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Crane L, Merck A, Delanthamajalu S, Grieger K, Marshall AM, Boyer TH. Benchmarks for urine volume generation and phosphorus mass recovery in commercial and institutional buildings. WATER RESEARCH X 2024; 23:100227. [PMID: 38765691 PMCID: PMC11101975 DOI: 10.1016/j.wroa.2024.100227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Phosphorus (P) is a finite resource and necessary nutrient for agriculture. Urine contains a higher concentration of P than domestic wastewater, which can be recovered by source separation and treatment (hereafter urine diversion). Commercial and institutional (CI) buildings are a logical location for urine diversion since restrooms account for a substantial fraction of water use and wastewater generation. This study estimated the potential for P recovery from human urine and water savings from reduced flushing in CI buildings, and proposed an approach to identify building types and community layouts that are amenable to implementing urine diversion. The results showed that urine diversion is most advantageous in CI buildings with either high daily occupancy counts or times, such as hospitals, schools, office buildings, and airports. Per occupant P recovery benchmarks were estimated to be between 0.04-0.68 g/cap·d. Per building P recovery rates were estimated to be between 0.002-5.1 kg/d, and per building water savings were estimated to be between 3 and 23 % by volume. Recovered P in the form of phosphate fertilizer and potable water savings could accrue profits and cost reductions that could offset the capital costs of new urine diversion systems within 5 y of operation. Finally, urine diversion systems can be implemented at different levels of decentralization based on community layout and organizational structure, which will require socioeconomic and policy acceptance for wider adoption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Crane
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment (SSEBE), Arizona State University, PO Box 873005, Tempe, AZ 85287-3005, USA
- NSF Science and Technologies for Phosphorus Sustainability (STEPS) Center, USA
| | - Ashton Merck
- Department of Applied Ecology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh NC 27606, USA
- NSF Science and Technologies for Phosphorus Sustainability (STEPS) Center, USA
| | - Shwetha Delanthamajalu
- Department of Sociology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, USA
- NSF Science and Technologies for Phosphorus Sustainability (STEPS) Center, USA
| | - Khara Grieger
- Department of Applied Ecology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh NC 27606, USA
- NSF Science and Technologies for Phosphorus Sustainability (STEPS) Center, USA
| | - Anna-Maria Marshall
- Department of Sociology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, USA
- NSF Science and Technologies for Phosphorus Sustainability (STEPS) Center, USA
| | - Treavor H. Boyer
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment (SSEBE), Arizona State University, PO Box 873005, Tempe, AZ 85287-3005, USA
- NSF Science and Technologies for Phosphorus Sustainability (STEPS) Center, USA
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de Simone Souza HH, de Morais Lima P, Medeiros DL, Vieira J, Filho FJCM, Paulo PL, Fullana-I-Palmer P, Boncz MÁ. Environmental assessment of on-site source-separated wastewater treatment and reuse systems for resource recovery in a sustainable sanitation view. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 895:165122. [PMID: 37364844 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Revised: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Sustainable sanitation solutions are necessary for promoting public health and environmental security. In this study, on-site domestic wastewater treatment (WWT) systems used for households in rural and peri-urban areas of Brazil were compared in different scenarios from a life cycle assessment (LCA) perspective. The evaluated scenarios represented different practices in wastewater management, such as direct discharge into the soil, rudimentary treatment, septic tank, public sewerage system, and source separation of wastewater streams for water, nutrient, and organic matter recovery. The WWT technologies considered in the proposed scenarios of source-separated wastewater streams were as follows: an evapotranspiration tank (TEvap) and composting toilet for blackwater, a modified constructed wetland (EvaTAC) for greywater, and a storage tank for urine. LCA was performed in this study according to the ISO standards to assess the environmental impacts at both midpoint and endpoint levels. The results show that on-site source-separated wastewater treatment systems with resource recovery result in significant reductions in environmental impacts compared to scenarios with precarious conditions or 'end-of-pipe' solutions. For example, regarding the human health damage category, the scenarios involving resource recovery, including systems such as EvaTAC, TEvap, composting toilet, and urine storage tank, demonstrate significantly lower values (-0.0117 to -0.0115 DALY) compared to scenarios with rudimentary cesspits and septic tanks (0.0003 to 0.001 DALY). We conclude that the focus should be beyond mere pollution aspects and instead concentrate on the benefits of the co-products, which are: avoiding the extraction and consumption of valuable and increasingly scarce raw materials, such as potable water, and production of synthetic fertilizer. Furthermore, it is highly recommended that an LCA of sanitation systems synergistically integrates the WWT process, the constructive aspects, and the resource recovery potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Henrique de Simone Souza
- Faculty of Engineering, Architecture and Urbanism, and Geography (FAENG), Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS), Cidade Universitária, 79070-900 Campo Grande, Brazil.
| | - Priscila de Morais Lima
- Department of Energy and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Undervisningsplan 7H, 756 51 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Diego Lima Medeiros
- Clean Technologies Network (TECLIM), Federal University of Maranhão (UFMA), MA-140 Highway, km 4, 65800-000 Balsas, Brazil
| | - Jéssica Vieira
- Faculty of Engineering, Architecture and Urbanism, and Geography (FAENG), Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS), Cidade Universitária, 79070-900 Campo Grande, Brazil
| | | | - Paula Loureiro Paulo
- Faculty of Engineering, Architecture and Urbanism, and Geography (FAENG), Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS), Cidade Universitária, 79070-900 Campo Grande, Brazil
| | - Pere Fullana-I-Palmer
- UNESCO Chair in Life Cycle and Climate Change, Universitat Pompeu Fabra (ESCI-UPF), Passeig Pujades n° 1, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marc Árpad Boncz
- Faculty of Engineering, Architecture and Urbanism, and Geography (FAENG), Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS), Cidade Universitária, 79070-900 Campo Grande, Brazil
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Cai X, Wu L, Li Y, Lei S, Xu J, Lyu H, Li J, Wang H, Dong X, Zhu Y, Wang G. Remote sensing identification of urban water pollution source types using hyperspectral data. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 459:132080. [PMID: 37499493 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Owing to accelerated urbanisation, increased pollutants have degraded urban water quality. Timely identification and control of pollution sources enable relevant departments to effectively perform water treatment and restoration. To achieve this goal, a remote sensing identification method for urban water pollution sources applicable to unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) hyperspectral images was established. First, seven fluorescent components were obtained through three-dimensional excitation-emission matrix fluorescence spectroscopy of dissolved organic matter (DOM) combined with parallel factor analysis. Based on the hierarchical cluster analysis of the seven fluorescence components and three spectral indices, four pollution source (PS) types were determined, namely, domestic sewage, terrestrial input, agricultural and algal, and industrial wastewater sources. Second, several water colour and optical parameters, including the absorption coefficient of chromophoric DOM at 254 nm, humification index, chlorophyll-a concentration, and hue angle, were utilised to develop an identification method with a recognition accuracy exceeding 70% for the four PSs that is suitable for UAV hyperspectral data. This study demonstrated the potential of identifying PSs by combining the fluorescence characteristics of DOM with the optical properties of water, thus expanding the application of remote sensing technologies and providing more comprehensive and reliable information for urban water quality management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolan Cai
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Key Laboratory of Virtual Geographic Environment of Education Ministry, Jiangsu Center for Collaboration Invocation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Luyao Wu
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Key Laboratory of Virtual Geographic Environment of Education Ministry, Jiangsu Center for Collaboration Invocation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Yunmei Li
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Key Laboratory of Virtual Geographic Environment of Education Ministry, Jiangsu Center for Collaboration Invocation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing 210023, China.
