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de Oliveira CH, Andrade MS, Campos FS, da C. Cardoso J, Gonçalves-dos-Santos ME, Oliveira RS, Aquino-Teixeira SM, Campos AAS, Almeida MAB, Simonini-Teixeira D, da P. Sevá A, Temponi AOD, Magalhães FM, da Silva Menezes AS, Lopes BT, Almeida HP, Pedroso AL, Gonçalves GP, Chaves DCC, de Menezes GG, Bernal-Valle S, Müller NFD, Janssen L, dos Santos E, Mares-Guia MA, Albuquerque GR, Romano APM, Franco AC, Ribeiro BM, Roehe PM, Lourenço-de-Oliveira R, de Abreu FVS. Yellow Fever Virus Maintained by Sabethes Mosquitoes during the Dry Season in Cerrado, a Semiarid Region of Brazil, in 2021. Viruses 2023; 15:757. [PMID: 36992466 PMCID: PMC10058068 DOI: 10.3390/v15030757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent decades, waves of yellow fever virus (YFV) from the Amazon Rainforest have spread and caused outbreaks in other regions of Brazil, including the Cerrado, a savannah-like biome through which YFV usually moves before arriving at the Atlantic Forest. To identify the vectors involved in the maintenance of the virus in semiarid environments, an entomological survey was conducted after confirmation of yellow fever (YF) epizootics at the peak of the dry season in the Cerrado areas of the state of Minas Gerais. In total, 917 mosquitoes from 13 taxa were collected and tested for the presence of YFV. Interestingly, mosquitoes of the Sabethes genus represented 95% of the diurnal captured specimens, displaying a peak of biting activity never previously recorded, between 4:30 and 5:30 p.m. Molecular analysis identified three YFV-positive pools, two from Sabethes chloropterus-from which near-complete genomes were generated-and one from Sa. albiprivus, whose low viral load prevented sequencing. Sa. chloropterus was considered the primary vector due to the high number of copies of YFV RNA and the high relative abundance detected. Its bionomic characteristics allow its survival in dry places and dry time periods. For the first time in Brazil, Sa. albiprivus was found to be naturally infected with YFV and may have played a role as a secondary vector. Despite its high relative abundance, fewer copies of viral RNA were found, as well as a lower Minimum Infection Rate (MIR). Genomic and phylogeographic analysis showed that the virus clustered in the sub-lineage YFVPA-MG, which circulated in Pará in 2017 and then spread into other regions of the country. The results reported here contribute to the understanding of the epidemiology and mechanisms of YFV dispersion and maintenance, especially in adverse weather conditions. The intense viral circulation, even outside the seasonal period, increases the importance of surveillance and YFV vaccination to protect human populations in affected areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cirilo H. de Oliveira
- Insect Behavior Laboratory, Federal Institute of Northern Minas Gerais, Salinas 39560-000, MG, Brazil
| | - Miguel S. Andrade
- Baculovirus Laboratory, Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasilia, Brasília 70910-900, DF, Brazil
- Department of Molecular Biology, Sabin Diagnóstico e Saúde, Brasília 70632-340, DF, Brazil
| | - Fabrício S. Campos
- Bioinformatics and Biotechnology Laboratory, Campus of Gurupi, Federal University of Tocantins, Gurupi 77410-570, TO, Brazil
- Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre 90035-003, RS, Brazil
| | - Jader da C. Cardoso
- State Center of Health Surveillance, Rio Grande do Sul State Health Department, Porto Alegre 90610-000, RS, Brazil
| | | | - Ramon Silva Oliveira
- Insect Behavior Laboratory, Federal Institute of Northern Minas Gerais, Salinas 39560-000, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Aline AS Campos
- State Center of Health Surveillance, Rio Grande do Sul State Health Department, Porto Alegre 90610-000, RS, Brazil
| | - Marco AB Almeida
- Pan American Health Organization, World Health Organization Office in Brazil, Brasília 70800-400, DF, Brazil
| | - Danilo Simonini-Teixeira
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Santa Cruz State University, Ilhéus 45662-900, BA, Brazil
| | - Anaiá da P. Sevá
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Santa Cruz State University, Ilhéus 45662-900, BA, Brazil
| | - Andrea Oliveira Dias Temponi
- Health Department of the State of Minas Gerais, State Coordination for Arbovirus Surveillance, Belo Horizonte 31630-901, MG, Brazil
| | - Fernando Maria Magalhães
- Health Department of the State of Minas Gerais, State Coordination for Arbovirus Surveillance, Belo Horizonte 31630-901, MG, Brazil
| | - Agna Soares da Silva Menezes
- Health Department of the State of Minas Gerais, State Coordination for Arbovirus Surveillance, Belo Horizonte 31630-901, MG, Brazil
| | - Bartolomeu Teixeira Lopes
- Health Department of the State of Minas Gerais, State Coordination for Arbovirus Surveillance, Belo Horizonte 31630-901, MG, Brazil
| | - Hermes P. Almeida
- Health Department of the State of Minas Gerais, State Coordination for Arbovirus Surveillance, Belo Horizonte 31630-901, MG, Brazil
| | - Ana Lúcia Pedroso
- Health Department of the State of Minas Gerais, State Coordination for Arbovirus Surveillance, Belo Horizonte 31630-901, MG, Brazil
| | - Giovani Pontel Gonçalves
- Health Department of the State of Minas Gerais, State Coordination for Arbovirus Surveillance, Belo Horizonte 31630-901, MG, Brazil
