and comparisons between populations. Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is often used to provide additional information on body fat and fat-free mass, and has been used to generate body composition reference data in national health surveys. However, BIA measurements are known to be device-specific and there are few published studies comparing results from different BIA instruments. Therefore, we compared the performance of two BIA instruments in the Russian Children's Study (RCS) of male growth, pubertal development and maturation.

METHODS

Paired BIA measurements were obtained using the Tanita BC-418MA (Tanita Corp., Tokyo, Japan) and ABC-01 'Medas' (Medas Ltd, Moscow, Russia) BIA instruments. Cross-sectional data on 236 RCS subjects aged 18-22 years were used for the BIA comparison and the development of a conversion formula between measured resistances; follow-up data (n = 96) were used for validation of the conversion formula.

RESULTS

Whole-body resistances were highly correlated (Spearman rho = 0.95), but fat mass (FM) estimates were significantly higher with the Medas than the Tanita device (median difference 3.3 kg, 95% CI: 2.9, 3.6 kg) with large limits of agreement (LoA) for the FM difference (-2.0, 8.6 kg). A conversion formula between the resistances (Res) was obtained: Medas Res = 0.882 × Tanita Res+26.2 (r² = 0.91, SEE = 17.6 Ohm). After applying the conversion formula to Tanita data and application of the Medas assessment algorithm, the 'converted' Tanita FM estimates closely matched the Medas original estimates (median difference -0.1 kg, 95% CI: -0.3, 0.2 kg), with relatively small LoA for the FM difference (-2.3 to 2.1 kg), suggesting potential interchangeability of the ABC-01 'Medas' and Tanita BC-418MA data at the group level.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results support the importance of cross-calibration of BIA instruments for population comparisons and proper data interpretation in clinical and epidemiological studies.

Temporal trends of legacy and emerging persistent organic pollutants in inuit preschoolers from Northern Quebec (Canada)

In this study, we report the temporal trends of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in 181 preschool Inuit children from Nunavik and the influence of confounding factors on blood contaminant levels. From 2006 to 2010, no significant trends were detected in Σpolychlorinated biphenyls (ΣPCBs), Σorganochlorine pesticides (ΣOPs), Σtoxaphene, and Σper- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (ΣPFASs). On the contrary, significant downward trends ranging from 9.3% to 14.3% per year were found for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). Breastfeeding was significantly associated with increased levels of POPs. Age was positively and significantly related to ΣPCBs, ΣOPs and Σtoxaphene. Compared with girls, boys had significantly higher concentrations of ΣPBDEs, but lower concentrations of ΣPFASs. Weight-for-height or body mass index z-scores were negatively and significantly related to ΣPCBs and ΣOPs. Passive smoking was positively and significantly associated with ΣOPs and Σtoxaphene. In conclusion, continued efforts to reduce contaminant exposure are needed to protect children's health and development.

A review of environmental and health effects of organochlorine pesticide residues in Africa

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are generally categorized as chlorinated cyclodienes, chlorodiphenylethanes, chlorinated benzenes and cyclohexanes. The presence of OCP residues in foodstuffs, water, soil, sediments, blood serum and air has generated a surge of global interest. This is due to their severe environmental and health ill-effects. OCPs are characteristically described as persistent and bio-accumulating substances prone to long-range transportation. The aim of this present study is to assess the environmental and health risks associated with OCP residues. Published works on OCPs in surface water, sediments and fish samples were reviewed. Possible non-carcinogenic (Hazard Quotient, HQ and Hazard Index, HI) and carcinogenic (Cancer Risk, CR) health effects of OCPs were assessed in fish samples. High concentrations of OCP residues were determined in environmental samples from African countries. The non-carcinogenic health assessment of OCPs in most fish samples from Nigeria revealed HI values greater than 1.0 establishing their adverse effects. The CR data of OCPs in fish samples also showed values higher than the permissible standard of 1.0 × 10^-4 indicating possible development of cancer through fish consumption.

Maternal Peripartum Serum DDT/E and Urinary Pyrethroid Metabolite Concentrations and Child Infections at 2 Years in the VHEMBE Birth Cohort

BACKGROUND

Indoor residual spraying (IRS) of insecticides, conducted in low- and middle-income countries to control malaria, may result in high exposure to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), its breakdown product dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), or pyrethroids. Animal studies suggest in utero exposure to these chemicals may increase childhood infection frequency.

OBJECTIVES

We investigated associations between maternal DDT/E and pyrethroid metabolite concentration and child infection associations in an IRS setting in which susceptibility factors are common and infections are leading causes of child morbidity and mortality.

METHODS

Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, we measured serum DDT/E and urinary pyrethroid metabolite concentrations in peripartum samples from 674 women participating in the Venda Health Examination of Mother, Babies and their Environment (VHEMBE) study. Counts of persistent child fevers, otitis media, and severe sore throat between 1 and 2 y of age were ascertained from maternal interviews. Associations between DDT/E and pyrethroid metabolite concentrations and infections were estimated using zero-inflated Poisson regression. We estimated relative excess risks due to interaction (RERI) with poverty, maternal energy intake, and maternal HIV status.