| | - Shaohua Lei
- State Key Laboratory of Hydrology-Water Resources and Hydraulic Engineering, Nanjing Hydraulic Research Institute, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Jie Xu
- Yangtze River Basin Ecological Environment Monitoring and Scientific Research Center, Yangtze River Basin Ecological Environment Supervision and Administration Bureau, Ministry of Ecological Environment, Wuhan 430010, China
| | - Heng Lyu
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Key Laboratory of Virtual Geographic Environment of Education Ministry, Jiangsu Center for Collaboration Invocation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Junda Li
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Key Laboratory of Virtual Geographic Environment of Education Ministry, Jiangsu Center for Collaboration Invocation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Huaijing Wang
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Key Laboratory of Virtual Geographic Environment of Education Ministry, Jiangsu Center for Collaboration Invocation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Xianzhang Dong
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Key Laboratory of Virtual Geographic Environment of Education Ministry, Jiangsu Center for Collaboration Invocation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Yuxing Zhu
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Key Laboratory of Virtual Geographic Environment of Education Ministry, Jiangsu Center for Collaboration Invocation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Gaolun Wang
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Key Laboratory of Virtual Geographic Environment of Education Ministry, Jiangsu Center for Collaboration Invocation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing 210023, China
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Zhang Y, Chen P, Lv W, Xiao Z, Zhang J, Wu J, Lin Z, Zhang G, Yu Z, Liu H, Liu G. Key role of Fe(VI)-activated Bi 2WO 6 in the photocatalytic oxidation of sulfonamides: Mediated electron transfer mechanism. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 458:132009. [PMID: 37429189 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023]
Abstract
The widespread use of sulfonamides (SAs) in animals and human infections has raised significant concerns regarding their presence in ambient waterways and potential for inducing antimicrobial resistance. Herein, we report on the capacity of ferrate (VI) (FeVIO42-, Fe(VI)) to facilitate the photocatalytic degradation of sulfamethazine (SMT) via bismuth tungstate (Bi2WO6, BWO) under blue LED light (Vis/BWO/Fe(VI)) exposure, at rates that were 45-fold faster than BWO photocatalysis. Both the stepwise and time-series addition of Fe(VI) contributed to the degradation. Multiple lines of evidence confirmed that the common reactive species (RSs) in BWO-based photocatalytic systems and Fe(VI)-involved systems (e.g., •OH/h+, O2•-, 1O2 and Fe(V)/Fe(IV)) played subtle roles in our study system. Herein, for the first time, it was discovered that the precursor complex (BWO-Fe(V)/Fe(IV)* )) was the main contributor to induce electron transfer of SAs through the "conductive bridge" effect of BWO. The studied system was able to effectively degrade SMT in synthetic hydrolyzed urine (SHU) with low interference from background substances in water. This work not only offers a novel facilitation strategy for BWO, but also holds a great application prospect for contamination remediation in urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yudan Zhang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Contaminants Exposure and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Ping Chen
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Contaminants Exposure and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Wenying Lv
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Contaminants Exposure and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Zhenjun Xiao
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Contaminants Exposure and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Jinfan Zhang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Contaminants Exposure and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Jianqing Wu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Contaminants Exposure and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Zili Lin
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Contaminants Exposure and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Guangzhi Zhang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Contaminants Exposure and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Zongshun Yu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Contaminants Exposure and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Haijin Liu
- Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huaihe River Water Environment and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Guoguang Liu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Contaminants Exposure and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China.
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Zhang W, Chu H, Yang L, You X, Yu Z, Zhang Y, Zhou X. Technologies for pollutant removal and resource recovery from blackwater: a review. FRONTIERS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & ENGINEERING 2023; 17:83. [PMID: 36776490 PMCID: PMC9898867 DOI: 10.1007/s11783-023-1683-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Blackwater (BW), consisting of feces, urine, flushing water and toilet paper, makes up an important portion of domestic wastewater. The improper disposal of BW may lead to environmental pollution and disease transmission, threatening the sustainable development of the world. Rich in nutrients and organic matter, BW could be treated for resource recovery and reuse through various approaches. Aimed at providing guidance for the future development of BW treatment and resource recovery, this paper presented a literature review of BWs produced in different countries and types of toilets, including their physiochemical characteristics, and current treatment and resource recovery strategies. The degradation and utilization of carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) within BW are underlined. The performance of different systems was classified and summarized. Among all the treating systems, biological and ecological systems have been long and widely applied for BW treatment, showing their universality and operability in nutrients and energy recovery, but they are either slow or ineffective in removal of some refractory pollutants. Novel processes, especially advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), are becoming increasingly extensively studied in BW treatment because of their high efficiency, especially for the removal of micropollutants and pathogens. This review could serve as an instructive guidance for the design and optimization of BW treatment technologies, aiming to help in the fulfilment of sustainable human excreta management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092 China
| | - Huaqiang Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092 China
| | - Libin Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092 China
| | - Xiaogang You
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092 China
| | - Zhenjiang Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092 China
| | - Yalei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092 China
| | - Xuefei Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092 China