| | - Danielle Costa Capistrano Chaves
- Health Department of the State of Minas Gerais, State Coordination for Arbovirus Surveillance, Belo Horizonte 31630-901, MG, Brazil
| | - Givaldo Gomes de Menezes
- Health Department of the State of Minas Gerais, State Coordination for Arbovirus Surveillance, Belo Horizonte 31630-901, MG, Brazil
| | - Sofía Bernal-Valle
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Santa Cruz State University, Ilhéus 45662-900, BA, Brazil
| | - Nicolas FD Müller
- Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre 90035-003, RS, Brazil
| | - Luis Janssen
- Baculovirus Laboratory, Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasilia, Brasília 70910-900, DF, Brazil
| | - Edmilson dos Santos
- State Center of Health Surveillance, Rio Grande do Sul State Health Department, Porto Alegre 90610-000, RS, Brazil
| | - Maria A. Mares-Guia
- Flavivirus Laboratory, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil
| | - George R. Albuquerque
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Santa Cruz State University, Ilhéus 45662-900, BA, Brazil
| | - Alessandro PM Romano
- General Coordination of Arbovirus Surveillance, Ministry of Health, Brasília 70058-900, DF, Brazil
| | - Ana C. Franco
- Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre 90035-003, RS, Brazil
| | - Bergmann M. Ribeiro
- Baculovirus Laboratory, Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasilia, Brasília 70910-900, DF, Brazil
| | - Paulo M. Roehe
- Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre 90035-003, RS, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Lourenço-de-Oliveira
- Laboratório de Mosquitos Transmissores de Hematozoários, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil
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Abreu FVSD, de Andreazzi CS, Neves MSAS, Meneguete PS, Ribeiro MS, Dias CMG, de Albuquerque Motta M, Barcellos C, Romão AR, Magalhães MDAFM, Lourenço-de-Oliveira R. Ecological and environmental factors affecting transmission of sylvatic yellow fever in the 2017-2019 outbreak in the Atlantic Forest, Brazil. Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:23. [PMID: 35012637 PMCID: PMC8750868 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-05143-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Yellow fever virus (YFV) is an arbovirus that, despite the existence of a safe and effective vaccine, continues to cause outbreaks of varying dimensions in the Americas and Africa. Between 2017 and 2019, Brazil registered un unprecedented sylvatic YFV outbreak whose severity was the result of its spread into zones of the Atlantic Forest with no signals of viral circulation for nearly 80 years. METHODS To investigate the influence of climatic, environmental, and ecological factors governing the dispersion and force of infection of YFV in a naïve area such as the landscape mosaic of Rio de Janeiro (RJ), we combined the analyses of a large set of data including entomological sampling performed before and during the 2017-2019 outbreak, with the geolocation of human and nonhuman primates (NHP) and mosquito infections. RESULTS A greater abundance of Haemagogus mosquitoes combined with lower richness and diversity of mosquito fauna increased the probability of finding a YFV-infected mosquito. Furthermore, the analysis of functional traits showed that certain functional groups, composed mainly of Aedini mosquitoes which includes Aedes and Haemagogus mosquitoes, are also more representative in areas where infected mosquitoes were found. Human and NHP infections were more common in two types of landscapes: large and continuous forest, capable of harboring many YFV hosts, and patches of small forest fragments, where environmental imbalance can lead to a greater density of the primary vectors and high human exposure. In both, we show that most human infections (~ 62%) occurred within an 11-km radius of the finding of an infected NHP, which is in line with the flight range of the primary vectors. CONCLUSIONS Together, our data suggest that entomological data and landscape composition analyses may help to predict areas permissive to yellow fever outbreaks, allowing protective measures to be taken to avoid human cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filipe Vieira Santos de Abreu
- Laboratório de Mosquitos Transmissores de Hematozoários, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
- Laboratório de Comportamento de Insetos, Instituto Federal do Norte de Minas Gerais, Salinas, MG Brazil
| | - Cecilia Siliansky de Andreazzi
- Laboratório de Biologia e Parasitologia de Mamíferos Silvestres Reservatórios, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
- Present Address: Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal
| | | | - Patrícia Soares Meneguete
- Secretaria de Estado de Saúde, Subsecretaria de Vigilância e Atenção Primária À Saúde, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
| | - Mário Sérgio Ribeiro
- Secretaria de Estado de Saúde, Subsecretaria de Vigilância e Atenção Primária À Saúde, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
| | - Cristina Maria Giordano Dias
- Secretaria de Estado de Saúde, Subsecretaria de Vigilância e Atenção Primária À Saúde, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
| | - Monique de Albuquerque Motta