RESULTS

Concentrations of DDT/E, particularly p,p'-DDE, were associated with higher rates of persistent fevers [IRR=1.21 (95% CI: 1.01, 1.46)], for a 10-fold increase in p,p'-DDE). This association was stronger among children from households below versus above the South African food poverty line [IRR=1.31 (95% CI: 1.08, 1.59) vs. IRR=0.93 (95% CI: 0.69, 1.25), respectively] and for children whose mothers had insufficient versus sufficient caloric intake during pregnancy [IRR=1.30 (95% CI: 1.07, 1.58) vs. IRR=0.96 (95% CI: 0.72, 1.28), respectively].

CONCLUSIONS

In utero IRS insecticide exposure may increase childhood infection rates. This was particularly apparent among children from poorer households or whose mothers had low energy intake during pregnancy. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP2657.

Dietary patterns and serum of DDT concentrations among reproductive-aged group of women in Bangladesh

This research was conducted in order to propose ways to reduce human exposure to DDT, especially for women of reproductive age in Bangladesh, and to find a relation between DDT exposure levels in serum and questionnaire information including sociodemographic and food frequency (FFQ). In this study, a significant relationship was found between the education level and BMI, and the serum p,p'-DDE concentration. This result suggests that people with higher education (relating to higher income) and BMI in Bangladesh actively buy expensive foodstuff, like meat and/or fatty fish, which relates to a higher fat intake. Additionally, a weak positive relationship between p,p'-DDE concentration in serum and the frequency of beef consumption was observed among the nullipara women subgroup. In a previous study, beef and fish showed large contributions on DDT intake of Bangladesh population. Those results suggest that the control of fatty food consumption such as meat (beef) and marine fish might help to regulate the levels of DDT.

Adipose Tissue as a Site of Toxin Accumulation

We examine the role of adipose tissue, typically considered an energy storage site, as a potential site of toxicant accumulation. Although the production of most persistent organic pollutants (POPs) was banned years ago, these toxicants persist in the environment due to their resistance to biodegradation and widespread distribution in various environmental forms (e.g., vapor, sediment, and water). As a result, human exposure to these toxicants is inevitable. Largely due to their lipophilicity, POPs bioaccumulate in adipose tissue, resulting in greater body burdens of these environmental toxicants with obesity. POPs of major concern include polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PCDDs/PCDFs), and polybrominated biphenyls and diphenyl ethers (PBBs/PBDEs), among other organic compounds. In this review, we (i) highlight the physical characteristics of toxicants that enable them to partition into and remain stored in adipose tissue, (ii) discuss the specific mechanisms of action by which these toxicants act to influence adipocyte function, and (iii) review associations between POP exposures and the development of obesity and diabetes. An area of controversy relates to the relative potential beneficial versus hazardous health effects of toxicant sequestration in adipose tissue. © 2017 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 7:1085-1135, 2017.

Peripubertal blood lead levels and growth among Russian boys

BACKGROUND

Childhood blood lead levels (BLL) have been associated with growth impairment.

OBJECTIVES

We assessed associations of peripubertal BLL with adolescent growth and near adult height in a longitudinal cohort of Russian boys.

METHODS

481 boys were enrolled at ages 8-9years and followed annually to age 18. At enrollment, BLL was measured, and height, weight, and pubertal staging were obtained annually during 10years of follow-up. Mixed effects models were used to assess the associations of BLL with longitudinal age-adjusted World Health OrganizationZ-scores for height (HT-Z) and body mass index (BMI-Z), and annual height velocity (HV). Interactions between boys' age and BLL on growth outcomes were evaluated.

RESULTS

The median (range) BLL was 3.0 (0.5-31.0) μg/dL. At age 18years, 79% of boys had achieved near adult height (HV <1.0cm/year), and means (SD) for HT-Z and BMI-Z were 0.15 (0.92) and -0.32 (1.24). Over 10years of follow-up, after covariate adjustment, boys with higher (≥5μg/dL) BLL compared with lower BLL were shorter (adjusted mean difference in HT-Z=-0.43, 95% CI -0.60, -0.25, p-value <0.001), translating to a 2.5cm lower height at age 18years. The decrement in height for boys with higher BLL was most pronounced at 12 to 15years of age (interaction p=0.03). Boys with higher BLL were leaner (adjusted mean difference in BMI-Z=-0.22, 95% CI: -0.45, 0.01, p=0.06).

CONCLUSIONS

Higher peripubertal BLLs were associated with shorter height through age 18years, suggesting a persistent effect of lead on linear growth.

Organochlorine pesticide concentrations in pooled serum of people in different age groups from five Chinese cities

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) were determined in human serum samples pooled by donor age (≥60, 50-59, 40-49, 30-39, and 20-29y). The pooled samples were supplied by hospitals in five Chinese cities, Yitong (Jilin Province), Weifang (Shandong Province), Ganzi (Sichuan Province), Huaihua (Hunan Province), and Lingshui (Hainan Province). p,p'-Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), β-hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), and endosulfan I were the dominant OCPs in the serum samples. The total OCP concentrations and individual concentrations of p,p'-DDE, HCB, and β-HCH were relatively high compared with concentrations that have been found in other parts of the world. The total OCP, p,p'-DDE, and β-HCH concentrations decreased as age decreased but the HCB and endosulfan I concentrations were slightly higher in the samples from younger donors than in samples from older donors. HCB must be currently used and have new sources to people to cause this. Chinese government policies and the characteristics of the OCPs have led to OCP concentrations in serum decreasing with decreasing age. Different OCP usage patterns in different Chinese cities have led to the inhabitants of different cities having different OCP distributions in their serum.

