Assessment of benzo(a)pyrene-equivalent carcinogenicity and mutagenicity of residential indoor versus outdoor polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons exposing young children in New York City

Generation, characterization, and toxicological assessment of reference ultrafine soot particles with different organic content for inhalation toxicological studies

Ultrafine particles (UFP) are the smallest atmospheric particulate matter linked to air pollution-related diseases. The extent to which UFP's physical and chemical properties contribute to its toxicity remains unclear. It is hypothesized that UFP act as carriers for chemicals that drive biological responses. This study explores robust methods for generating reference UFP to understand these mechanisms and perform toxicological tests. Two types of combustion-related UFP with similar elemental carbon cores and physical properties but different organic loads were generated and characterized. Human alveolar epithelial cells were exposed to these UFP at the air-liquid interface, and several toxicological endpoints were measured. UFP were generated using a miniCAST under fuel-rich conditions and immediately diluted to minimize agglomeration. A catalytic stripper and charcoal denuder removed volatile gases and semi-volatile particles from the surface. By adjusting the temperature of the catalytic stripper, UFP with high and low organic content was produced. These reference particles exhibited fractal structures with high reproducibility and stability over a year, maintaining similar mass and number concentrations (100 μg/m3, 2.0·105 #/cm3) and a mean particle diameter of about 40 nm. High organic content UFP had significant PAH levels, with benzo[a]pyrene at 0.2 % (m/m). Toxicological evaluations revealed that both UFP types similarly affected cytotoxicity and cell viability, regardless of organic load. Higher xenobiotic metabolism was noted for PAH-rich UFP, while reactive oxidation markers increased when semi-volatiles were stripped off. Both UFP types caused DNA strand breaks, but only the high organic content UFP induced DNA oxidation. This methodology allows modification of UFP's chemical properties while maintaining comparable physical properties, linking these variations to biological responses.

Sources-attributed contributions to health risks associated with PM2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during the warm and cold seasons in an urban area of Eastern Asia

Despite the well-established recognition of the health hazards posed by PM2.5-bound PAHs, a comprehensive understanding of their source-specific impact has been lacking. In this study, the health risks associated with PM2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and source-specific contributions were investigated in the urban region of Taipei during both cold and warm seasons. The levels of PM2.5-bound PAHs and their potential health risks across different age groups of humans were also characterized. Diagnostic ratios and positive matrix factorization analysis were utilized to identify the sources of PM2.5-bound PAHs. Moreover, potential source contribution function (PSCF), concentration-weighted trajectory (CWT) and source regional apportionment (SRA) analyses were employed to determine the potential source regions. Results showed that the total PAHs (TPAHs) concentrations ranged from 0.08 to 2.37 ng m-3, with an average of 0.69 ± 0.53 ng m-3. Vehicular emissions emerged as the primary contributor to PM2.5-bound PAHs, constituting 39.8 % of the TPAHs concentration, followed by industrial emissions (37.6 %), biomass burning (13.8 %), and petroleum/oil volatilization (8.8 %). PSCF and CWT analyses revealed that industrial activities and shipping processes in northeast China, South China Sea, Yellow Sea, and East China Sea, contributed to the occurrence of PM2.5-bound PAHs in Taipei. SRA identified central China as the primary regional contributor of ambient TPAHs in the cold season and Taiwan in the warm season, respectively. Evaluations of incremental lifetime cancer risk demonstrated the highest risk for adults, followed by children, seniors, and adolescents. The assessments of lifetime lung cancer risk showed that vehicular and industrial emissions were the main contributors to cancer risk induced by PM2.5-bound PAHs. This research emphasizes the essential role of precisely identifying the origins of PM2.5-bound PAHs to enhance our comprehension of the related human health hazards, thus providing valuable insights into the mitigation strategies.

Molecular distribution, sources and potential health risks of fine particulate-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during high pollution episodes in a subtropical urban city

Abundance of fine particulate-bound 16 priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was investigated to ascertain its sources and potential carcinogenic health risks in Varanasi, India. The city represents a typical urban settlement of South Asia having particulate exposure manyfold higher than standard with reports of pollution induced mortalities and morbidities. Fine particulates (PM2.5) were monitored from October 2019 to May 2020, with 32% of monitoring days accounting ≥100 μgm-3 of PM2.5 concentration, frequently from November to January (99% of monitoring days). The concentration of 16 priority PAHs varied from 24.1 to 44.6 ngm-3 (mean: 33.1 ± 3.2 ngm-3) without much seasonal deviations. Both low (LMW, 56%) and high molecular weight (HMW, 44%) PAHs were abundant, with Fluoranthene (3.9 ± 0.4ngm-3) and Fluorene (3.5 ± 0.3ngm-3) emerged as most dominating PAHs. Concentration of Benzo(a)pyrene (B(a)P, 0.5 ± 0.1ngm-3) was lower than the national standard as it contributed 13% of total PAHs mass. Diagnostic ratios of PAH isomers indicate predominance of pyrogenic sources including emissions from biomass burning, and both from diesel and petrol-driven vehicles. Source apportionment using receptor model revealed similar observation of major PAHs contribution from biomass burning and fuel combustion (54% of source contribution) followed by coal combustion for residential heating and cooking purposes (44%). Potential toxicity of B[a]P equivalence ranged from 0.003 to 1.365 with cumulative toxicity of 2.13ngm-3. Among the PAH species, dibenzo[h]anthracene contributed maximum toxicity followed by B[a]P, together accounting 86% of PAH induced carcinogenicity. Incremental risk of developing cancer through lifetime exposure (ILCR) of PAHs was higher in children (3.3 × 10-4) with 56% contribution from LMW PAHs, primarily through ingestion and dermal contact. Adults in contrast, were more exposed to inhale airborne PAHs with cumulative ILCR of 2.2 × 10-4. However, ILCR to PM2.5 exposure is probably underestimated considering unaccounted metal abundance thus, require source-specific control measures.