- Laboratório de Mosquitos Transmissores de Hematozoários, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
| | - Christovam Barcellos
- Laboratório de Informação em Saúde, Instituto de Comunicação e Informação Científica e Tecnológica em Saúde, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
| | - Anselmo Rocha Romão
- Laboratório de Informação em Saúde, Instituto de Comunicação e Informação Científica e Tecnológica em Saúde, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
| | | | - Ricardo Lourenço-de-Oliveira
- Laboratório de Mosquitos Transmissores de Hematozoários, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
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Childs ML, Nova N, Colvin J, Mordecai EA. Mosquito and primate ecology predict human risk of yellow fever virus spillover in Brazil. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 374:20180335. [PMID: 31401964 PMCID: PMC6711306 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2018.0335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Many (re)emerging infectious diseases in humans arise from pathogen spillover from wildlife or livestock, and accurately predicting pathogen spillover is an important public health goal. In the Americas, yellow fever in humans primarily occurs following spillover from non-human primates via mosquitoes. Predicting yellow fever spillover can improve public health responses through vector control and mass vaccination. Here, we develop and test a mechanistic model of pathogen spillover to predict human risk for yellow fever in Brazil. This environmental risk model, based on the ecology of mosquito vectors and non-human primate hosts, distinguished municipality-months with yellow fever spillover from 2001 to 2016 with high accuracy (AUC = 0.72). Incorporating hypothesized cyclical dynamics of infected primates improved accuracy (AUC = 0.79). Using boosted regression trees to identify gaps in the mechanistic model, we found that important predictors include current and one-month lagged environmental risk, vaccine coverage, population density, temperature and precipitation. More broadly, we show that for a widespread human viral pathogen, the ecological interactions between environment, vectors, reservoir hosts and humans can predict spillover with surprising accuracy, suggesting the potential to improve preventive action to reduce yellow fever spillover and avert onward epidemics in humans. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Dynamic and integrative approaches to understanding pathogen spillover’.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marissa L Childs
- Emmett Interdisciplinary Program in Environment and Resources, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Nicole Nova
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Justine Colvin
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Erin A Mordecai
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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de Almeida MAB, Dos Santos E, Cardoso JDC, da Silva LG, Rabelo RM, Bicca-Marques JC. Predicting Yellow Fever Through Species Distribution Modeling of Virus, Vector, and Monkeys. ECOHEALTH 2019; 16:95-108. [PMID: 30560394 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-018-1388-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Revised: 10/20/2018] [Accepted: 10/22/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Mapping yellow fever (YF) risk is often based on place of infection of human cases, whereas the circulation between nonhuman primates (NHP) and vectors is neglected. In 2008/2009, YF devastated NHP at the southern limit of the disease in the Americas. In view of the recent expansion of YF in Brazil, we modeled the environmental suitability for YF with data from 2008/2009 epizootic, the distribution of NHP (Alouatta spp.), and the mosquito (Haemagogus leucocelaenus) using the maximum entropy algorithm (Maxent) to define risk areas for YF and their main environmental predictors. We evaluated points of occurrence of YF based on dates of confirmed deaths of NHP in three periods, from October 2008 to: December 2008, March 2009, and June 2009. Variables with greatest influence on suitability for YF were seasonality in water vapor pressure (36%), distribution of NHP (32%), maximum wind speed (11%), annual mean rainfall (7%), and maximum temperature in the warmest month (5%). Models of early periods of the epizootic identified suitability for YF in localities that recorded NHP deaths only months later, demonstrating usefulness of the approach for predicting the disease spread. Our data supported influence of rainfall, air humidity, and ambient temperature on the distribution of epizootics. Wind was highlighted as a predicting variable, probably due to its influence on the dispersal of vectors infected with YF in fragmented landscapes. Further studies on the role of wind are necessary to improve our understanding of the occurrence of YF and other arboviruses and their dispersal in the landscape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco A B de Almeida
- Divisão de Vigilância Ambiental em Saúde, Centro Estadual de Vigilância em Saúde, Secretaria da Saúde do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Avenida Ipiranga 5400/Sala 95, Bairro Jardim Botânico, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, CEP 90610-030, Brazil.