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Electrochemical recovery of phosphate from synthetic wastewater with enhanced salinity. Electrochim Acta 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2022.140848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Lima PDM, Lopes TADS, Queiroz LM, McConville JR. Resource-oriented sanitation: Identifying appropriate technologies and environmental gains by coupling Santiago software and life cycle assessment in a Brazilian case study. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 837:155777. [PMID: 35545164 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Implementation of resource recovery technologies is becoming increasingly important, as humans are exhausting the world's natural resources. Recovering nutrients and water from wastewater treatment systems will play an important role in changing the current trends towards a circular economy. However, guidance is still needed to determine the most appropriate way to do this. In this study two decision-support tools, sanitation planning software (Santiago) and life cycle assessment (LCA), were applied to identify appropriate technologies and their environmental impacts. As a case study, current and alternative scenarios for a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in Campo Grande, west-central Brazil, were used. Among 12 scenarios provided by Santiago for efficient nutrient recovery, eight were selected for further assessment. The current WWTP system (UASB reactors) resulted in the highest negative impacts in two of nine assessment categories (freshwater and marine eutrophication), due to nutrient discharge to water. A source separation scenario with urine stored in a urine bank and co-composting of feces showed best overall performance. Electricity consumption played a crucial role for impacts in several categories, while water consumption was not significantly affected by choice of toilet. One Santiago scenario matched the most appropriate scenario with the best environmental performance, but the other seven scenarios were not as beneficial, indicating a need for some adjustments in the software. These results highlight the importance of performing LCA to compare alternative scenarios, even when using a tool designed to identify locally appropriate technologies. The results also indicate that the current wastewater treatment system has reasonable environmental performance, but could be improved if measures were taken to recover energy and reuse water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscila de Morais Lima
- Department of Energy and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Almas Allé 8, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | | | | | - Jennifer Rae McConville
- Department of Energy and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Almas Allé 8, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
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Dubois V, Falipou E, Boutin C. Quantification and qualification of the urban domestic pollution discharged per household and per resident. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2022; 85:1484-1499. [PMID: 35290227 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2022.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The research study aims to analyze the discharges of solely domestic wastewater from 15 single-family dwellings. This sizable dataset, containing over 300 unique and insightful data points, makes it possible to accurately qualify the raw wastewater in terms of concentrations, volumes and pollutant loads. Findings quantify the extremely wide data variability. As such, for single-family households of fewer than six residents, it is suggested not to use the standard P.E. pollution value as the design load, but rather a load range defined by the interval [10th percentile, 90th percentile] of the data distribution, i.e. [123; 568 L·d- 1] and [30; 281 g BOD5·d-1], respectively, for the daily hydraulic and organic loads. Also, an analysis of the hydraulic peak factor would tend to lobby in favor of a collective sewer solution. For subdivisions and residential zones with little economic activity and similar French lifestyle, the daily domestic pollution per resident is now determined with the values: 40 g suspended solids, 94 g carbon oxygen demand, 40 g five-day biochemical oxygen demand, 6.7 g NH4+-N, 10.4 g Kjeldhal nitrogen, and 1.2 g total phosphorus for a volume of 83 L. Those data could be used to optimize design and operation of decentralized or small-scale wastewater treatment plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivien Dubois
- INRAE REVERSAAL, 5 rue de la Doua - CS 20244-69625, Villeurbanne Cedex, France E-mail:
| | - Eva Falipou
- INRAE REVERSAAL, 5 rue de la Doua - CS 20244-69625, Villeurbanne Cedex, France E-mail:
| | - Catherine Boutin
- INRAE REVERSAAL, 5 rue de la Doua - CS 20244-69625, Villeurbanne Cedex, France E-mail:
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Firmansyah I, Carsjens GJ, de Ruijter FJ, Zeeman G, Spiller M. An integrated assessment of environmental, economic, social and technological parameters of source separated and conventional sanitation concepts: A contribution to sustainability analysis. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 295:113131. [PMID: 34214794 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Revised: 06/13/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Resource recovery and reuse from domestic wastewater has become an important subject for the current development of sanitation technologies and infrastructures. Different technologies are available and combined into sanitation concepts, with different performances. This study provides a methodological approach to evaluate the sustainability of these sanitation concepts with focus on resource recovery and reuse. St. Eustatius, a small tropical island in the Caribbean, was used as a case study for the evaluation. Three source separation-community-on-site and two combined sewerage island-scale concepts were selected and compared in terms of environmental (net energy use, nutrient recovery/reuse, BOD/COD, pathogens, and GHG emission, land use), economic (CAPEX and OPEX), social cultural (acceptance, required competences and education), and technological (flexibility/adaptability, reliability/continuity of service) indicators. The best performing concept, is the application of Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Bed (UASB) and Trickling Filter (TF) at island level for combined domestic wastewater treatment with subsequent reuse in agriculture. Its overall average normalised score across the four categories (i.e., average of average per category) is about 15% (0.85) higher than the values of the remaining systems and with a score of 0.73 (conventional activated sludge - centralised level), 0.77 (UASB-septic tank (ST)), 0.76 (UASB-TF - community level), and 0.75 (ST - household level). The higher score of the UASB-TF at community level is mainly due to much better performance in the environmental and economic categories. In conclusion, the case study provides a methodological approach that can support urban planning and decision-making in selecting more sustainable sanitation concepts, allowing resource recovery and reuse in small island context or in other contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Firmansyah
- Wageningen University & Research, Sub-department of Environmental Technology, Bornse Weilanden 9, 6708 WG, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - G J Carsjens
- Wageningen University & Research, Landscape Architecture and Spatial Planning, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - F J de Ruijter
- Wageningen University & Research, Agrosystems Research, P.O. Box 616, 6700 AP, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - G Zeeman
- Wageningen University & Research, Sub-department of Environmental Technology, Bornse Weilanden 9, 6708 WG, Wageningen, the Netherlands; Leaf BV P.O. Box 500, 6700 AM, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - M Spiller
- Research Group of Sustainable Energy, Air and Water Technology, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020, Antwerpen, Belgium.
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Abstract
The EU Directive 2018/2001 recognized wastewater as a renewable heat source. Wastewater from domestic, industrial and commercial developments maintains considerable amounts of thermal energy after discharging into the sewer system. It is possible to recover this heat by using technologies like heat exchangers and heat pumps; and to reuse it to satisfy heating demands. This paper presents a review of the literature on wastewater heat recovery (WWHR) and its potential at different scales within the sewer system, including the component level, building level, sewer pipe network level, and wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) level. A systematic review is provided of the benefits and challenges of WWHR across each of these levels taking into consideration technical, economic and environmental aspects. This study analyzes important attributes of WWHR such as temperature and flow dynamics of the sewer system, impacts of WWHR on the environment, and legal regulations involved. Existing gaps in the WWHR field are also identified. It is concluded that WWHR has a significant potential to supply clean energy at a scale ranging from buildings to large communities and districts. Further attention to WWHR is needed from the research community, policymakers and other stakeholders to realize the full potential of this valuable renewable heat source.