Characterization and Risk Assessment of PM2.5-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and their Derivatives Emitted from a Typical Pesticide Factory in China

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their derivatives have received extensive attention due to their negative effects on the environment and on human health. However, few studies have performed comprehensive assessments of PAHs emitted from pesticide factories. This study assessed the concentration, composition, and health risk of 52 PM_2.5-bound PAHs during the daytime and nighttime in the vicinity of a typical pesticide factory. The total concentration of 52 PAHs (Σ52PAHs) ranged from 53.04 to 663.55 ng/m³. No significant differences were observed between daytime and nighttime PAH concentrations. The average concentrations of twenty-two parent PAHs, seven alkylated PAHs, ten oxygenated PAHs, and twelve nitrated PAHs were 112.55 ± 89.69, 18.05 ± 13.76, 66.13 ± 54.79, and 3.90 ± 2.24 ng/m³, respectively. A higher proportion of high-molecular-weight (4-5 rings) PAHs than low-molecular-weight (2-3 rings) PAHs was observed. This was likely due to the high-temperature combustion of fuels. Analysis of diagnostic ratios indicated that the PAHs were likely derived from coal combustion and mixed sources. The total carcinogenic equivalent toxicity ranged from 15.93 to 181.27 ng/m³. The incremental lifetime cancer risk from inhalation, ingestion, and dermal contact with the PAHs was 2.33 × 10^-3 for men and 2.53 × 10^-3 for women, and the loss of life expectancy due to the PAHs was 11,915 min (about 0.023 year) for men and 12,952 min (about 0.025 year) for women. These results suggest that long-term exposure to PM_2.5 emissions from a pesticide factory has significant adverse effects on health. The study results support implementing the characterization of PAH emissions from pesticide factories and provides a scientific basis for optimizing the living environment around pesticide factories.

Distribution and biodegradation potential of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) accumulated in media of a stormwater bioretention

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of organic compounds that can be captured and accumulate in the bioretention cell media, which may lead to secondary pollution and ecological risks. This research aimed to understand the spatial distribution of 16 priority PAHs in bioretention media, identify their sources, evaluate their ecological impact, and assess the potential for their aerobic biodegradation. The highest total PAH concentration (25.5 ± 1.7 μg/g) was observed 1.83 m from the inlet and 10-15 cm deep. The individual PAHs with the highest concentrations were benzo [g,h,i]perylene in February (1.8 ± 0.8 μg/g) and pyrene in June (1.8 ± 0.8 μg/g). Data indicated that primary sources of PAHs were fossil fuel combustion and petroleum. The ecological impact and toxicity of the media were assessed by probable effect concentrations (PECs) and benzo [a]pyrene total toxicity equivalent (BaP-TEQ). The results showed that the concentrations of pyrene and chrysene exceeded the PECs, and the average BaP-TEQ was 1.64 μg/g, primarily caused by benzo [a]pyrene. The functional gene (C12O) of PAH-ring cleaving dioxygenases (PAH-RCD) was present in the surface media, which indicated that aerobic biodegradation of PAHs was possible. Overall, this study revealed the PAHs accumulated most at medium distance and depth, where biodegradation may be limited. Thus, the accumulation of PAHs below the surface of the bioretention cell may need to be considered during long-term operation and maintenance.

Spatial distribution, sources identification, and health risk assessment polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds and polychlorinated biphenyl compounds in total suspended particulates (TSP) in the air of South Pars Industrial region-Iran

South Pars Industrial Energy Zone, located in the southwest of Iran along the Persian Gulf coast, encompasses many industrial units in the vicinity of urban areas. This research study investigated the effects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) on human health and the environment. Suspended particulate matters (SPM) in the air sampled, in summer and winter 2019, from ten stations next to industrial units and residential areas. The samples were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Spatial distribution maps of pollutants in the region were prepared using GIS software. The highest carcinogenic risk due to PAHs and PCBs measured as ([Formula: see text]) and ([Formula: see text], respectively. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency limit ([Formula: see text]), the cancer risks from PAH compounds were significant and need further investigation. The PCB cancer risks were within acceptable ranges. The highest adsorption ratios for PAHs were obtained through skin and PCBs by ingestion. The maximum measured non-carcinogenic hazard indexes (HI) turned out to be 0.037 and 0.023 for PAH and PCB, respectively, and were reported as acceptable risks. The predominant source of PAH in industrial areas was liquid fossil combustion, and in urban areas replaced by coal-wood-sugarcane combustion. Petrochemical complexes, flares, power plants (69%), electric waste disposal sites, and commercial pigments (31%) were reported as PCB sources. Industries activities were the most effective factors in producing the highest level of carcinogenic compounds in the region, and it is necessary to include essential measures in the reform programs.

Determination of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Content in Garden Herbal Plants Using Liquid Chromatographic Analysis (HPLC-FL)

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of chemical compounds generated as a result of the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels or wood. PAHs are known for their negative effect on living organisms, including teratogenic, carcinogenic and mutagenic activity. The objective of this study is to determine the contamination of three popular herbal species showing pro-health properties, i.e., lavender, parsley and mint, with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, collected from three different backyard gardens in Poland. The concentration of PAHs in plant material was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FL). The concentration of eleven PAHs in plant material was determined with high-pressure liquid chromatography after extraction using the QuEChERS purification technique. Mint collected within an area of a mining and energy production complex (the city of Konin) was characterized by the highest Σ of 11 PAHs, equaled to 902.35 µg/g FW, with anthracene being the most abundant compound. However, it contained the lowest sum of PAHs, among all tested plants, with high carcinogenicity. Parsley from the city of Poznań showed the highest content of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), showing the strongest carcinogenicity, while the highest value of BaP equivalent was calculated for mint collected in Konin. The obtained results suggest that the level and profile of plant contamination with PAHs depend on the species and the location of herb cultivation. In particular, mining and energy industry facilities are sources of PAHs, which contaminate plant material for further direct use or as bioactive herbal extracts.

Gas-PM2.5 partitioning, health risks, and sources of atmospheric PAHs in a northern China city: Impact of domestic heating

The diurnal variation, gas-particle partitioning, health risks, and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were investigated in a northern basin city of China in winter, 2020. The mean concentrations of particulate and gaseous PAHs were 87.90 ng m^-3 and 69.65 ng m^-3, respectively, and their concentrations were considerably enhanced during the domestic heating period. The relationship between the gas-particle partitioning coefficient of PAHs (K_P) and subcooled liquid vapor pressure of PAHs (P_L⁰) indicated organic absorption as the mechanism for this partitioning. However, the dual sorption model confirmed adsorption onto elemental carbon (EC). The health risks indicated by several equivalent parameters showed an important health effect of PAHs, especially of particulate PAHs bound onto PM_2.5 during the heating period. Environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) were also studied as an auxiliary parameter to evaluate the health impact of PAHs. According to the diagnostic ratios of PAHs and PMF model results, petroleum volatilization and coal combustion were the dominant sources of particulate PAHs during the non-heating and heating periods, respectively. The source apportionment results can help efficiently control PAHs and their health risks.