- Escola de Ciências, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
| | - Edmilson Dos Santos
- Divisão de Vigilância Ambiental em Saúde, Centro Estadual de Vigilância em Saúde, Secretaria da Saúde do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Avenida Ipiranga 5400/Sala 95, Bairro Jardim Botânico, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, CEP 90610-030, Brazil
| | - Jáder da C Cardoso
- Divisão de Vigilância Ambiental em Saúde, Centro Estadual de Vigilância em Saúde, Secretaria da Saúde do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Avenida Ipiranga 5400/Sala 95, Bairro Jardim Botânico, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, CEP 90610-030, Brazil
| | - Lucas G da Silva
- Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Rafael M Rabelo
- Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Júlio César Bicca-Marques
- Escola de Ciências, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
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Campbell LP, Luther C, Moo-Llanes D, Ramsey JM, Danis-Lozano R, Peterson AT. Climate change influences on global distributions of dengue and chikungunya virus vectors. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2015; 370:rstb.2014.0135. [PMID: 25688023 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2014.0135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 203] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous recent studies have illuminated global distributions of human cases of dengue and other mosquito-transmitted diseases, yet the potential distributions of key vector species have not been incorporated integrally into those mapping efforts. Projections onto future conditions to illuminate potential distributional shifts in coming decades are similarly lacking, at least outside Europe. This study examined the global potential distributions of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus in relation to climatic variation worldwide to develop ecological niche models that, in turn, allowed anticipation of possible changes in distributional patterns into the future. Results indicated complex global rearrangements of potential distributional areas, which--given the impressive dispersal abilities of these two species--are likely to translate into actual distributional shifts. This exercise also signalled a crucial priority: digitization and sharing of existing distributional data so that models of this sort can be developed more rigorously, as present availability of such data is fragmentary and woefully incomplete.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay P Campbell
- Biodiversity Institute and Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Caylor Luther
- Biodiversity Institute and Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - David Moo-Llanes
- Centro Regional de Investigación en Salud Pública-INSP, 19 Poniente y 4ta Norte, 30700 Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico
| | - Janine M Ramsey
- Centro Regional de Investigación en Salud Pública-INSP, 19 Poniente y 4ta Norte, 30700 Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico
| | - Rogelio Danis-Lozano
- Centro Regional de Investigación en Salud Pública-INSP, 19 Poniente y 4ta Norte, 30700 Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico
| | - A Townsend Peterson
- Biodiversity Institute and Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
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Moreno ES, Agostini I, Holzmann I, Di Bitetti MS, Oklander LI, Kowalewski MM, Beldomenico PM, Goenaga S, Martínez M, Lestani E, Desbiez ALJ, Miller P. Yellow fever impact on brown howler monkeys (Alouatta guariba clamitans) in Argentina: a metamodelling approach based on population viability analysis and epidemiological dynamics. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2015; 110:865-76. [PMID: 26517499 PMCID: PMC4660615 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760150075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 09/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In South America, yellow fever (YF) is an established infectious disease that has been identified outside of its traditional endemic areas, affecting human and nonhuman primate (NHP) populations. In the epidemics that occurred in Argentina between 2007-2009, several outbreaks affecting humans and howler monkeys (Alouatta spp) were reported, highlighting the importance of this disease in the context of conservation medicine and public health policies. Considering the lack of information about YF dynamics in New World NHP, our main goal was to apply modelling tools to better understand YF transmission dynamics among endangered brown howler monkey (Alouatta guariba clamitans) populations in northeastern Argentina. Two complementary modelling tools were used to evaluate brown howler population dynamics in the presence of the disease: Vortex, a stochastic demographic simulation model, and Outbreak, a stochastic disease epidemiology simulation. The baseline model of YF disease epidemiology predicted a very high probability of population decline over the next 100 years. We believe the modelling approach discussed here is a reasonable description of the disease and its effects on the howler monkey population and can be useful to support evidence-based decision-making to guide actions at a regional level.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ilaria Agostini