Concentrations of organochlorine pesticides in pooled human serum by age and gender

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) have been used for many decades in Australia with cessation of selected persistent and bioaccumulative OCPs ranging from the 1970s to as recently as 2007. The specific aims of this study were to use samples representative of an Australian population to assess age and gender differences in the concentration of OCPs in human blood sera and to investigate temporal trends in these chemicals. Serum was collected from de-identified, surplus pathology samples over five time periods (2002/03, 2006/07, 2008/09, 2010/11 and 2012/13), with 183 serum pools made from 12,175 individual samples; 26 pools in 2002/03, 85 pools in 2006/07 and 24 pools each in 2008/09, 2010/11 and 2012/13. Samples were analyzed for hexachlorobenzene (HCB), β-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH), γ -hexachlorocyclohexane (lindane) (γ-HCH), oxy-chlordane, trans-nonachlor, p,p'-DDE, o,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDT and Mirex. Stratification criteria included gender and age (0-4; 5-15; 16-30; 31-45; 46-60; and >60 years) with age additionally stratified by adults >16 years and children 0-4 and 5-15 years. All pools from all collection periods had detectable concentrations of OCPs with a detection frequency of >60% for HCB, β-HCH, trans-nonachlor, p,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE. The overall OCP concentrations increased with age with the highest concentrations in the >60 years groups. Females did not have higher mean OCP concentrations than males except for HCB concentrations (p=0.0006). Temporal trends showed overall decreasing serum concentrations by collection period with the exception of an increase in OCP concentrations between 2006/07 and 2008/09. Excluding this data point, HCB decreased from year to year by 7-76%; β-HCH concentrations decreased by 14 - 38%; trans-nonachlor concentrations decreased by 10 - 65%; p,p'-DDE concentrations decreased by 6 - 52%; and p,p'-DDT concentrations decreased by 7 - 30%. The results indicate that OCP concentrations have decreased over time as is to be expected following the phase out of these chemicals in Australia.

The association of peripubertal serum concentrations of organochlorine chemicals and blood lead with growth and pubertal development in a longitudinal cohort of boys: a review of published results from the Russian Children's Study

Organochlorine chemicals and lead are environmental exposures that have endocrine disrupting properties (EDCs) which interfere with many aspects of hormone action. Childhood and adolescence are windows of susceptibility for adverse health effects of EDCs. Our ongoing study, the Russian Children's Study (RCS), is one of the few longitudinal studies investigating the impact of EDCs on growth and puberty in boys. It is conducted in the historically contaminated city of Chapaevsk, in the Samara region. The study focuses on evaluating the associations of persistent organochlorine chemicals and lead with growth and pubertal timing. At enrollment in 2003-2005, we collected blood from 516 boys at ages 8-9 years to measure dioxins, furans, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), chlorinated pesticides and lead. At enrollment and at annual visits through the ages of 18-19 years, a physician performed physical examinations that included pubertal staging and testicular volume measurements. We review the history of Chapaevsk as a research site and summarize published RCS data on the association of peripubertal serum concentrations of organochlorines and blood lead levels with growth, pubertal onset and sexual maturity. Overall, we found that persistent organochlorines and lead negatively affected growth during puberty. Our results also suggest that total toxic equivalents (TEQs), dioxin-like compounds, organochlorine pesticides and lead may delay, while nondioxin-like-PCBs may advance, the timing of male puberty. These findings promoted remediation programs in Chapaevsk, with improvement in health indicators, resulting in Chapaevsk being designated a member of the World Health Organization (WHO) network "Healthy Cities" in 2015.

Biomonitoring of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in child populations living near contaminated sites in Mexico

The aim of this study was to conduct a POP biomonitoring programme for children in high-risk areas. We evaluated 247 serum samples from children between the ages of 6 and 12years old from two zones in Mexico: (1) indigenous zones, which included Cuatlamayan (CUA), Tocoy (TOC), and Santa Maria Picula (SAM); and (2) industrial zones, which included Tercera Chica (TC), Industrial San Luis (IND) and Rincon de San Jose (SJR); Mundo Nuevo (MN); and Alpuyeca (ALP). Our results showed that α-endosulfan was similar to CUA, TOC, SAM, TC and MN (178.6-306.9ng/g lipid). β-Endosulfan levels were higher in ALP (901.5ng/g lipid), followed by CUA (139.9ng/g lipid) and TOC, SAM, TC and MN, which had similar levels (55.4-64.5ng/g lipid). For endosulfan sulfate, the ALP community had the highest concentration levels (1096.4ng/g lipid), whereas CUA and TOC (212.3 and 289ng/g lipid, respectively) had concentrations similar to those found in SAM and TC (99.5 and 119.1ng/g lipid, respectively). DDE levels were found in malaria-endemic areas of SAM, CUA and TOC (1782.2, 1358.3 and 57.0ng/g lipid), followed by MN (35.1ng/g lipid). HCB concentration levels were found to be higher in MN and SJR (691.8 and 575.4ng/g lipid, respectively), followed by CUA and TC (363.9 and 269.1ng/g lipid, respectively), with levels similar to those found in TOC and SAM (191.8 and 181.9ng/g lipid, respectively). Finally, PCB 101 concentration levels were found to be the highest in ALP (1032.7ng/g lipid), followed by similar levels of SJR and IND (567.5 and 327.3ng/g lipid, respectively) and TC and MN, with 109.1 and 144.5ng/g lipid, respectively. The evidence provided by this exploratory study indicates that the evaluation of the health risks posed to children living in contaminated areas is a high priority health issue.