Wildfire Impact on Indoor and Outdoor PAH Air Quality

Air quality impacts from wildfires are poorly understood, particularly indoors. As frequencies increase, it is important to optimize methodologies to understand and reduce chemical exposures from wildfires. Public health recommendations use air quality estimates from outdoor stationary air monitors, discounting indoor air conditions, and do not consider chemicals in the vapor phase, known to elicit adverse effects. We investigated vapor-phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in indoor and outdoor air before, during, and after wildfires using a community-engaged research approach. Paired passive air samplers were deployed at 15 locations across four states. Twelve unique PAHs were detected only in outdoor air during wildfires, highlighting a PAH exposure mixture for future study. Heavy-molecular-weight (HMW) outdoor PAH concentrations and average Air Quality Index (AQI) values were positively correlated (p < 0.001). Indoor PAH concentrations were higher in 77% of samples across all sampling events. Even during wildfires, 58% of sampled locations still had higher indoor PAH air concentrations. When AQI values exceeded 140 (unhealthy for sensitive groups), outdoor PAH concentrations became similar to or higher than indoors. Cancer and noncancer inhalation risk estimates from vapor-phase PAHs were higher indoors than outdoors, regardless of the wildfire impact. Consideration of indoor air quality and vapor-phase PAHs could inform public health recommendations regarding wildfires.

Atmospheric levels, distribution, sources, correlation with meteorological parameters and other pollutants and health risk of PAHs bound in PM2.5 and PM10 in Burgas, Bulgaria - a case study

The quality of atmospheric air of Burgas city, Bulgaria was analyzed in relation to PAHs in two particulate matter fractions - 2.5 μm and 10 μm. It was found that PAHs registered in PM₁₀ represent entirely the ones registered in PM_2.5 - an indication that the particulate PAHs in ambient air of Burgas for the sampling period are associated with the fine PM fraction. The PAH compounds with highest concentrations are mainly associated with coal combustion, diesel and gasoline vehicle and biomass burning, which is further confirmed by the calculated diagnostic ratios. The combustion-derived PAHs represent on average 86.6 ± 2.8% of total PAHs concentration. The linear regression analysis showed strong and statistically meaningful correlations between PM fractions and PAHs indicating the influence of similar local events and emission sources of pollution. PM_2.5 or PM₁₀ relationships with PAHs were significant but lower correlation coefficients were observed for low-molecular weight (LMW) PAHs in comparison to middle-molecular weight (MMW) and higher-molecular weight (HMW) PAHs, due to their lower presence in particulates and higher partition in gaseous atmospheric phase. Further significant correlations were found with wind speed, solar radiation and atmospheric pressure as well as NO₂ and O₃ ambient concentration. The calculated excess cancer risks are twice as much as acceptable limit.

PM-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Nitro-Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Ambient Air of Vladivostok: Seasonal Variation, Sources, Health Risk Assessment and Long-Term Variability

Total suspended particles (TSP) were collected in Vladivostok, Russia, which is a typical port city. This study investigated the concentration, potential sources, and long-term variation in particle PAHs and NPAHs in the atmosphere of Vladivostok. The PAH and NPAH concentrations were higher in winter than in summer (PAHs: winter: 18.6 ± 9.80 ng/m3 summer: 0.54 ± 0.21 ng/m3; NPAHs: winter: 143 ± 81.5 pg/m3 summer: 143 ± 81.5 pg/m3). The diagnostic ratios showed that PAHs and NPAHs mainly came from vehicle emissions in both seasons, while heating systems were the main source of air pollution in winter. The TEQ assessment values were 2.90 ng/m3 and 0.06 ng/m3 in winter and summer, respectively, suggesting a significant excess cancer risk in the general population in winter. The ILCR values conveyed a potential carcinogenic risk because the value was between 1 × 10-5 and 1 × 10-7 and ingestion was a main contributor in Vladivostok. However, it is worth noting that the concentrations of PAHs and NPAHs showed an overall downward trend from 1999 to 2020. An important reason for this is the cogenerations project implemented by the Far Eastern Center for Strategic Research on Fuel and Energy Complex Development in 2010. This research clarified the latest variations in PAHs and NPAHs to provide continuous observation data for future chemical reaction or model prediction research.

Cryoconites as biogeochemical markers of anthropogenic impact in high mountain regions: analysis of polyaromatic pollutants in soil-like bodies

The globalisation and omnidirectional character of anthropogenic processes has challenged scientists around the world to estimate the harmful effects of these processes on ecosystems and human health. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is one the most infamous group of contaminants, originated both from natural and anthropogenic processes. They could transport to high latitudes and altitudes through atmospheric long-distance transfer and further enter ecosystems of these vulnerable regions by deposition on terrestrial surfaces. An interesting object for tracking transboundary contamination processes in high mountain ecosystems is called cryoconite. Cryoconite, a dark-coloured supraglacial sediment which is abundant in polar and mountain environments, is considered as a storage of various pollutants, including PAHs. Thus, it may pose a risk for local human health and ecosystem through short-distance transfer. Studied cryoconite sediments were collected at the surface of Skhelda and Garabashi glaciers, Central Caucasus high-mountain region, as well as mudflow, moraine material and local soils at the Baksan Gorge in order to examine levels of their contamination. We analysed the content of 15 priority polyaromatic compounds from the US EPA list and used the method of calculation of PAHs isomer ratios with the purpose of identifying their source. To estimate their potential toxicity, Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) equivalents were calculated. Maximum concentration was defined for NAP (84 ng×g-1), PHE (40 ng×g-1) and PYR (47 ng×g-1), with the minimum concentration for ANT (about 1 ng×g-1). The most polluted material is a cryoconite from Garabashi glacier because of local anthropogenic activities and long-distance transfer. High-molecular weight PAHs are dominated in PAHs composition of almost all samples. The most common sources of PAHs in studied materials are combustion processes and mixed pyrolytic/petrogenic origin. Toxicity levels of separate PAHs did not exceed the maximum permissible threshold concentrations values in most cases. However, the sum of PAHs in BaP equivalents exceed the threshold values in all samples, in some of them more than twice.

Assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in seafood collected from coastal aquaculture ponds in Taiwan and human health risk assessment

The level and distribution of 16 USEPA Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) in aquaculture farmed fish (Mugil cephalus and Oreochromis mossambicus) and shellfish (Corbicula fluminea Formosa and Meretrix lusoria) were determined in Taiwan and then assessed cancer and non-cancer risks for those consuming these kinds of seafood. Results indicated that C. fluminea Formosa accumulated the highest average concentration of total PAHs (43.0 ± 11.3 ng/g wet weight) while M. lusoria contained the lowest concentration (20.0 ± 5.8 ng/g) among all species. The low-molecular-weight PAHs were dominant for both fish and shellfish, which consistent with other studies. Notably, parts of high-molecular-weight PAHs were found in shellfish whereas that was little in fish. The calculated hazard quotients (HQ) of all PAHs were smaller than 1 and the incremental lifetime cancer risks (ILCR) for Benzo[a]pyrene were below 1 × 10^-5, suggesting that PAHs in the collected seafood could pose a low hazard to residents. Although the results indicated that the studied seafood is safe for human consumption, children and seniors post relatively higher risks, suggesting that it needs to continue monitoring and control the PAHs concentration in seafood and the associated environments.

Occupational exposures to particulate matter and PM2.5-associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at the Agbogbloshie waste recycling site in Ghana

Electronic waste (e-waste) disposal and recycling activities such as burning and smelting can emit particulate matter (PM), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and other pollutants that expose workers and nearby communities. At informal e-waste recycling facilities, both emission controls and protective measures for workers are absent. This study characterizes personal exposures (breathing zone) of PM and PAHs of e-waste workers at the large Agbogbloshie e-waste site in Accra, Ghana. We collected gravimetric and optical measurements of PM2.5 and PM10 using shift samples for workers and for an age- and gender-matched reference population. PM2.5 filters were analyzed for 26 PAHs using gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy. Among e-waste workers, PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations were 99 ± 56 and 218 ± 158 µg/m3 (median ± interquartile range, optical measurements), respectively; these levels were 78 and 57% higher, respectively, than levels measured at a fixed site that was centrally located at the waste site. In the reference community, breathing zone PM2.5 and PM10 levels were lower, 49 ± 20 and 131 ± 108 µg/m3, respectively, and the fraction of coarse PM was larger. We detected all 26 target PAHs, of which naphthalene and phenanthrene were the most abundant. PAH concentrations were weakly correlated to PM levels, but PAH abundances, representing the fraction of PAH mass to the total PM2.5 mass collected, were strongly and inversely correlated to PM levels, suggesting multiple and different sources of PAHs and PM that affected exposures. Both PM and PAH levels were elevated for workers performing burning and dismantling, and both exceeded standards or risk-based guidelines, e.g., lifetime excess cancer risks for several PAHs were in the 10-4 to 10-6 range, indicating the need to reduce emissions as well as provide respiratory protection. The study emphasizes the importance of using personal and shift samples to accurately characterize worker exposure.

Lifetime Carcinogenic Risk Proportions from Inhalation Exposures in Industrial and Non-Industrial Regions

The aim of this work was to estimate the share of selected significant risk factors for respiratory cancer in the overall incidence of this disease and their comparison in two environmentally different burdened regions. A combination of a longitudinal cross-sectional population study with a US EPA health risk assessment methodology was used. The result of this procedure is the expression of lifelong carcinogenic risks and their contribution in the overall incidence of the disease. Compared to exposures to benzo[a]pyrene in the air and fibrogenic dust in the working air, several orders of magnitude higher share of the total incidence of respiratory cancer was found in radon exposures, for women 60% in the industrial area, respectively 100% in the non-industrial area, for men 24%, respectively 15%. The share of risks in workers exposed to fibrogenic dust was found to be 0.35% in the industrial area. For benzo[a]pyrene, the share of risks was below 1% and the share of other risk factors was in the monitored areas was up to 85%. The most significant share in the development of respiratory cancer in both monitored areas is represented by radon for women and other risk factors for men.

NPAHs and OPAHs in the atmosphere of two central European cities: Seasonality, urban-to-background gradients, cancer risks and gas-to-particle partitioning

Derivatives of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) such as nitrated- and oxygenated-PAHs (NPAHs and OPAHs) could be even more toxic and harmful for the environment and humans than PAHs. We assessed the spatial and seasonal variations of NPAHs and OPAHs atmospheric levels, their cancer risks and their gas-to-particle partitioning. To this end, about 250 samples of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and 50 gaseous samples were collected in 2017 in central Europe in the cities of Brno and Ljubljana (two traffic and two urban background sites) as well as one rural site. The average particulate concentrations were ranging from below limit of quantification to 593 pg m-3 for Σ9NPAHs and from 1.64 to 4330 pg m-3 for Σ11OPAHs, with significantly higher concentrations in winter compared to summer. In winter, the particulate levels of NPAHs and OPAHs were higher at the traffic site compared to the urban background site in Brno while the opposite was found in Ljubljana. NPAHs and OPAHs particulate levels were influenced by the meteorological parameters and co-varied with several air pollutants. The significance of secondary formation on the occurrence of some NPAHs and OPAHs is indicated. In winter, 27-47% of samples collected at all sites were above the acceptable lifetime carcinogenic risk. The gas-particle partitioning of NPAHs and OPAHs was influenced by their physico-chemical properties, the season and the site-specific aerosol composition. Three NPAHs and five OPAHs had higher particulate mass fractions at the traffic site, suggesting they could be primarily emitted as particles from vehicle traffic and subsequently partitioning to the gas phase along air transport. This study underlines the importance of inclusion of the gas phase in addition to the particulate phase when assessing the atmospheric fate of polycyclic aromatic compounds and also when assessing the related health risk.