- Instituto de Biología Subtropical, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad Nacional de Misiones, Puerto Iguazú, Misiones, Argentina
| | - Ingrid Holzmann
- Instituto de Biología Subtropical, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad Nacional de Misiones, Puerto Iguazú, Misiones, Argentina
| | - Mario S Di Bitetti
- Instituto de Biología Subtropical, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad Nacional de Misiones, Puerto Iguazú, Misiones, Argentina
| | - Luciana I Oklander
- Instituto de Biología Subtropical, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad Nacional de Misiones, Puerto Iguazú, Misiones, Argentina
| | - Martín M Kowalewski
- Estación Biológica de Corrientes, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales Bernardino Rivadavia, San Cayetano, Corrientes, Argentina
| | - Pablo M Beldomenico
- Instituto de Ciencias Veterinarias del Litoral, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Esperanza, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Silvina Goenaga
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Virales Humanas Dr Julio I Maiztegui, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mariela Martínez
- Instituto de Biología Subtropical, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad Nacional de Misiones, Puerto Iguazú, Misiones, Argentina
| | - Eduardo Lestani
- Instituto Nacional de Medicina Tropical, Puerto Iguazú, Misiones, Argentina
| | | | - Philip Miller
- International Union for Conservation of Nature, Apple Valley, MN, USA
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de Carvalho GC, Malafronte RDS, Miti Izumisawa C, Souza Teixeira R, Natal L, Marrelli MT. Blood meal sources of mosquitoes captured in municipal parks in São Paulo, Brazil. JOURNAL OF VECTOR ECOLOGY : JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR VECTOR ECOLOGY 2014; 39:146-152. [PMID: 24820567 DOI: 10.1111/j.1948-7134.2014.12081.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2013] [Accepted: 03/06/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate blood meal sources of mosquitoes captured in municipal parks in the city of São Paulo, Brazil, and to identify possible associations between mosquito species and their food preferences. Fourteen species of blood hosts of 510 engorged adult female mosquitoes were identified using PCR assays with a vertebrate-specific primer set based on cytochrome b mitochondrial DNA of the following vertebrates: birds, dogs, cats, rodents, humans, and other primates. Mosquitoes were captured using a manual aspirator, CDC traps in the canopy, CDC traps at ground level, and Shannon traps. With the exception of cats, all other vertebrates were used as hosts by mosquitoes in the parks. Statistical analysis failed to show any trend toward association between most culicid species captured and the sources of blood meals. Instead, they revealed random patterns, indicating that the mosquitoes fed on the most abundant or convenient blood meal sources. Although feeding preferences were observed in two species (birds in the case of Cx. nigripalpus and dogs in the case of Cx. quinquefasciatus), our results highlight the opportunistic feeding habits of the female mosquitoes in this study.
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Evolutionary and ecological factors underlying the tempo and distribution of yellow fever virus activity. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2012; 13:198-210. [PMID: 22981999 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2012.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2012] [Revised: 08/15/2012] [Accepted: 08/16/2012] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Yellow fever virus (YFV) is historically one of the most important viruses to affect human populations. Despite the existence of highly effective vaccines for over 70 years, yellow fever remains a significant and re-emerging cause of morbidity and mortality in endemic and high-risk regions of South America and Africa. The virus may be maintained in sylvatic enzootic/epizootic, transitional and urban epidemic transmission cycles with geographic variation in terms of levels of genetic diversity, the nature of transmission cycles and patterns of outbreak activity. In this review we consider evolutionary and ecological factors underlying YFV emergence, maintenance and spread, geographic distribution and patterns of epizootic/epidemic activity.