Hair analysis for the biomonitoring of pesticide exposure: comparison with blood and urine in a rat model

Urine and plasma have been used to date for the biomonitoring of exposure to pollutants and are still the preferred fluids for this purpose; however, these fluids mainly provide information on the short term and may present a high level of variability regarding pesticide concentrations, especially for nonpersistent compounds. Hair analysis may provide information about chronic exposure that is averaged over several months; therefore, this method has been proposed as an alternative to solely relying on these fluids. Although the possibility of detecting pesticides in hair has been demonstrated over the past few years, the unknown linkage between exposure and pesticides concentration in hair has limited the recognition of this matrix as a relevant tool for assessing human exposure. Based on a rat model in which there was controlled exposure to a mixture of pesticides composed of lindane, β-hexachlorocyclohexane, β-endosulfan, p,p′-DDT, p,p′-DDE, dieldrin, pentachlorophenol, diazinon, chlorpyrifos, cyhalothrin, permethrin, cypermethrin, propiconazole, fipronil, oxadiazon, diflufenican, trifluralin, carbofuran, and propoxur, the current work demonstrates the association between exposure intensity and resulting pesticide concentration in hair. We also compared the results obtained from a hair analysis to urine and plasma collected from the same rats. Hair, blood, and urine were collected from rats submitted to 90-day exposure by gavage to the aforementioned mixture of common pesticides at different levels. We observed a linear relationship between exposure intensity and the concentration of pesticides in the rats’ hair (R_Pearson 0.453–0.978, p < 0.01). A comparison with results from urine and plasma samples demonstrated the relevance of hair analysis and, for many chemicals, its superiority over using fluids for differentiating animals from different groups and for re-attributing animals to their correct groups of exposure based on pesticide concentrations in the matrix. Therefore, this study strongly supports hair analysis as a reliable tool to be used during epidemiological studies to investigate exposure-associated adverse health effects.

Developmental Exposure to Environmental Chemicals and Metabolic Changes in Children

The incidence of childhood obesity, type 2 diabetes, and other forms of metabolic disease have been rising over the past several decades. Although diet and physical activity play important roles in these trends, other environmental factors also may contribute to this significant public health issue. In this article, we discuss the possibility that widespread exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) may contribute to the development of metabolic diseases in children. We summarize the epidemiological evidence on exposure to environmental chemicals during early development and metabolic outcomes in infants and children. Prenatal exposure to EDCs, particularly the persistent organic pollutant DDT and its metabolite DDE, may influence growth patterns during infancy and childhood. The altered growth patterns associated with EDCs vary according to exposure level, sex, exposure timing, pubertal status, and age at which growth is measured. Early exposure to air pollutants also is linked to impaired metabolism in infants and children. As a result of these and other studies, professional health provider societies have called for a reduction in environmental chemical exposures. We summarize the resources available to health care providers to counsel patients on how to reduce chemical exposures. We conclude with a discussion of environmental policies that address chemical exposures and ultimately aim to improve public health.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in populations of the clam Chione californiensis in coastal lagoons of the Gulf of California

This study examines the potential public health risk due to the massive use of organochlorine pesticides (OCs) in agriculture in the Gulf of California. Specimens of the clam Chione californiensis were collected from three coastal lagoons (Yavaros, Altata and Reforma). Sites were classified as polluted/nonpolluted based on the presence/absence of OCs as an indicator of the persistence of these pollutants; in polluted sites, the time elapsed since pesticide application (past or recent) was estimated. Screening values (SV) for protecting human health as per the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) were used for risk assessment. OCs detected were ranked according to frequency of occurrence as follows: γ-chlordane (75%) > endrin (54%) > aldrin (48%) > heptachlor, and dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane (DDE) (37%) > β-heptachlor epoxide (30%) > lindane (α-BHC, δ-BHC) and endosulphan I (≤ 6%). Specifically, OCs detected at the highest concentration were heptachlor in Yavaros (0.0168 µgg(-1)) and Altata (0.0046 µgg(-1)), and aldrin in Reforma (0.0019 µgg(-1)). β-Heptachlor epoxide in Altata and Reforma was the only OC with a concentration exceeding the EPA Screening Value. From our results and based on the monthly consumption limit set forth by EPA, the maximum safe consumption of clams to avoid a carcinogenic risk derived from β-heptachlor epoxide in the fishing villages of Yavaros and Altata is 4 servings per month (1 serving = 0.227 kg) by a 70-kg person. These findings suggest that concentrations of OCs and their isomers in C. californiensis populations reflect environmental persistence as well as recent inputs of OCs into coastal lagoons in the Gulf of California.