Occurrence and source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in dust of an emerging industrial city in Iran: implications for human health

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) bounded to street dust are a severe environmental and human health danger. This study provides preliminary information on the abundance of PAHs in street dust from Rafsanjan city, Iran, where industrial emissions are high and data are lacking. Seventy street dust samples were collected from streets with different traffic loads. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Standard Methods 8270D and 3550C were used for the measurement of PAHs using GC mass spectroscopy. The total concentration of PAHs was 1443 ng g-1, with a range of 1380-1550 ng g-1. Additionally, the concentration of carcinogenic PAHs (∑carcPAHs) ranged from 729.5 to 889.4 ng g-1, with a mean value of 798.1 ng g-1. Pyrene was the most abundant PAH, with an average concentration of 257 ng g-1. Source identification analyses showed that vehicle emissions along with incomplete combustion and petroleum were the main sources of PAHs. The ecological risk status of the studied area was moderate. Spatial distribution mapping revealed that the streets around the city center and oil company had higher PAH levels than the other sectors of Rafsanjan. The results indicated that dermal contact and ingestion of contaminated particles were the most important pathways compared to inhalation. The mean incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) was 1.4 × 10-3 and 1.3 × 10-3 for children and adults, respectively. This implies potentially adverse health effects in exposed individuals. The mutagenic risk for both subpopulations was approximately 18 times greater than the one recommended by USEPA. Our findings suggest that children are subjected to a higher carcinogenic and mutagenic risk of PAHs, especially dibenzo[a,h]anthracene (DahA), bounded to street dust of Rafsanjan. Our study highlights the need for the development of emission monitoring and control scenarios.

Using a hybrid approach to apportion potential source locations contributing to excess cancer risk of PM2.5-bound PAHs during heating and non-heating periods in a megacity in the Middle East

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) represent one of the major toxic pollutants associated with PM_2.5 with significant human health and climate effects. Because of local and long-range transport of atmospheric PAHs to receptor sites, higher global attentions have been focused to improve PAHs pollution emission management. In this study, PM_2.5 samples were collected at three urban sites located in the capital of Iran, Tehran, during the heating and non-heating periods (H-period and NH-period). The US EPA 16 priority PAHs were analyzed and the data were processed to the following detailed aims: (i) investigate the H-period and NH-period variations of PM_2.5 and PM_2.5-bound PAHs concentrations; (ii) identify the PAHs sources and the source locations during the two periods; (iii) carry out a source-specific excess cancer risk (ECR) assessment highlighting the potential source locations contributing to the ECR using a hybrid approach. Total PAHs (TPAHs) showed significantly higher concentrations (1.56-1.89 times) during the H-period. Among the identified PAHs compounds, statistically significant periodical differences (p-value < 0.05) were observed only between eight PAHs species (Nap, BaA, Chr, BbF, BkF, BaP, IcdP, and DahA) at all three sampling sites which can be due to the significant differences of PAHs emission sources during H and NH-periods. High molecular weight (HMW) PAHs accounted for 52.7% and 46.8% on average of TPAHs during the H-period and NH-period, respectively. Positive matrix factorization (PMF) led to identifying four main PAHs sources including industrial emissions, petrogenic emissions, biomass burning and natural gas emissions, and vehicle exhaust emissions. Industrial and petrogenic emissions exhibited the highest contribution (19.8%, 27.2%, respectively) during the NH-period, while vehicle exhaust and biomass burning-natural gas emissions showed the largest contribution (40.7%, 29.6%, respectively) during the H-period. Concentration weighted trajectory (CWT) on factor contributions was used for tracking the potential locations of the identified sources. In addition to local sources, long-range transport contributed to a significant fraction of TPHAs in Tehran both during the H- and NH-periods. Source-specific carcinogenic risks assessment apportioned vehicle exhaust (44.2%, 2.52 × 10^-4) and biomass burning-natural gas emissions (33.9%, 8.31 × 10^-5) as the main cancer risk contributors during the H-period and NH-period, respectively. CWT maps pointed out the different distribution patterns associated with the cancer risk from the identified sources. This will allow better risk management through the identification of priority PAHs sources.

Particulate PAH Transport Associated with Adult Chronic Cough Occurrence Closely Connected with Meteorological Conditions: A Modelling Study

Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a cause of chronic cough occurrence in adult patients. In order to clear the relationship between transboundary transport of PAH and health effects, this study investigates the relationship between atmospheric particulate PAHs (p-PAHs), cough occurrence by epidemiological research, and meteorological conditions using a chemical transport model. Source receptor relationship (SRR) analysis revealed that a higher cough occurrence was caused by exposure to high p-PAH levels in air masses transported from central China (CCHN, 30–40° N) under westerly conditions. The p-PAHs transported from northern China (NCHN, >40° N) and the eastern part of Russia (ERUS) under north-westerly conditions also contributed to cough occurrence. The low equivalent potential temperature (ePT) and geopotential height anomaly suggested that the p-PAHs emitted near the surface were suppressed to upward transport under the colder air mass but were instead transported horizontally near the surface in the boundary layer, resulting in high p-PAH concentrations arriving in Kanazawa. Our study’s findings suggest that the air mass transport pattern associated with meteorology strongly influences the high p-PAH concentrations causing adult chronic cough occurrence.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in PM1, PM2.5 and PM10 atmospheric particles: identification, sources, temporal and spatial variations

This study reports temporal and spatial variations of 16 different species of particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (particle-bonded PAHs) in the indoor and outdoor environments of three sampling sites in Bandar Mahshahr city, Iran. A low-volume air sampler was employed to collect size-segregated particulate matter during winter (October to December 2015), and summer (July to September 2016). The results showed that the annual concentrations of indoor and outdoor PM10 and PM2.5 were much higher than the related World Health Organization guidelines. The concentration of total particle-bonded PAHs (TPAHs) was higher in winter than in summer and a significant difference between the two sampling seasons was observed. The indoor and outdoor carcinogenic PAHs to TPAHs concentrations ratios in the sampling sites in summer and winter were as follow: for PM10 40.15-42.51%, PM2.5 41.30-42.97%, and PM1 43.07-44.36%, respectively; furthermore, the smaller the particle size, the higher the percentage of carcinogenic PAHs. 2 ring PAHs had a very small contribution to the total PAHs (about 1%), whereas PAHs with 3-to-4 rings had much larger contributions, ranging from 71.65% to 75.17%. The results demonstrated that as PM size decreased, the proportion of 5-to-6-ring PAHs to the total PAHs increased. Since 5-to-6- ring PAHs are considered to be more toxic, hence more attention should be paid to fine particles. The diagnostic ratios of indoor and outdoor of three sampling sites in both seasons suggested that petrogenic sources, as well as combustion of petroleum and other fossil fuels were the main PAHs sources.