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Moreno ES, Barata RDCB. Methodology for definition of yellow fever priority areas, based on environmental variables and multiple correspondence analyses. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2012; 6:e1658. [PMID: 22802971 PMCID: PMC3389021 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2011] [Accepted: 04/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Yellow fever (YF) is endemic in much of Brazil, where cases of the disease are reported every year. Since 2008, outbreaks of the disease have occurred in regions of the country where no reports had been registered for decades, which has obligated public health authorities to redefine risk areas for the disease. The aim of the present study was to propose a methodology of environmental risk analysis for defining priority municipalities for YF vaccination, using as example, the State of São Paulo, Brazil. The municipalities were divided into two groups (affected and unaffected by YF) and compared based on environmental parameters related to the disease's eco-epidemiology. Bivariate analysis was used to identify statistically significant associations between the variables and virus circulation. Multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) was used to evaluate the relationship among the variables and their contribution to the dynamics of YF in Sao Paulo. The MCA generated a factor that was able to differentiate between affected and unaffected municipalities and was used to determine risk levels. This methodology can be replicated in other regions, standardized, and adapted to each context. Yellow fever (YF) is an infectious disease, transmitted by mosquitoes, and very common in North and Middle East region of Brazil, where cases of the disease are reported every year. Since 2008, outbreaks of the disease have occurred in regions of the country where no reports had been registered for decades, which has obligated public health authorities to redefine risk areas for the disease. The aim of the present study was to propose a methodology of environmental risk analysis for defining priority municipalities for YF vaccination. The municipalities were divided into two groups (affected and unaffected by YF) and compared based on environmental parameters related to the disease's epidemiology. Statistical analysis was used to identify associations between the variables and virus circulation, as well as, to evaluate the relationship among the variables and their contribution to the dynamics of YF. The MCA generated a factor that was able to differentiate between affected and unaffected municipalities and was used to determine risk levels. This methodology can be replicated in other regions, standardized, and adapted to each context.
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Auguste AJ, Lemey P, Pybus OG, Suchard MA, Salas RA, Adesiyun AA, Barrett AD, Tesh RB, Weaver SC, Carrington CVF. Yellow fever virus maintenance in Trinidad and its dispersal throughout the Americas. J Virol 2010; 84:9967-77. [PMID: 20631128 PMCID: PMC2937779 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00588-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2010] [Accepted: 07/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Trinidad, like many other American regions, experiences repeated epizootics of yellow fever virus (YFV). However, it is unclear whether these result from in situ evolution (enzootic maintenance) or regular reintroduction of YFV from the South American mainland. To discriminate between these hypotheses, we carried out a Bayesian phylogeographic analysis of over 100 prM/E gene sequences sampled from 8 South American countries. These included newly sequenced isolates from the recent 2008-2009 Trinidad epizootic and isolates derived from mainland countries within the last decade. The results indicate that the most recent common ancestor of the 2008-2009 epizootic existed in Trinidad 4.2 years prior to 2009 (95% highest probability density [HPD], 0.5 to 9.0 years). Our data also suggest a Trinidad origin for the progenitor of the 1995 Trinidad epizootic and support in situ evolution of YFV between the 1979 and 1988-1989 Trinidad epizootics. Using the same phylogeographic approach, we also inferred the historical spread of YFV in the Americas. The results suggest a Brazilian origin for YFV in the Americas and an overall dispersal rate of 182 km/year (95% HPD, 52 to 462 km/year), with Brazil as the major source population for surrounding countries. There is also strong statistical support for epidemiological links between four Brazilian regions and other countries. In contrast, while there were well-supported epidemiological links within Peru, the only statistically supported external link was a relatively weak link with neighboring Bolivia. Lastly, we performed a complete analysis of the genome of a newly sequenced Trinidad 2009 isolate, the first complete genome for a genotype I YFV isolate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert J. Auguste
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PS, United Kingdom, Departments of Biomathematics and Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, and Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1766, Caribbean Epidemiology Centre, 16-18 Jamaica Boulevard, Federation Park, Port-of-Spain, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Institute for Human Infections and Immunity and WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555
| | - Philippe Lemey
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PS, United Kingdom, Departments of Biomathematics and Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, and Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1766, Caribbean Epidemiology Centre, 16-18 Jamaica Boulevard, Federation Park, Port-of-Spain, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Institute for Human Infections and Immunity and WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555
| | - Oliver G. Pybus