Organochlorine pesticides and female puberty in South Kazakhstan

The purpose of the study was to assess the puberty of females living in cotton-growing regions of South Kazakhstan, where organochlorine pesticides are widely used. The physical growth and sexual development were assessed; organochlorine pesticides, gonadotropic and steroid hormones, as well as insulin-like growth factor 1 in the peripheral blood were determined. 524 females (adolescents aged 10-17) were examined. They were divided into 2 groups, depending on their place of residence. The clinical research included the assessment of physical and sexual development. All examined females lived in rural areas, i.e. they were comparable in terms of social, welfare, and climatographic factors. A high concentration of organochlorine pesticides (lindane-18.51±0.16mg/l, dieldrin-169.16±3.13mg/l, DDT-177.78±2.71mg/l, endrin-37.57±0.9mg/l) in the blood of females living in regions exposed to pesticides compared to their peers (4.05±0.41mg/l, 30.8±3.7mg/l, 109.7±2.58mg/l, 4.85±0.69mg/l respectively) was found (p<0.001). The physical and sexual development of such females was delayed. The research established a correlation between the concentration of pesticides and the endocrine status, as well as with the insulin-like growth factor 1. This shows the adverse effect of organochlorine pesticides on the development of the female reproductive system during puberty.

Serum concentrations of PCBs and OCPs among prepubertal Korean children

Although children are more vulnerable than adults to environmental hazards, due to their physiological and behavioral characteristics, few studies have assessed their internal exposure to persistent organic pollutants (POPs). The objective of this study was to determine the serum levels of certain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) among pre-pubertal children in Korea and examine their variation with age and gender. We analyzed a total of 51 POPs in 214 children (age range, 7-9 years), using data from the Ewha Birth and Growth Cohort Study. To examine change over time, POP concentrations were measured at both 7 and 9 years of age in a sub-cohort of 26 children. The median and interquartile range (IQR, 25th to 75th percentiles) data for the sum of PCB congeners was 26.44 ng/g lipid (18.27-37.63 ng/g lipid). The median (IQR) concentration for the sum of OCPs was 74.82 ng/g lipid (51.11-112.45 ng/g lipid). Our results showed significant increases in serum concentrations of total PCBs with age (p = 0.0001), no gender dependence of total PCBs (p = 0.38) and total OCPs (p = 0.12), and strong correlations between individual POPs. Childhood exposure to POPs was relatively low compared to other studies carried out in different countries. However, even though the use of POPs has been banned since 2001, our results indicated that children in the general population are still exposed to various POPs. Because long-term, low-level exposure to POPs in the general population remains a concern for human health, future research should examine major routes of exposure and identification of risk factors.

Prepubertal Serum Concentrations of Organochlorine Pesticides and Age at Sexual Maturity in Russian Boys

BACKGROUND

Few human studies have evaluated the impact of childhood exposure to organochlorine pesticides (OCP) on pubertal development.

OBJECTIVE

We evaluated associations of serum OCP concentrations [hexachlorobenzene (HCB), β-hexachlorocyclohexane (βHCH), and p,p-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p´-DDE)] with age at attainment of sexual maturity among boys.

METHODS

From 2003 through 2005, 350 8- to 9-year-old boys from Chapaevsk, Russia, with measured OCPs were enrolled and followed annually for 8 years. We used multivariable interval-censored models to evaluate associations of OCPs (quartiles) with three physician-assessed measures of sexual maturity: Tanner stage 5 for genitalia growth, Tanner stage 5 for pubic hair growth, or testicular volume (TV) ≥ 20 mL in either testis.

RESULTS

In adjusted models, boys with higher HCB concentrations achieved sexual maturity reflected by TV ≥ 20 mL a mean of 3.1 months (95% CI: -1.7, 7.8), 5.3 months (95% CI: 0.6, 10.1), and 5.0 months (95% CI: 0.2, 9.8) later for quartiles Q2, Q3, and Q4, respectively, compared with Q1 (p trend = 0.04). Tanner stage 5 for genitalia growth was attained a mean of 2.2 months (95% CI: -3.1, 7.5), 5.7 months (95% CI: 0.4, 11.0), and 3.7 months (95% CI: -1.7, 9.1) later for quartiles Q2, Q3, and Q4, respectively, of βHCH compared with Q1 (p trend = 0.09). Tanner stage 5 for pubic hair growth occurred 6-9 months later on average for boys in the highest versus lowest quartile for HCB (p trend < 0.001), βHCH (trend p = 0.01), and p,p´-DDE (p trend = 0.04). No associations were observed between p,p´-DDE and Tanner stage 5 for genitalia growth or TV ≥ 20 mL.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Higher prepubertal serum HCB and βHCH concentrations were associated with a later age at attainment of sexual maturity. Only the highest quartile of serum p,p´-DDE was associated with later pubic hair maturation.

CITATION

Lam T, Williams PL, Lee MM, Korrick SA, Birnbaum LS, Burns JS, Sergeyev O, Revich B, Altshul LM, Patterson DG Jr, Hauser R. 2015. Prepubertal serum concentrations of organochlorine pesticides and age at sexual maturity in Russian boys. Environ Health Perspect 123:1216-1221; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1409022.