Comparative analysis of contributions of wet deposition and photodegradation to the removal of atmospheric BaP by MFDCCA

Benzo [a] pyrene (BaP) in the atmosphere possess great carcinogenic potential to human health, and the understanding of its scavenging mechanisms has attracted considerable attention. In this work, a new quantitative method is proposed to make a comparative analysis of the long-term contributions of wet deposition and photodegradation to BaP removal based on multi-fractal detrended cross-correlation analysis (MFDCCA). According to the precipitation and global solar radiation (GSR) observations from 1998 to 2016 for two urban sites (Central/Western District and TsuenWan) in Hong Kong, the wet deposition and photodegradation of BaP are analyzed. Using MFDCCA method, long-term cross-correlation between precipitation/GSR and BaP are investigated. Moreover, the differences of multifractal features in cross-correlations of precipitation-BaP and GSR-BaP system are analyzed. Strong long-term persistence is observed in the cross-correlations for precipitation-BaP system in a one-year cycle; while cross-correlations between GSR and BaP show weak persistence over the whole timescale. Based on the meteorology in Hong Kong, this difference has been discussed. Then, contributions of wet deposition and photodegradation to atmospheric BaP removal are quantified based on MFDCCA method, which are further compared between summer and winter. The comparative analysis suggests that wet deposition plays a more significant role in the removal of atmospheric BaP. Specifically, in summer, the contributions of wet deposition are twice as much as that of photodegradation for both two sites; while in winter, the contribution of photodegradation is a little higher than that of wet deposition to BaP removal. Meanwhile, for wet deposition, the contributions in summer are about ten times greater than that in winter; while for photodegradation, the difference in contributions between summer and winter are relatively smaller. Furthermore, based on sliding window technique, the temporal evolutions in the contributions of wet deposition/photodegradation to BaP removal have been presented for both two sites. On this basis, it is discovered that the comprehensive contributions of wet deposition and photodegradation peak in June, and reach their lowest levels in December for both two sites. Quantifying the contribution of meteorological factors to the removal of atmospheric BaP is help for understanding its geochemical cycle.

Primary and secondary organic aerosol in an urban/industrial site: Sources, health implications and the role of plastic enriched waste burning

PM10 samples were collected from an urban/industrial site nearby Athens, where uncontrolled burning activities occur. PAHs, monocarboxylic, dicarboxylic, hydroxycarboxylic and aromatic acids, tracers from BVOC oxidation, biomass burning tracers and bisphenol A were determined. PAH, monocarboxylic acids, biomass burning tracers and bisphenol A were increased during autumn/winter, while BSOA tracers, dicarboxylic- and hydroxycarboxylic acids during summer. Regarding aromatic acids, different sources and formation mechanisms were indicated as benzoic, phthalic and trimellitic acids were peaked during summer whereas p-toluic, isophthalic and terephthalic were more abundant during autumn/winter. The Benzo[a]pyrene-equivalent carcinogenic power, carcinogenic and mutagenic activities were calculated showing significant (p < 0.05) increases during the colder months. Palmitic, succinic and malic acids were the most abundant monocarboxylic, dicarboxylic and hydrocarboxylic acids during the entire sampling period. Isoprene oxidation was the most significant contributor to BSOA as the isoprene-SOA compounds were two times more abundant than the pinene-SOA (13.4 ± 12.3 and 6.1 ± 2.9 ng/m³, respectively). Ozone has significant impact on the formation of many studied compounds showing significant correlations with: isoprene-SOA (r = 0.77), hydrocarboxylic acids (r = 0.69), pinene-SOA (r = 0.63),dicarboxylic acids (r = 0.58), and the sum of phthalic, benzoic and trimellitic acids (r = 0.44). PCA demonstrated five factors that could explain sources including plastic enriched waste burning (30.8%), oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids (23.0%), vehicle missions and cooking (9.2%), biomass burning (7.7%) and oxidation of VOCs (5.8%). The results highlight the significant contribution of plastic waste uncontrolled burning to the overall air quality degradation.

Atmospheric Concentrations and Health Implications of PAHs, PCBs and PCDD/Fs in the Vicinity of a Heavily Industrialized Site in Greece

Background: Thriassion Plain is considered the most industrialized area in Greece and thus a place where emissions of pollutants are expected to be elevated, leading to the degradation of air quality. Methods: Simultaneous determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) was performed in PM10 samples. SPSS statistical package was employed for statistical analysis and source apportionment purposes. Cancer risk was estimated from total persistent organic pollutants’ (POPs) dataset according to the available literature. Results: POPs concentrations in particulate matter were measured in similar levels compared to other studies in Greece and worldwide, with mean concentrations of ΣPAHs, ΣPCDD/Fs, dioxin like PCBs, and indicator PCBs being 7.07 ng m−3, 479 fg m−3, 1634 fg m−3, and 18.1 pg m−3, respectively. Seasonal variations were observed only for PAHS with higher concentrations during cold period. MDRs, D/F ratios, and principal component analysis (PCA) highlighted combustions as the main source of POPs’ emissions. Estimation of particles’ carcinogenic and mutagenic potential indicates the increased toxicity of PM10 during cold periods, and cancer risk assessment concludes that 3 to 4 people out of 100,000 may suffer from cancer due to POPs’ inhalation. Conclusions: Increased cancer risk for citizens leads to the necessity of chronic POPs’ monitoring in Thriassion Plain, and such strategies have to be a priority for Greek environmental authorities.

Inflammation response, oxidative stress and DNA damage caused by urban air pollution exposure increase in the lack of DNA repair XPC protein

Air pollution represents a considerable threat to health worldwide. The São Paulo Metropolitan area, in Brazil, has a unique composition of atmospheric pollutants with a population of nearly 20 million people and 9 million passenger cars. It is long known that exposure to particulate matter less than 2.5 µm (PM_2.5) can cause various health effects such as DNA damage. One of the most versatile defense mechanisms against the accumulation of DNA damage is the nucleotide excision repair (NER), which includes XPC protein. However, the mechanisms by which NER protects against adverse health effects related to air pollution are largely unknown. We hypothesized that reduction of XPC activity may contribute to inflammation response, oxidative stress and DNA damage after PM_2.5 exposure. To address these important questions, XPC knockout and wild type mice were exposed to PM_2.5 using the Harvard Ambient Particle concentrator. Results from one-single exposure have shown a significant increase in the levels of anti-ICAM, IL-1β, and TNF-α in the polluted group when compared to the filtered air group. Continued chronic PM_2.5 exposure increased levels of carbonylated proteins, especially in the lung of XPC mice, probably as a consequence of oxidative stress. As a response to DNA damage, XPC mice lungs exhibit increased γ-H2AX, followed by severe atypical hyperplasia. Emissions from vehicles are composed of hazardous substances, with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and metals being most frequently cited as the major contributors to negative health impacts. This analysis showed that benzo[b]fluoranthene, 2-nitrofluorene and 9,10-anthraquinone were the most abundant PAHs and derivatives. Taken together, these findings demonstrate the participation of XPC protein, and NER pathway, in the protection of mice against the carcinogenic potential of air pollution. This implicates that DNA is damaged directly (forming adducts) or indirectly (Reactive Oxygen Species) by the various compounds detected in urban PM_2.5.