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Regmi U, Boyer TH. Ammonium and potassium removal from undiluted and diluted hydrolyzed urine using natural zeolites. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 268:128849. [PMID: 33176915 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 10/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/31/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
There is limited research comparing nutrient removal in concentrated and dilute waste streams. Accordingly, the goal of this research was to study the effect of dilution on ammonium and potassium removal from real hydrolyzed urine using natural zeolites. The performance of two natural zeolites, clinoptilolite and chabazite, was studied and compared using batch equilibrium experiments at four dilution levels defined as urine volume divided by total solution volume (expressed as a percent): 100%, 10%, 1% and 0.1%. The adsorption behavior of other exchangeable ions, namely sodium, calcium, and magnesium, in clinoptilolite and chabazite was studied to improve the understanding of ion exchange stoichiometry. Ammonium and potassium removals were highest in undiluted urine samples treated with clinoptilolite or chabazite. This is a key finding as it illustrates the benefit of collecting undiluted urine via source separation. High removal of ammonium and potassium by clinoptilolite and chabazite was also achieved in 10% urine solutions, which are representative of water-efficient flush systems and show that nutrient recovery is possible for diluted urine as well. Chabazite showed higher ammonium and much higher potassium removal than clinoptilolite. Finally, the results showed that clinoptilolite and chabazite demonstrated stoichiometric exchange between ammonium and potassium in urine solutions with mobile cations in the zeolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urusha Regmi
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment (SSEBE), Arizona State University, P.O. Box 873005, Tempe, AZ, 85287-3005, USA
| | - Treavor H Boyer
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment (SSEBE), Arizona State University, P.O. Box 873005, Tempe, AZ, 85287-3005, USA.
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Sun H, Mohammed AN, Liu Y. Phosphorus recovery from source-diverted blackwater through struvite precipitation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 743:140747. [PMID: 32663687 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Phosphorus recovery from wastewater through struvite precipitation is becoming a promising strategy to both mitigate eutrophication risk due to excess phosphorus discharge into water bodies and alleviate the global phosphorus crisis by producing value-added fertilizer. However, the composition and quality of wastewater differ among regions and home to home. Source-diverted blackwater, especially concentrated blackwater collected from vacuum toilet systems, typically has a moderate phosphate-phosphorus (PO4-P) content, high ammonia-nitrogen (NH4-N) content, strong buffering capacity as a result of high alkalinity, and a high pH close to 9. Thus, concentrated blackwater is a good source for phosphorus recovery through struvite precipitation. In this study, we examined the feasibility of recovering phosphorus from concentrated blackwater through struvite precipitation by conducting batch experiments. The characterization of the struvite produced from concentrated blackwater was performed via X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) techniques. The metal contents of the struvite product were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and its purity was determined. A phosphorus removal efficiency exceeding 90% was achieved as a result of both an appropriate supersaturation ratio of struvite (>4.0) and a high initial pH. The high quality of the produced struvite was demonstrated by a purity of 94.9%, the Mg/P/N mass ratio of 10:12:4.7 based on the EDS analysis, and low heavy-metals contents. This feasibility study provides evidence for the efficacy of phosphorus recovery from concentrated blackwater through struvite precipitation in decentralized wastewater management systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huijuan Sun
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Abdul Nayeem Mohammed
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada; EPCOR Water Utilities, Inc., Edmonton, Canada
| | - Yang Liu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada.
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Heavy Metals in a High Arctic Fiord and Their Introduction with the Wastewater: A Case Study of Adventfjorden-Longyearbyen System, Svalbard. WATER 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/w12030794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Longyearbyen is the largest settlement on Svalbard archipelago, with 2400 permanent residents and approximately 150,000 tourists visiting every year. The city annually releases approximately 285,000 m3 of untreated wastewater to the nearby Adventfjorden. To date, the environmental impact of this continuous input has been studied mainly regarding the sediments and benthic fauna in the fiord. Here, we present results from a study of raw wastewater entering Adventfjorden as well as heavy metals concentrations in the water column within the fjord itself. Two surveys were carried out in summer and autumn season 2018, to establish physical and chemical properties of water at various locations. Trace elements (V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Hg, As, Cd, Pb, U), total suspended solids (TSS) and total organic carbon (TOC) were measured. Our results show that Longyearbyen’s raw wastewater introduces low concentrations of heavy metals to the fiord, but due to the growing number of inhabitants and tourists, it should be monitored to avoid degradation of Adventfjorden ecosystem
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14
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Romeiko XX. Assessing Health Impacts of Conventional Centralized and Emerging Resource Recovery-Oriented Decentralized Water Systems. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17030973. [PMID: 32033234 PMCID: PMC7038023 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17030973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Revised: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Energy shortage and climate change call for sustainable water and wastewater infrastructure capable of simultaneously recovering energy, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, and protecting public health. Although energy and greenhouse gas emissions of water and wastewater infrastructure are extensively studied, the human health impacts of innovative infrastructure designed under the principles of decentralization and resource recovery are not fully understood. In order to fill this knowledge gap, this study assesses and compares the health impacts of three representative systems by integrating life cycle and microbial risk assessment approaches. This study found that the decentralized system options, such as on-site septic tank and composting or urine diverting toilets, presented much lower life cycle cancer and noncancer impacts than the centralized system. The microbial risks of decentralized systems options were also lower than those of the centralized system. Moreover, life cycle cancer and noncancer impacts contributed to approximately 95% of total health impacts, while microbial risks were associated with the remaining 5%. Additionally, the variability and sensitivity assessment indicated that reducing energy use of wastewater treatment and water distribution is effective in mitigating total health damages of the centralized system, while reducing energy use of water treatment is effective in mitigating total health damages of the decentralized systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaobo Xue Romeiko
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY 12222, USA
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15
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Jurga A, Janiak K, Ratkiewicz K, Podstawczyk D. An overview of blackwater data collection from space life support systems and its comparison to a terrestrial wastewater dataset. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2019; 241:198-210. [PMID: 31004997 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.03.135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Revised: 03/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Extraterrestrial colonization is a certain eventuality that would be nearly impossible without the efficient and robust resources of recovering life support systems. Knowledge of inputs is necessary for the development of such systems, especially for the first stages of design such as mass balancing and the selection of unitary processes. One of the most important inputs is blackwater, as this stream is the most polluted and rich in resources and needs to be treated and reused. In the paper, data from space missions and terrestrial sources concerning the flows, concentrations and loads in urine and feces are compared and analyzed. It is shown that results obtained during space missions are scarce and for many parameters no information is available. It is also shown how gravity influences the elemental composition of urine and feces. In contrast, data from terrestrial sources are abundant. The presented analysis shows that data from space and terrestrial systems are convergent for many parameters and that the available terrestrial data for those parameters can be used for mass balancing and unitary process selection without a high risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Jurga
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeze Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370, Wroclaw, Poland.