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PS, United Kingdom, Departments of Biomathematics and Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, and Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1766, Caribbean Epidemiology Centre, 16-18 Jamaica Boulevard, Federation Park, Port-of-Spain, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Institute for Human Infections and Immunity and WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555
| | - Marc A. Suchard
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PS, United Kingdom, Departments of Biomathematics and Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, and Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1766, Caribbean Epidemiology Centre, 16-18 Jamaica Boulevard, Federation Park, Port-of-Spain, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Institute for Human Infections and Immunity and WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555
| | - Rosa Alba Salas
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PS, United Kingdom, Departments of Biomathematics and Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, and Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1766, Caribbean Epidemiology Centre, 16-18 Jamaica Boulevard, Federation Park, Port-of-Spain, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Institute for Human Infections and Immunity and WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555
| | - Abiodun A. Adesiyun
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PS, United Kingdom, Departments of Biomathematics and Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, and Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1766, Caribbean Epidemiology Centre, 16-18 Jamaica Boulevard, Federation Park, Port-of-Spain, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Institute for Human Infections and Immunity and WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555
| | - Alan D. Barrett
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PS, United Kingdom, Departments of Biomathematics and Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, and Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1766, Caribbean Epidemiology Centre, 16-18 Jamaica Boulevard, Federation Park, Port-of-Spain, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Institute for Human Infections and Immunity and WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555
| | - Robert B. Tesh
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PS, United Kingdom, Departments of Biomathematics and Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, and Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1766, Caribbean Epidemiology Centre, 16-18 Jamaica Boulevard, Federation Park, Port-of-Spain, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Institute for Human Infections and Immunity and WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555
| | - Scott C. Weaver
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PS, United Kingdom, Departments of Biomathematics and Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, and Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1766, Caribbean Epidemiology Centre, 16-18 Jamaica Boulevard, Federation Park, Port-of-Spain, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Institute for Human Infections and Immunity and WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555
| | - Christine V. F. Carrington
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PS, United Kingdom, Departments of Biomathematics and Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, and Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1766, Caribbean Epidemiology Centre, 16-18 Jamaica Boulevard, Federation Park, Port-of-Spain, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Institute for Human Infections and Immunity and WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555
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Li G, Duan T, Wu X, Tesh RB, Soong L, Xiao SY. Yellow fever virus infection in Syrian golden hamsters: relationship between cytokine expression and pathologic changes. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PATHOLOGY 2008; 1:169-79. [PMID: 18784801 PMCID: PMC2480551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2007] [Accepted: 08/26/2007] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Infection of primates by yellow fever virus (YFV) often results in severe multi-organ failure with marked histologic abnormalities. However, the role of host's immune response, particularly innate immunity, in disease process is unclear. In this study, we used a well established hamster model of yellow fever to examine the dynamic changes of cytokine expression and histopathology in the liver, spleen, kidney, and heart during the course of YFV infection. We observed that the levels of inflammatory cytokines (IFN-gamma, IL-2, TNF-alpha) in the liver were significantly reduced in the mid-stage of infection (8 days), but were elevated later (12 days). In contrast, IL-12p40 was elevated throughout the infection. The levels of IFN-gamma, IL-2, and TNF-alpha were increased in the spleen, kidney, and heart throughout the study period. For regulatory cytokines, IL-10 was significantly increased, and TGF-beta was reduced in the liver, spleen and heart in both early and mid-stages of infection, but was elevated in the kidney during the entire course of infection. In view of the pathologic changes, the observed cytokine profiles suggest that YFV has immunosuppressive effects, which contribute to liver damage in the mid-stage of infection, followed by an immunopathogenic mechanism that leads to disease progression during the late-stages of infection. Our findings support the hypothesis that organ injury by YFV is probably due to a combination of multiple factors, including direct viral injury and host innate immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangyu Li
- Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Institute for Human Infections and ImmunityGalveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Tao Duan
- Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Institute for Human Infections and ImmunityGalveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Xiaoyan Wu
- Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Institute for Human Infections and ImmunityGalveston, TX 77555, USA
- Department of Medicine, Zhong Nan Hospital, Wuhan UniversityWuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Robert B Tesh
- Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Institute for Human Infections and ImmunityGalveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Lynn Soong
- Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Institute for Human Infections and ImmunityGalveston, TX 77555, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical BranchGalveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Shu-Yuan Xiao
- Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Institute for Human Infections and ImmunityGalveston, TX 77555, USA
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Quaresma JAS, Barros VLRS, Pagliari C, Fernandes ER, Guedes F, Takakura CFH, Andrade HF, Vasconcelos PFC, Duarte MIS. Revisiting the liver in human yellow fever: Virus-induced apoptosis in hepatocytes associated with TGF-β, TNF-α and NK cells activity. Virology 2006; 345:22-30. [PMID: 16278000 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2005.09.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2005] [Revised: 08/22/2005] [Accepted: 09/21/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Flavivirus infection as dengue and yellow fever persists as a terrible menace to pandemics, due to Aedes prevalence in the Americas. Yellow fever is characterized by hepatocyte damage, with steatosis, apoptosis and necrosis, mainly in the midzonal region of the liver, but the injury mechanism has not been studied at the light of recent knowledge, such as the advances in cell death mechanisms, inflammatory response and cytokine cell expression tools. We studied 53 human liver paraffin embedded blocks from patients who died with yellow fever, all with histological demonstration of higher prevalence of apoptosis over necrosis and mild disproportionate inflammatory response. Viral antigens were found most frequently in hepatocytes from the midzonal area than other lobule areas, as detected by specific immunohistochemistry. Infiltrating cell subpopulations showed mainly CD4+ T lymphocytes, with small numbers of CD8+ cytotoxic lymphocytes, CD20+ B lymphocytes, NKT+ cells and S100+ dendritic cells in the sites of inflammation, as compared to normal and leptospirosis liver blocks. Some cells expressed TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma, but a much more intense proportion of TGF-beta expressing cells were found, suggesting both a Th1 and Th3 patterns of immune response in yellow fever. Most affected hepatocyte presented apoptosis markers that appear at the cell death main pathway in this infection. Viral antigens, which production could interfere in hepatocyte biology, could induce the activation of apoptosis cascade, but TGF-beta was also an apoptosis promoter. Our finding supports the key effect of the yellow fever virus in hepatocyte injury, resulting in prevalence of apoptosis over necrosis, aside from a TGF-beta action induced by the inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juarez A S Quaresma
- Tropical Medical Center, Federal do Para University, Av. Generalissimo Deodoro 92, 66055-420 Belem, Para, Brazil.
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Vasconcelos PFC, Bryant JE, da Rosa TPA, Tesh RB, Rodrigues SG, Barrett ADT. Genetic divergence and dispersal of yellow fever virus, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10:1578-84. [PMID: 15498159 PMCID: PMC3320275 DOI: 10.3201/eid1009.040197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Examining viral isolates collected over 66 years shows divergence into clades and potential dispersal by human migration. An analysis of 79 yellow fever virus (YFV) isolates collected from 1935 to 2001 in Brazil showed a single genotype (South America I) circulating in the country, with the exception of a single strain from Rondônia, which represented South America genotype II. Brazilian YFV strains have diverged into two clades; an older clade appears to have become extinct and another has become the dominant lineage in recent years. Pairwise nucleotide diversity between strains ranged from 0% to 7.4%, while amino acid divergence ranged from 0% to 4.6%. Phylogenetic analysis indicated traffic of virus variants through large geographic areas and suggested that migration of infected people may be an important mechanism of virus dispersal. Isolation of vaccine virus from a patient with a fatal case suggests that vaccine-related illness may have been misdiagnosed in the past.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro F C Vasconcelos
- World Health Organization Collaborating Center for Arbovirus Reference and Research, Instituto Evandro Chagas, Belém, Brazil.
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Bryant J, Wang H, Cabezas C, Ramirez G, Watts D, Russell K, Barrett A. Enzootic transmission of yellow fever virus in Peru. Emerg Infect Dis 2003; 9:926-33. [PMID: 12967489 PMCID: PMC3023271 DOI: 10.3201/eid0908.030075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The prevailing paradigm of yellow fever virus (YFV) ecology in South America is that of wandering epizootics. The virus is believed to move from place to place in epizootic waves involving monkeys and mosquitoes, rather than persistently circulating within particular locales. After a large outbreak of YFV illness in Peru in 1995, we used phylogenetic analyses of virus isolates to reexamine the hypothesis of virus movement. We sequenced a 670-nucleotide fragment of the prM/E gene region from 25 Peruvian YFV samples collected from 1977 to 1999, and delineated six clades representing the states (Departments) of Puno, Pasco, Junin, Ayacucho, San Martin/Huanuco, and Cusco. The concurrent appearance of at least four variants during the 1995 epidemic and the genetic stability of separate virus lineages over time indicate that Peruvian YFV is locally maintained and circulates continuously in discrete foci of enzootic transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Bryant
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-0609, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan D Barrett
- Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Sealy Center for Vaccine Development, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-0609, USA
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