Perinatal exposure to chlordecone and infant growth

BACKGROUND

The intensive use of chlordecone (an organochlorine insecticide) in the French West Indies until 1993 resulted in a long-term soil and water contamination. Chlordecone has known hormonal properties and exposure through contaminated food during critical periods of development (gestation and early infancy) may affect growth.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to assess the impact of prenatal and postnatal exposure to chlordecone on the growth of children from the TIMOUN mother-child cohort.

METHODS

Chlordecone was determined in cord plasma at birth (N=222) and in breast milk samples (at 3 months). Dietary chlordecone intake was estimated at 7 and 18 months, with food-frequency questionnaires and food-specific contamination data. Anthropometric measurements were taken at the 3-, 7- and 18-month visits and measurements reported in the infants' health records were noted. Structured Jenss-Bayley growth models were fitted to individual height and weight growth trajectories. The impact of exposure on growth curve parameters was estimated directly with adjusted mixed non-linear models. Weight, height and body mass index (BMI), and instantaneous height and weight growth velocities at specific ages were also analyzed relative to exposure.

RESULTS

Chlordecone in cord blood was associated with a higher BMI in boys at 3 months, due to greater weight and lower height, and in girls at 8 and 18 months, mostly due to lower height. Postnatal exposure was associated with lower height, weight and BMI at 3, 8 and 18 months, particularly in girls.

CONCLUSION

Chlordecone exposure may affect growth trajectories in children aged 0 to 18 months.

Prepubertal organochlorine pesticide concentrations and age of pubertal onset among Russian boys

BACKGROUND

In animal studies, organochlorine pesticide (OCP) exposure alters pubertal development; however, epidemiological data are limited and inconsistent.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the associations of serum OCP concentrations [hexachlorobenzene (HCB), β-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH), and p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE)] with male pubertal onset.

METHODS

In Chapaevsk, Russia, a town environmentally contaminated with OCPs, 350 8-9 year old boys with measured OCPs were enrolled during 2003-2005 and were followed annually for eight years. We evaluated three measures of pubertal onset: testicular volume (TV)>3 mL in either testis, or stage 2 or greater for genitalia (G2+), or pubic hair (P2+). We used multivariable interval-censored models to evaluate associations of OCPs (quartiles) with physician-assessed pubertal onset.

RESULTS

In adjusted models, boys with higher HCB concentrations had later mean ages of TV>3 mL and P2+ (but not G2+). Mean age at attaining TV>3 mL was delayed 3.6 (95% CI: -2.6, 9.7), 7.9 (95% CI: 1.7, 14.0), and 4.7 months (95% CI: -1.4, 10.9) for HCB Q2, Q3, and Q4, respectively, compared to Q1 (trend p: 0.06). Boys with higher HCB concentrations reached P2+ 0.1 months earlier (95% CI: -5.8, 5.6) for Q2, 4.7 months later (95% CI: -1.0, 10.3) for Q3 and 4.6 months later (95% CI: -1.1, 10.3) for Q4 compared to Q1 (trend p: 0.04). There were no associations of serum β-HCH and p,p'-DDE concentrations with age of pubertal onset.

CONCLUSION

Higher prepubertal serum HCB concentrations were associated with later age of gonadarche and pubarche.

Association between chlorinated pesticides in the serum of prepubertal Russian boys and longitudinal biomarkers of metabolic function

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) have been linked to adult metabolic disorders; however, few studies have examined these associations in childhood. We prospectively evaluated the associations of baseline serum OCPs (hexachlorobenzene, β-hexachlorocyclohexane, and p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene) in Russian boys with subsequent repeated measurements of serum glucose, insulin, lipids, leptin, and calculated homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (IR). During 2003-2005, we enrolled 499 boys aged 8-9 years in a prospective cohort; 318 had baseline serum OCPs and serum biomarkers measured at ages 10-13 years. Multivariable generalized estimating equation and mediation regression models were used to examine associations and direct and indirect (via body mass index (BMI) (weight (kg)/height (m)(2))) effects of prepubertal OCP tertiles and quintiles with biomarkers. In multivariable models, higher p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (quintile 5 vs. quintile 1) was associated with lower leptin, with relative mean decreases of 61.8% (95% confidence interval: 48.4%, 71.7%) in models unadjusted for BMI and 22.2% (95% confidence interval: 7.1%, 34.9%) in models adjusted for BMI; the direct effect of p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene on leptin accounted for 27% of the total effect. IR prevalence was 6.6% at ages 12-13 years. Higher hexachlorobenzene (tertile 3 vs. tertile 1) was associated with higher odds of IR in models adjusted for BMI (odds ratio = 4.37, 95% confidence interval: 1.44, 13.28). These results suggest that childhood OCPs may be associated with IR and lower leptin.