| | - Kamil Janiak
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeze Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Ratkiewicz
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeze Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Daria Podstawczyk
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Norwida 4/6, 50-373, Wroclaw, Poland
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16
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Faecal indicator bacteria and antibiotic-resistant β-lactamase producing Escherichia coli in blackwater: a pilot study. Arh Hig Rada Toksikol 2019; 70:140-148. [DOI: 10.2478/aiht-2019-70-3212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 06/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The aim of this study was to identify and quantify faecal indicator bacteria in blackwater collected from a source separation unit and determine the amount of E. coli isolates resistant to antimicrobials and their potential to produce extended spectrum β-lactamases (ESβLs) and metallo-β-lactamases (MβLs), which hydrolyse the most important antibiotics used in clinical practice. Most of the isolates were resistant to amoxicillin with clavulanic acid (36.4 %), followed by ticarcillin with clavulanic acid (22.7 %) and tetracycline (18.2 %). ESβL-producing genes bla
CTX-M and bla
TEM were found in three (13.6 %) and four (18.2 %) E. coli strains, respectively, while MβL genes were found in two (9.1 %). By separating at source, this pilot study clearly shows that gastrointestinal bacteria of healthy people can be an important source of antibiotic resistance released into the environment through wastewaters. One way to prevent that is to treat wastewater with a combination of TiO2, UV light, or ozone, as successful methods to remove resistant bacteria and prevent their spread in the environment.
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17
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Luo C, Feng M, Sharma VK, Huang CH. Oxidation of Pharmaceuticals by Ferrate(VI) in Hydrolyzed Urine: Effects of Major Inorganic Constituents. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:5272-5281. [PMID: 30933490 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Destruction of pharmaceuticals excreted in urine can be an efficient approach to eliminate these environmental pollutants. However, urine contains high concentrations of chloride, ammonium, and bicarbonate, which may hinder treatment processes. This study evaluated the application of ferrate(VI) (FeVIO42-, Fe(VI)) to oxidize pharmaceuticals (carbamazepine (CBZ), naproxen (NAP), trimethoprim (TMP), and sulfonamide antibiotics (SAs)) in synthetic hydrolyzed human urine and uncovered new effects from urine's major inorganic constituents. Chloride slightly decreased pharmaceuticals' removal rate by Fe(VI) due to the ionic strength effect. Ammonium (0.5 M) in undiluted hydrolyzed urine posed a strong scavenging effect, but lower concentrations (≤0.25 M) of ammonium enhanced the pharmaceuticals' degradation by 300 μM Fe(VI), likely due to the reactive ammonium complex form of Fe(V)/Fe(IV). For the first time, bicarbonate was found to significantly promote the oxidation of aniline-containing SAs by Fe(VI) and alter the reaction stoichiometry of Fe(VI) and SA from 4:1 to 3:1. In depth investigation indicated that bicarbonate not only changed the Fe(VI)/SA complexation ratio from 1:2 to 1:1 but provided a stabilizing effect for Fe(V) intermediate formed in situ, enabling its degradation of SAs. Overall, the results of this study suggested that Fe(VI) is a promising oxidant for the removal of pharmaceuticals in hydrolyzed urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cong Luo
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Georgia Institute of Technology , Atlanta , Georgia 30332 , United States
| | - Mingbao Feng
- Department of Environment and Occupational Health, School of Public Health , Texas A&M University , College Station , Texas 77843 , United States
| | - Virender K Sharma
- Department of Environment and Occupational Health, School of Public Health , Texas A&M University , College Station , Texas 77843 , United States
| | - Ching-Hua Huang
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Georgia Institute of Technology , Atlanta , Georgia 30332 , United States
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18
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Abell JT, Quade J, Duru G, Mentzer SM, Stiner MC, Uzdurum M, Özbaşaran M. Urine salts elucidate Early Neolithic animal management at Aşıklı Höyük, Turkey. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2019; 5:eaaw0038. [PMID: 31001590 PMCID: PMC6469938 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aaw0038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2018] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The process of sheep and goat (caprine) domestication began by 9000 to 8000 BCE in Southwest Asia. The early Neolithic site at Aşıklı Höyük in central Turkey preserves early archaeological evidence of this transformation, such as culling by age and sex and use of enclosures inside the settlement. People's strategies for managing caprines evolved at this site over a period of 1000 years, but changes in the scale of the practices are difficult to measure. Dung and midden layers at Aşıklı Höyük are highly enriched in soluble sodium, chlorine, nitrate, and nitrate-nitrogen isotope values, a pattern we attribute largely to urination by humans and animals onto the site. Here, we present an innovative mass balance approach to interpreting these unusual geochemical patterns that allows us to quantify the increase in caprine management over a ~1000-year period, an approach that should be applicable to other arid land tells.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. T. Abell
- Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University, New York, NY 10964, USA
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - J. Quade
- Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - G. Duru
- Department of Prehistory, Istanbul University, Istanbul 34134, Turkey
- Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Istanbul 34134, Turkey
| | - S. M. Mentzer
- School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
- Institute for Archaeological Sciences, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72070, Germany
- Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Paleoenvironment, Tübingen 72070, Germany
| | - M. C. Stiner
- School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - M. Uzdurum
- Department of Prehistory, Istanbul University, Istanbul 34134, Turkey
| | - M. Özbaşaran
- Department of Prehistory, Istanbul University, Istanbul 34134, Turkey
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19
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Macintosh KA, Mayer BK, McDowell RW, Powers SM, Baker LA, Boyer TH, Rittmann BE. Managing Diffuse Phosphorus at the Source versus at the Sink. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:11995-12009. [PMID: 30247882 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b01143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Judicious phosphorus (P) management is a global grand challenge and critical to achieving and maintaining water quality objectives while maintaining food production. The management of point sources has been successful in lowering P inputs to aquatic environments, but more difficult is reducing P discharges associated with diffuse sources, such as nonpoint runoff from agriculture and urban landscapes, as well as P accumulated in soils and sediments. Strategies for effective diffuse-P management are imperative. Many options are currently available, and the most cost-effective and practical choice depends on the local situation. This critical review describes how the metrics of P quantity in kg ha-1 yr-1 and P form can influence decision-making and implementation of diffuse-P management strategies. Quantifying the total available pool of P, and its form, in a system is necessary to inform effective decision-making. The review draws upon a number of " current practice" case studies that span agriculture, cities, and aquatic sectors. These diverse examples from around the world highlight different diffuse-P management approaches, delivered at the source in the catchment watershed or at the aquatic sink. They underscore workable options for achieving water quality improvement and wider P sustainability. The diffuse-P management options discussed in this critical review are transferable to other jurisdictions at the global scale. We demonstrate that P quantity is typically highest and most concentrated at the source, particularly at farm scale. The most cost-effective and practically implementable diffuse-P management options are, therefore, to reduce P use, conserve P, and mitigate P loss at the source. Sequestering and removing P from aquatic sinks involves increasing cost, but is sometimes the most effective choice. Recovery of diffuse-P, while expensive, offers opportunity for the circular economy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrina A Macintosh