Atmospheric particulate matter and potentially hazardous compounds around residential/road side soil in an urban area

Exposure to ambient coarse and fine particulate matter (PM₁₀ and PM_2.5) causes premature death worldwide due to the nature of their particle size. It contains potentially hazardous elements (PHEs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). This study aims to quantify the particulate matter (PM) loads on the surface of soil in twenty-five different locations including residential and roadside areas of an urban area in Northeast India. This study shows that the 24h mean concentration of PM (121 ± 49 μg/m³ for PM_2.5 and 153 ± 45 μg/m³ for PM₁₀) exceeded more than three times the WHO's air quality standard limit for both PM_2.5 (25 μg/m³) and PM₁₀ (50 μg/m³) indicating poor air quality in the urban area during monsoon season. The health risk assessment of PAHs and PHEs including mutagenic or carcinogenic potency was observed to be higher as compared to other studies carried out on road traffic emissions in a similar type of urban area. This study also provides a brief database on the deposition of PM on the soil surfaces due to wet-deposition that would help to increase public awareness in such type of urban area for the control of PM pollution and further remediation.

Ambient PM2.5 and PM10 bound PAHs in Islamabad, Pakistan: Concentration, source and health risk assessment

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in ambient particulate matter contribute considerably to human health risk. Simultaneous sampling of ambient PM_2.5/PM₁₀ was done to analyze the Ʃ16PAH across the four seasons of 2017 in Islamabad, Pakistan. The average Ʃ16PAH concentrations in PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ were 25.69 and 40.69 ng m^-3_, respectively. For both PM_2.5 and PM₁₀, the highest PAHs concentration was in winter (45.14, 67.10 ng m^-3), while the lowest was in summer (16.40, 28.18 ng m^-3). Source appointment indicated that vehicular exhaust, i.e., diesel, gasoline and alternatively fuel liquid natural gas (LNG), and compressed natural gas (CNG) combustion was the primary PAHs contributor, whereas biomass burning and fuel combustion (coal, biomass, wood, CNG) from stationary sources were another important sources. Health risk assessment showed that the lifetime cancer risk (LCR) values of PAHs were higher than the acceptable level in all four seasons. LCR values were the highest in winter (9.23 × 10^-4 for PAHs in PM_2.5 and 13.98 × 10^-4 for PAHs in PM₁₀) which were 9 and 13 times higher than tolerable cancer risk level respectively, and they were 2-3 times higher than the acceptable values in other seasons.

Carcinogenic organic content of particulate matter at urban locations with different pollution sources

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are compounds known for their adverse effects on human health. Many of them are proven carcinogens, especially those with 5 and 6 aromatic rings, which under normal tropospheric conditions are found in the particle-phase. Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) is often measured as their general representative. Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, is among the European cities with the poorest air quality. However, in Sarajevo PAHs are neither routinely measured within the air quality monitoring network nor have been a subject of extended, continuous field studies during the most polluted cold periods of the year. The capital of Croatia, Zagreb, is located approximately 300 km air distance north-west from Sarajevo. PAH mass concentrations in Zagreb have been measured continuously since 1994 within air quality monitoring networks. During winter 2017/2018, the SAFICA project (Sarajevo Canton Winter Field Campaign 2018) was carried out in order to characterize the chemical composition of organic and inorganic aerosol in the Sarajevo Canton. This paper presents the results of PAH measurements in the cities of Sarajevo and Zagreb at one urban location per city. Daily (24 h), continuous samples of PM₁₀ (particulate matter with aerodynamic diameters ≤10 μm) were collected during heating season, from December 27, 2017 to February 27, 2018. Mass concentrations of eleven particle-phase PAHs in Sarajevo and Zagreb from filter samples collected during the same period were compared. The average BaP ambient mass concentrations in Sarajevo and Zagreb were 6.93 ng m^-3 and 3.11 ng m^-3, respectively. The contribution of BaP to the total PAH mass concentration was similar at both locations (11%). However, much higher contributions of particle-phase fluoranthene and pyrene were found in Sarajevo. Contributions of individual PAH, diagnostic ratios and factor analysis indicate that combustion of gasoline and diesel from vehicle traffic are a potential source of PAHs at both locations, as well as combustion of other liquid fossil fuels (petroleum and fuel oil). Wood burning was occasionally indicated as a PAH emission source in Zagreb, while in Sarajevo the contribution of PAHs from wood and coal combustion was more evident. Calculated value for total carcinogenic potency (TCP) of PAHs, which was estimated using toxic equivalence factors from the literature, in PM₁₀ samples collected in Sarajevo was more than twice higher than in Zagreb (10.6 ng m^-3 and 4.7 ng m^-3, respectively). BaP had the highest contribution to the TCP at both locations (69 and 67%).

Analysis and Risk Assessment of PM2.5-Bound PAHs in a Comparison of Indoor and Outdoor Environments in a Middle School: A Case Study in Beijing, China

People spend most of their time in indoors and, as a result, indoor air quality has become an issue of increasing concern. Due to the use of coal and heavy transportation in Beijing, China, concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) bound to PM2.5 have risen and caused concerns about health risk, both outdoors and indoors. This study carried out quantitative investigation of PM2.5-bound PAHs in middle school classrooms and estimated the health risk to adolescents. According to the results, indoor PM2.5 concentrations ranged from 20.9 μg/m3 to 257.6 μg/m3, indoor PAH concentrations ranged from 8.0 ng/m3 to 83.0 ng/m3, and both were statistically correlated with outdoor concentrations. Results of diagnostic ratios (DR) and the PMF (positive matrix factorization) model indicated that coal combustion was the main source of PAHs in the classroom environment. The average value of incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) was estimated to be 1.49 × 10−6, which indicated a potential health risk to students according to USEPA standards. Predictions showed that by 2021–2022, the risk will be reduced to an acceptable level. Results of this study could provide useful information for air pollution control in Beijing and proposing targeted solution against indoor air pollution.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in processed yard trash