Chlorinated persistent organic pollutants, obesity, and type 2 diabetes

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are lipophilic compounds that travel with lipids and accumulate mainly in adipose tissue. Recent human evidence links low-dose POPs to an increased risk of type 2 diabetes (T2D). Because humans are contaminated by POP mixtures and POPs possibly have nonmonotonic dose-response relations with T2D, critical methodological issues arise in evaluating human findings. This review summarizes epidemiological results on chlorinated POPs and T2D, and relevant experimental evidence. It also discusses how features of POPs can affect inferences in humans. The evidence as a whole suggests that, rather than a few individual POPs, background exposure to POP mixtures-including organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls-can increase T2D risk in humans. Inconsistent statistical significance for individual POPs may arise due to distributional differences in POP mixtures among populations. Differences in the observed shape of the dose-response curves among human studies may reflect an inverted U-shaped association secondary to mitochondrial dysfunction or endocrine disruption. Finally, we examine the relationship between POPs and obesity. There is evidence in animal studies that low-dose POP mixtures are obesogenic. However, relationships between POPs and obesity in humans have been inconsistent. Adipose tissue plays a dual role of promoting T2D and providing a relatively safe place to store POPs. Large prospective studies with serial measurements of a broad range of POPs, adiposity, and clinically relevant biomarkers are needed to disentangle the interrelationships among POPs, obesity, and the development of T2D. Also needed are laboratory experiments that more closely mimic real-world POP doses, mixtures, and exposure duration in humans.

Chlorinated persistent organic pollutants, obesity, and type 2 diabetes

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are lipophilic compounds that travel with lipids and accumulate mainly in adipose tissue. Recent human evidence links low-dose POPs to an increased risk of type 2 diabetes (T2D). Because humans are contaminated by POP mixtures and POPs possibly have nonmonotonic dose-response relations with T2D, critical methodological issues arise in evaluating human findings. This review summarizes epidemiological results on chlorinated POPs and T2D, and relevant experimental evidence. It also discusses how features of POPs can affect inferences in humans. The evidence as a whole suggests that, rather than a few individual POPs, background exposure to POP mixtures-including organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls-can increase T2D risk in humans. Inconsistent statistical significance for individual POPs may arise due to distributional differences in POP mixtures among populations. Differences in the observed shape of the dose-response curves among human studies may reflect an inverted U-shaped association secondary to mitochondrial dysfunction or endocrine disruption. Finally, we examine the relationship between POPs and obesity. There is evidence in animal studies that low-dose POP mixtures are obesogenic. However, relationships between POPs and obesity in humans have been inconsistent. Adipose tissue plays a dual role of promoting T2D and providing a relatively safe place to store POPs. Large prospective studies with serial measurements of a broad range of POPs, adiposity, and clinically relevant biomarkers are needed to disentangle the interrelationships among POPs, obesity, and the development of T2D. Also needed are laboratory experiments that more closely mimic real-world POP doses, mixtures, and exposure duration in humans.

Blood lead levels and serum insulin-like growth factor 1 concentrations in peripubertal boys

BACKGROUND

Childhood lead exposure has been associated with growth delay. However, the association between blood lead levels (BLLs) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) has not been characterized in a large cohort with low-level lead exposure.

METHODS

We recruited 394 boys 8-9 years of age from an industrial Russian town in 2003-2005 and followed them annually thereafter. We used linear regression models to estimate the association of baseline BLLs with serum IGF-1 concentration at two follow-up visits (ages 10-11 and 12-13 years), adjusting for demographic and socioeconomic covariates.

RESULTS

At study entry, median BLL was 3 μg/dL (range, < 0.5-31 μg/dL), most boys (86%) were prepubertal, and mean ± SD height and BMI z-scores were 0.14 ± 1.0 and -0.2 ± 1.3, respectively. After adjustment for covariates, the mean follow-up IGF-1 concentration was 29.2 ng/mL lower (95% CI: -43.8, -14.5) for boys with high versus low BLL (≥ 5 μg/dL or < 5 μg/dL); this difference persisted after further adjustment for pubertal status. The association of BLL with IGF-1 was stronger for mid-pubertal than prepubertal boys (p = 0.04). Relative to boys with BLLs < 2 μg/dL, adjusted mean IGF-1 concentrations decreased by 12.8 ng/mL (95% CI: -29.9, 4.4) for boys with BLLs of 3-4 μg/dL; 34.5 ng/mL (95% CI: -53.1, -16.0) for BLLs 5-9 μg/dL; and 60.4 ng/mL (95% CI: -90.9, -29.9) for BLLs ≥ 10 μg/dL.

CONCLUSIONS

In peripubertal boys with low-level lead exposure, higher BLLs were associated with lower serum IGF-1. Inhibition of the hypothalamic-pituitary-growth axis may be one possible pathway by which lead exposure leads to growth delay.

In utero DDT and DDE exposure and obesity status of 7-year-old Mexican-American children in the CHAMACOS cohort

BACKGROUND

In utero exposure to endocrine disrupting compounds including dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) has been hypothesized to increase risk of obesity later in life.

OBJECTIVES

The Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS) study is a longitudinal birth cohort of low-income Latinas living in a California agricultural community. We examined the relation of in utero DDT and DDE exposure to child obesity at 7 years of age. We also examined the trend with age (2, 3.5, 5, and 7 years) in the exposure-obesity relation.

METHODS

We included 270 children with o,p´-DDT, p,p´-DDT, and p,p´-DDE concentrations measured in maternal serum during pregnancy (nanograms per gram lipid) and complete 7-year follow-up data including weight (kilograms) and height (centimeters). Body mass index (BMI; kilograms per meter squared) was calculated and obesity was defined as ≥ 95th percentile on the sex-specific BMI-for-age Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2000 growth charts.