- School of Biological Sciences and the Institute for Global Food Security , The Queen's University of Belfast , Belfast , U.K
| | - Brooke K Mayer
- Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering , Marquette University , Milwaukee , Wisconsin , United States
| | - Richard W McDowell
- AgResearch , Lincoln Science Centre , Christchurch , New Zealand
- Soil and Physical Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences , Lincoln University , Lincoln , New Zealand
| | - Stephen M Powers
- School of the Environment and Center for Environmental Research, Education, and Outreach , Washington State University , Pullman , Washington , United States
| | - Lawrence A Baker
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering , University of Minnesota , Minnesota , United States
| | - Treavor H Boyer
- Biodesign Swette Center for Environmental Biotechnology , Arizona State University , Tempe , Arizona , United States
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment , Arizona State University , Tempe , Arizona , United States
| | - Bruce E Rittmann
- Biodesign Swette Center for Environmental Biotechnology , Arizona State University , Tempe , Arizona , United States
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment , Arizona State University , Tempe , Arizona , United States
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20
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Goetsch HE, Zhao L, Gnegy M, Imperiale MJ, Love NG, Wigginton KR. Fate of the Urinary Tract Virus BK Human Polyomavirus in Source-Separated Urine. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:e02374-17. [PMID: 29374036 PMCID: PMC5861842 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02374-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2017] [Accepted: 01/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Human polyomaviruses are emerging pathogens that infect a large percentage of the human population and are excreted in urine. Consequently, urine that is collected for fertilizer production often has high concentrations of polyomavirus genes. We studied the fate of infectious double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) BK human polyomavirus (BKPyV) in hydrolyzed source-separated urine with infectivity assays and quantitative PCR (qPCR). Although BKPyV genomes persisted in the hydrolyzed urine for long periods of time (T90 [time required for 90% reduction in infectivity or gene copies] of >3 weeks), the viruses were rapidly inactivated (T90 of 1.1 to 11 h) in most of the tested urine samples. Interestingly, the infectivity of dsDNA bacteriophage surrogate T3 (T90 of 24 to 46 days) was much more persistent than that of BKPyV, highlighting a major shortcoming of using bacteriophages as human virus surrogates. Pasteurization and filtration experiments suggest that BKPyV virus inactivation was due to microorganism activity in the source-separated urine, and SDS-PAGE Western blots showed that BKPyV protein capsid disassembly is concurrent with inactivation. Our results imply that stored urine does not pose a substantial risk of BKPyV transmission, that qPCR and infectivity of the dsDNA surrogate do not accurately depict BKPyV fate, and that microbial inactivation is driven by structural elements of the BKPyV capsid.IMPORTANCE We demonstrate that a common urinary tract virus has a high susceptibility to the conditions in hydrolyzed urine and consequently would not be a substantial exposure route to humans using urine-derived fertilizers. The results have significant implications for understanding virus fate. First, by demonstrating that the dsDNA (double-stranded DNA) genome of the polyomavirus lasts for weeks despite infectivity lasting for hours to days, our work highlights the shortcomings of using qPCR to estimate risks from unculturable viruses. Second, commonly used dsDNA surrogate viruses survived for weeks under the same conditions that BK polyomavirus survived for only hours, highlighting issues with using virus surrogates to predict how human viruses will behave in the environment. Finally, our mechanistic inactivation analysis provides strong evidence that microbial activity drives rapid virus inactivation, likely through capsid disassembly. Overall, our work underlines how subtle structural differences between viruses can greatly impact their environmental fate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather E Goetsch
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Linbo Zhao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Mariah Gnegy
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Michael J Imperiale
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Nancy G Love
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Krista R Wigginton
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
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21
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Tolksdorf J, Cornel P. Separating grey- and blackwater in urban water cycles - sensible in the view of misconnections? WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2017; 76:1132-1139. [PMID: 28876254 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2017.293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The infrastructure approach SEMIZENTRAL has been developed for fast growing cities, to meet their challenges regarding water supply as well as biowaste and wastewater treatment. The world's first full-scale SEMIZENTRAL Resource Recovery Center (RRC) has been implemented in Qingdao (PR China). Greywater (GW) and blackwater (BW) are collected and treated separately. Measurement of influent concentrations differ significantly from the design values. Thus, the operation strategy for the RRC had to be adapted. Amongst other reasons, the changed influent characteristic was caused by misconnections of GW and BW sewers. Already a misconnection rate of 6-8% requires an extension of the GW treatment process for nitrification/denitrification to fulfill effluent standards. Hence, measures should be taken to avoid or reduce misconnections. Nonetheless, in a semi-centralized scale (>10,000 inhabitants) a 100% avoidance might not be possible. Thus, consequences from misconnections should be considered during the design of source-oriented infrastructure systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Tolksdorf
- Technische Universität Darmstadt Franziska-Braun-Str. 7, Darmstadt 64287, Germany E-mail:
| | - P Cornel
- Technische Universität Darmstadt Franziska-Braun-Str. 7, Darmstadt 64287, Germany E-mail:
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22
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Tolksdorf J, Cornel P. Semicentralized greywater and blackwater treatment for fast growing cities: how uncertain influent characteristics might affect the treatment processes. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2017; 75:1722-1731. [PMID: 28402314 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2017.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The SEMIZENTRAL infrastructure approach has been developed for fast growing cities, to meet their challenges regarding water supply as well as biowaste and wastewater (WW) treatment. The world's first full-scale SEMIZENTRAL Resource Recovery reference plant has been implemented in Qingdao (PR China). Greywater (GW) and blackwater (BW) are collected and treated separately. Measurement of influent concentrations revealed significant differences, compared with the design values. Values from the literature for GW and BW characteristics vary more markedly than for municipal WW; recommended design values are still lacking. Moreover, cross-connections between GW and BW can influence the influent characteristics considerably. Consequences for the design of GW and BW treatment are evaluated for boundary conditions, which require high effluent quality for both treatment modules. Model calculations illustrate the significant influence of uncertain WW characteristics on the required aeration basin volume and oxygen demand for GW and BW treatment; however, uncertainties are considerably reduced for the combination of these modules. Thus, a flexible design of the treatment plant is required. A possible concept for such a design is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Tolksdorf
- Technische Universität Darmstadt IWAR, Wastewater Technology and Water Reuse Franziska-Braun-Str. 7, Darmstadt 64287, Germany E-mail:
| | - P Cornel
- Technische Universität Darmstadt IWAR, Wastewater Technology and Water Reuse Franziska-Braun-Str. 7, Darmstadt 64287, Germany E-mail:
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23
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Comparing the Life Cycle Energy Consumption, Global Warming and Eutrophication Potentials of Several Water and Waste Service Options. WATER 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/w8040154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Kerstens SM, Leusbrock I, Zeeman G. Feasibility analysis of wastewater and solid waste systems for application in Indonesia. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 530-531:53-65. [PMID: 26026409 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.05.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2015] [Revised: 05/11/2015] [Accepted: 05/18/2015] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Indonesia is one of many developing countries with a backlog in achieving targets for the implementation of wastewater and solid waste collection, treatment and recovery systems. Therefore a technical and financial feasibility analysis of these systems was performed using Indonesia as an example. COD, BOD, nitrogen, phosphorus and pathogen removal efficiencies, energy requirements, sludge production, land use and resource recovery potential (phosphorus, energy, duckweed, compost, water) for on-site, community based and off-site wastewater systems were determined. Solid waste systems (conventional, centralized and decentralized resource recovery) were analyzed according to land requirement, compost and energy production and recovery of plastic and paper. In the financial analysis, investments, operational costs & benefits and Total Lifecycle Costs (TLC) of all investigated options were compared. Technical performance and TLC were used to guide system selection for implementation in different residential settings. An analysis was undertaken to determine the effect of price variations of recoverable resources and land prices on TLC. A 10-fold increase in land prices for land intensive wastewater systems resulted in a 5 times higher TLC, whereas a 4-fold increase in the recovered resource selling price resulted in maximum 1.3 times higher TLC. For solid waste, these impacts were reversed - land price and resource selling price variations resulted in a maximum difference in TLC of 1.8 and 4 respectively. Technical and financial performance analysis can support decision makers in system selection and anticipate the impact of price variations on long-term operation. The technical analysis was based on published results of international research and the approach can be applied for other tropical, developing countries. All costs were converted to per capita unit costs and can be updated to assess other countries' estimated costs and benefits. Consequently, the approach can be used to guide wastewater and solid waste system planning in developing countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Kerstens
- Royal HaskoningDHV, P.O. Box 1132, 3800 BC Amersfoort, The Netherlands.
| | - I Leusbrock
- Wageningen University, Sub-department of Environmental Technology, P.O. Box 8129, 6700 EV Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - G Zeeman
- Wageningen University, Sub-department of Environmental Technology, P.O. Box 8129, 6700 EV Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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25
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Rose C, Parker A, Jefferson B, Cartmell E. The Characterization of Feces and Urine: A Review of the Literature to Inform Advanced Treatment Technology. CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2015; 45:1827-1879. [PMID: 26246784 PMCID: PMC4500995 DOI: 10.1080/10643389.2014.1000761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 545] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The safe disposal of human excreta is of paramount importance for the health and welfare of populations living in low income countries as well as the prevention of pollution to the surrounding environment. On-site sanitation (OSS) systems are the most numerous means of treating excreta in low income countries, these facilities aim at treating human waste at source and can provide a hygienic and affordable method of waste disposal. However, current OSS systems need improvement and require further research and development. Development of OSS facilities that treat excreta at, or close to, its source require knowledge of the waste stream entering the system. Data regarding the generation rate and the chemical and physical composition of fresh feces and urine was collected from the medical literature as well as the treatability sector. The data were summarized and statistical analysis was used to quantify the major factors that were a significant cause of variability. The impact of this data on biological processes, thermal processes, physical separators, and chemical processes was then assessed. Results showed that the median fecal wet mass production was 128 g/cap/day, with a median dry mass of 29 g/cap/day. Fecal output in healthy individuals was 1.20 defecations per 24 hr period and the main factor affecting fecal mass was the fiber intake of the population. Fecal wet mass values were increased by a factor of 2 in low income countries (high fiber intakes) in comparison to values found in high income countries (low fiber intakes). Feces had a median pH of 6.64 and were composed of 74.6% water. Bacterial biomass is the major component (25-54% of dry solids) of the organic fraction of the feces. Undigested carbohydrate, fiber, protein, and fat comprise the remainder and the amounts depend on diet and diarrhea prevalence in the population. The inorganic component of the feces is primarily undigested dietary elements that also depend on dietary supply. Median urine generation rates were 1.42 L/cap/day with a dry solids content of 59 g/cap/day. Variation in the volume and composition of urine is caused by differences in physical exertion, environmental conditions, as well as water, salt, and high protein intakes. Urine has a pH 6.2 and contains the largest fractions of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium released from the body. The urinary excretion of nitrogen was significant (10.98 g/cap/day) with urea the most predominant constituent making up over 50% of total organic solids. The dietary intake of food and fluid is the major cause of variation in both the fecal and urine composition and these variables should always be considered if the generation rate, physical, and chemical composition of feces and urine is to be accurately predicted.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Rose
- Cranfield Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - A. Parker
- Cranfield Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - B. Jefferson
- Cranfield Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - E. Cartmell
- Cranfield Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, United Kingdom
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Todt D, Heistad A, Jenssen PD. Load and distribution of organic matter and nutrients in a separated household wastewater stream. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2015; 36:1584-1593. [PMID: 25495947 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2014.997300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater from a source-separated sanitation system connected to 24 residential flats was analysed for the content of organic matter and nutrients and other key parameters for microbiological processes used in the treatment and reuse of wastewater. Black water (BW) was the major contributor to the total load of organic matter and nutrients in the wastewater, accounting for 69% of chemical oxygen demand (COD), 83% of total nitrogen (N) and 87% of phosphorus (P). With a low COD/N ratio and high content of free ammonia, treating BW alone is a challenge in traditional biological nitrogen removal approaches. However, its high nitrogen concentration (1.4-1.7 g L(-1)) open up for nutrient reuse as well as for novel, more energy efficient N-removal technologies. Grey water (GW) contained low amounts of nutrients relative to organic matter, and this may limit biological treatment processes under certain conditions. GW contains a higher proportion of soluble, readily degradable organic substances compared with BW, which facilitates simple, decentralized treatment approaches. The concentration of organic matter and nutrients varied considerably between our study and other studies, which could be related to different toilet flushing volumes and water use habits. The daily load per capita, on the other hand, was found to be in line with most of the reported studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Todt
- a Department of Environmental Sciences , Norwegian University of Life Sciences , Postboks 5003 N-1432 , Aas , Norway