RESULTS

At 7 years, 96 (35.6%) children were obese. A 10-fold increase in o,p´-DDT, p,p´-DDT, or p,p´-DDE, was nonsignificantly associated with increased odds (OR) of obesity [o,p´-DDT adjusted (adj-) OR = 1.17, 95% CI: 0.75, 1.82; p,p´-DDT adj-OR = 1.19, 95% CI: 0.81, 1.74; p,p´-DDE adj-OR = 1.22, 95% CI: 0.72, 2.06]. With increasing age at follow-up, we observed a significant trend toward a positive association between DDT and DDE exposure and odds of obesity.

CONCLUSION

We did not find a significant positive relation between in utero DDT and DDE exposure and obesity status of 7-year-old children. However, given the observed trend with age, continued follow-up will be informative.

Assessment of exposure to organochlorine pesticides and levels of DNA damage in mother-infant pairs of an agrarian community

Exposure to organochlorine pesticides was studied in a group of mother-infant pairs living in a rural area where agriculture is the main economic activity. Fumigation in this zone is performed with airplanes, thus affecting the inhabited areas around them, including schools. Heparinized venous blood of mothers and umbilical cords was used to evaluate the olive tail moment in the comet assay, and micronuclei, chromatin buds, and nucleoplasmic bridges in peripheral blood lymphocytes. Cord blood samples were taken at the moment of birth only from natural and normal parturitions. Determinations of hexachlorobenzene, aldrin, heptachlor epoxide, oxichlordane, t and c-chlordane, cis-nonachlor, mirex, alpha and beta-endosulfan, alpha, beta and gamma hexachlorocyclohexane, and p'p'-DDT, p'p'-DDE were conducted to establish the differential distribution of the toxicants between compartments, i.e., mother and umbilical cord. Significantly higher pesticide levels were found in umbilical cord plasma than in mothers' plasma for almost all compounds tested, except DDE and oxychlordane. Significantly higher olive tail moments were found in umbilical cords than in mothers, whereas micronuclei frequencies were higher in mothers than in umbilical cords. However, neither the levels of micronuclei nor the olive tail moment were correlated with pesticide levels. Given that no other exposure to toxic compounds has been identified in this region, the lack of correlation between genotoxicity biomarkers and pesticide levels may be due to the variability of the exposure and to endogenous processes related to lipid mobility during pregnancy, the metabolism of the compounds, and individual susceptibilities.

Farm residence and reproductive health among boys in rural South Africa

BACKGROUND

Few studies have investigated reproductive health effects of contemporary agricultural pesticides in boys.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the association between pesticide exposure and reproductive health of boys.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study in rural South Africa of boys living on and off farms. The study included a questionnaire (demographics, general and reproductive health, phyto-estrogen intake, residential history, pesticide exposures, exposures during pregnancy); and a physical examination that included sexual maturity development ratings; testicular volume; height, weight, body mass index; and sex hormone concentrations.

RESULTS

Among the 269 boys recruited into the study, 177 (65.8%) were categorized as farm (high pesticide exposures) and 98 (34.2%) as non-farm residents (lower pesticide exposures). Median ages of the two groups were 11.3 vs 12.0 years, respectively (p<0.05). After controlling for confounders that included socioeconomic status, farm boys were shorter (regression coefficient (RC)=-3.42 cm; 95% confidence interval (CI): -6.38 to -0.45 cm) and weighed less (RC=-2.26 kg; CI: -4.44 to -0.75 kg). The farm boys also had lower serum lutenizing hormone (RC=-0.28 IU/L; CI: -0.48 to -0.08 IU/L), but higher serum oestradiol (RC=8.07 pmol/L; CI: 2.34-13.81 pmol/L) and follicle stimulating hormone (RC=0.63 IU/L; CI: 0.19-1.08 U/L).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides evidence that farm residence is associated with adverse growth and reproductive health of pubertal boys which may be due to environmental exposures to hormonally active contemporary agricultural pesticides.

Growth as a mirror: is endocrine disruption challenging Tanner's concept?

BACKGROUND

James Tanner coined the expression 'Growth as a Mirror' and summarized in four words the results of more than a century of research on growth. Nineteenth century social reformers saw poor child growth as a reflection of terrible environmental conditions of the working class. Later investigators in anthropology and other fields clarified the connections between poor nutrition, disease, psychosocial stress and poor growth.

AIM

To evaluate the growth as a mirror concept in light of recent studies of endocrine disruption. PAPERS AND IMPLICATIONS: Pollution is recognized as a prominent component of the modern environment. From studies of many pollutants it is clear that some pollutants depress growth while others speed sexual maturation and increase growth, primarily in weight and fatness. While such unwelcome environmental features do not always suppress growth, growth still mirrors the environment in all its complexity and this relationship is key to understanding growth patterns today. For example, Akwesasne Mohawk adolescents are characterized by high rates of obesity and overweight. Their growth reflects the multiple intersecting influences of psychosocial stress, several pollutant exposures and limited dietary choices.

CONCLUSION

Although Tanner did not anticipate the myriad influences of pollutants, the growth as a mirror concept continues to have great validity and utility.