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Todt D, Jenssen PD. Particle removal in a novel sequential mechanical filter system loaded with blackwater. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2015; 71:1407-1413. [PMID: 25945859 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2015.114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A novel sequential mechanical filter system was developed as an alternative primary treatment method for onsite wastewater treatment. The filter combines traditional screening with a novel type of counter-flow filter using wood-shavings as a biodegradable filter matrix. This study tested the system in a batch loading regime simulating high frequency toilet flushing using blackwater from a student dormitory. The filter removed 78-85% of suspended solids, 60-80% of chemical oxygen demand, and 42-57% of total-P in blackwater, giving a retentate with a dry matter content of 13-20%. Data analysis clearly indicated a tendency towards higher removal performance with high inlet concentrations, hence, the system seems to be most applicable to blackwater or other types of wastewater with a high content of suspended solids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Todt
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Frognerbakken 3, N-1432 Aas, Norway E-mail:
| | - Petter D Jenssen
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Frognerbakken 3, N-1432 Aas, Norway E-mail:
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Zhang J, She Q, Chang VWC, Tang CY, Webster RD. Mining nutrients (N, K, P) from urban source-separated urine by forward osmosis dewatering. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:3386-3394. [PMID: 24564179 DOI: 10.1021/es405266d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Separating urine from domestic wastewater promotes a more sustainable municipal wastewater treatment system. This study investigated the feasibility of applying a forward osmosis (FO) dewatering process for nutrient recovery from source-separated urine under different conditions, using seawater or desalination brine as a low-cost draw solution. The filtration process with the active layer facing feed solution exhibited relatively high water fluxes up to 20 L/m(2)-h. The process also revealed relatively low rejection to neutral organic nitrogen (urea-N) in fresh urine but improved rejection of ammonium (50-80%) in hydrolyzed urine and high rejection (>90%) of phosphate, potassium in most cases. Compared to simulation based on the solution-diffusion mechanism, higher water flux and solute flux were obtained using fresh or hydrolyzed urine as the feed, which was attributed to the intensive forward nutrient permeation (i.e., of urea, ammonium, and potassium). Membrane fouling could be avoided by prior removal of the spontaneously precipitated crystals in urine. Compared to other urine treatment options, the current process was cost-effective and environmentally friendly for nutrient recovery from urban wastewater at source, yet a comprehensive life-cycle impact assessment might be needed to evaluate and optimize the overall system performance at pilot and full scale operation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiefeng Zhang
- Division of Environmental and Water Resources, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University , 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
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Gulyas H, Zhang S, Otterpohl R. Pretreating Stored Human Urine for Solar Evaporation by Low-Technology Ammonia Stripping. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.4236/jep.2014.511097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Zhang J, Giannis A, Chang VWC, Ng BJH, Wang JY. Adaptation of urine source separation in tropical cities: Process optimization and odor mitigation. JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION (1995) 2013; 63:472-481. [PMID: 23687732 DOI: 10.1080/10962247.2013.763306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Source-separating urine from other domestic wastewaters promotes a more sustainable municipal wastewater treatment system. This study investigated the feasibility and potential issues of applying a urine source-separation system in tropical urban settings. The results showed that source-separated urine underwent rapid urea-hydrolysis (ureolysis) at temperatures between 34-40 degrees C, stale/fresh urine ratios greater than 40%, and/or with slight fecal cross-contamination. Undiluted (or low-diluted) urine favored ureolysis; this can be monitored by measuring conductivity as a reliable and efficient indicator The optimized parameters demonstrated that an effective urine source-separation system is achievable in tropical urban areas. On the other hand, the initial release of CO2 and NH3 led to an elevated pressure in the headspace of the collection reservoir, which then dropped to a negative value, primarily due to oxygen depletion by the microbial activity in the gradually alkalized urine. Another potential odor source during the ureolysis process was derived from the high production of volatile fatty acids (VFA), which were mainly acetic, propanoic, and butyric acids. Health concerns related to odor issues might limit the application of source separation systems in urban areas; it is therefore vital to systematically monitor and control the odor emissions from a source separation system. As such, an enhanced ureolysis process can attenuate the odor emissions. IMPLICATIONS Urine source separation is promising to improve the management of domestic wastewater in a more sustainable way. The work demonstrates the achievability of an effective urine source-separation system in tropical urban areas. The installation of urine-stabilization tanks beneath high-rise buildings lowers the risk of pipe clogging. Conductivity measurement can be utilized as a reliable process indicator for an automated system. However, urine hydrolysis raises a strong potential of odor emission (both inorganic and organic), which might limit the application of source separation systems in urban areas. An enhanced ureolysis process could shorten and attenuate the odor emissions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiefeng Zhang
- Division of Environmental and Water Resources, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
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Zhang J, Chang VWC, Giannis A, Wang JY. Removal of cytostatic drugs from aquatic environment: a review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2013; 445-446:281-98. [PMID: 23337605 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.12.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Revised: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 12/20/2012] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Cytostatic drugs have been widely used for chemotherapy for decades. However, many of them have been categorized as carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic compounds, triggering widespread concerns about their occupational exposure and ecotoxicological risks to the environment. This review focuses on trace presence, fate and ecotoxicity of various cytostatic compounds in the environment, with an emphasis on the major sources contributing to their environmental concentrations. Past records have documented findings mainly on hospital effluents though little effort has been directed to household discharges. There is also a lack in physico-chemical data for forecasting the chemodynamics of cytostatics in natural waters along with its human metabolites and environmental transformation products. In this light, obtaining comprehensive ecotoxicity data is becoming pressingly crucial to determine their actual impacts on the ecosystem. Literature review also reveals urinary excretion as a major contributor to various cytostatic residues appeared in the water cycle. As such, engaging urine source-separation as a part of control strategy holds a rosy prospect of addressing the "emerging" contamination issue. State-of-the-art treatment technologies should be incorporated to further remove cytostatic residues from the source-separating urine stream. The benefits, limitations and trends of development in this domain are covered for membrane bio-reactor, reverse/forward osmosis and advanced oxidation processes. Despite the respective seeming advantages of source separation and treatment technology, a combined strategy may cost-effectively prevent the cytostatic residues from seeping into the environment. However, the combination calls for further evaluation on the associated technological, social-economic and administrative issues at hand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiefeng Zhang
- Division of Environmental and Water Resources, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
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