This work examines polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations in yard trash at various stages of the yard trash management cycle of collection, stockpiling, grinding and screening into mulch, and composting. Total extractable PAH concentrations were measured in yard trash at various management stages from 10 locations in Florida. The concentrations of 16 PAH compounds in processed yard trash ranged from 0.38 to 14 mg kg^-1. PAH concentrations were detected in vegetative material harvested from a residential neighborhood, but were below the United States Environmental Protection Agency residential regional screening levels (RSLs). PAH concentrations near or above the RSLs were common in both unprocessed and processed yard trash collected at waste management facilities. PAH concentrations were amongst the highest in newly ground yard trash samples and were amongst the lowest in composted yard trash samples. These findings are important because land application of some waste materials, such as construction and demolition debris fines and street sweepings, are sometimes limited due to PAH. If processed yard trash, which is commonly land applied in residential settings, possesses similar PAH concentrations, evaluation of current risk assessment practices for land-applied wastes may require further examination.

Insights into PCDD/Fs and PAHs in Biomass Boilers Envisaging Risks of Ash Use as Fertilizers

Since ashes are a possible source of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) contamination, their application in soils must be subject to more study and control. In this scope, feed residual forest biomasses and biomass ashes, collected along one year in four biomass power stations, were characterized mainly for their polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) contents. The biomasses present concerning levels of Cl (0.04–0.28%) that may lead to PCDD/Fs formation. The biomasses also contain OCDD (29–260 ng/kg) and 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDD (35 ng/kg) that may contribute to increased Toxic Equivalents (TEQs) of ashes, possibly involving dechlorination and ash enrichment mechanisms. While the WHO2005-TEQs in bottom ashes (14–20 ng TEQ/kg) reaches the proposed limit (20 ng TEQ/kg) for ash use as fertilizers, in fly ashes (35–1139 ng TEQ/kg) the limit is exceeded. PAHs are below 0.02 mg/kg in bottom ashes and 1.5–2.5 mg/kg in fly ashes, complying with the proposed limit of 6 mg/kg. As bottom and fly ash streams may contain different ash flows, a clear definition of ash mixes is required. Correlations between unburned carbon (C), PAHs and PCDD/Fs were not found, which highlights the need for compulsory PCDD/Fs analysis in ashes, independently of their origin, burnout degree or levels of other contaminants. A sensitivity analysis was performed to evaluate the impact of handling non-detected values, which showed more impact for TEQs values close to the proposed regulatory limit of PCDD/Fs. These findings highlight the need to define reporting protocols of analytical results for risk assessments and conformity evaluation.

The concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the processed meat samples collected from Iran's market: a probabilistic health risk assessment study

The concentration of PAHs among raw and cooked meat products (sausages and burgers), randomly collected from five regions of Tehran, Iran, was investigated by the aid of a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and the risk assessment was conducted. The concentration of 16 types of PAHs in sausage and burger samples was found in the range of 8.08 to 29.55 and 10.18 to 29.85 μg/kg, respectively. The concentrations of some PAHs such as anthracene (A) (14.12 μg/kg) and acenaphthylene (Acl) (13.4 μg/kg) were higher than the European Standard (2 μg/kg). Among the meat products with different meat percentages (50, 70, and 90), the highest level of total PAHs was noted in the product containing 90% meat (19.34 μg/kg), while the highest mean level of PAHs was noted in fried meat products (23.31 μg/kg). A positive and significant correlation between cooking method and brand of product with the concentration of PAHs (p-value < 0.05) was noted. Also, no concern regarding the non-carcinogenic risk due to the ingestion of PAHs via consumption of the meat products was demonstrated by the health risk. However, the carcinogenic risk due to the consumption of sausage and burger was at the tolerable (1E-6 to 1E-4) and considerable (> 1E-4) risk levels, respectively. In this regard, further assessments to control and modify the cooking method among the Iranian population were recommended.

Opening a Large Delivery Service Warehouse in the South Bronx: Impacts on Traffic, Air Pollution, and Noise

Mott Haven, a low-income neighborhood in New York City, suffers from increased air pollution and accommodates several industrial facilities and interstates. In 2018, a large delivery service warehouse opened. Our objectives are to characterize black carbon (BC), fine particulate matter (PM_2.5), and noise in the community; model changes in traffic due to the facility opening; and estimate associated BC and noise changes. BC, PM_2.5, and noise were measured at eight sites pre-opening, and traffic counted continuously at two sites (June 2017–May 2019). An interrupted time series model was used to determine facility-related changes in traffic. Post-opening changes in traffic-related BC/noise were estimated from regressions of BC/noise with traffic flow. Mean (SD) pre-warehouse measures of BC and PM_2.5 were 1.33 µg/m³ (0.41) and 7.88 µg/m³ (1.24), respectively. At four sites, equivalent sound levels exceeded the EPA’s recommended 70 dBA limit. After the warehouse opening, traffic increased significantly, predominantly at night. At one site, the greatest change for trucks occurred 9PM-12AM: 31.7% (95%CI [23.4%, 40.6%]). Increased traffic translated into mean predicted increases of 0.003 µg/m³ (BC) and 0.06 dBA (noise). Though small, they negate the substantial decrease the community seeks. Our findings can help communities and policymakers better understand impacts of traffic-intensive facilities.

Atmospheric Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) at Two Sites, in Bursa, Turkey: Determination of Concentrations, Gas-Particle Partitioning, Sources, and Health Risk

This study investigated the concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) using particle and gas-phase air samples collected in the Ovaakca and Cumalikizik region of Bursa, between May and September 2017. The concentration of Σ₁₆PAH measured in the gas phase, for Ovaakca and Cumalikizik, were 5.32 ± 1.98 and 4.91 ± 3.41 ng m^-3, respectively; and for the particle phase, 0.81 ± 0.56 and 1.84 ± 1.82 ng m^-3, respectively. The coefficient of gas-particle partitioning was related to the excessive cooled vapor pressure. The determined slope values were - 0.319 (Ovaakca) and - 0.505 (Cumalikizik), which showed the strong effect of organic carbon absorption and the distance to the equilibrium. These experimental values were compared with the results obtained using the octanol/air and Dual partition models, and Dual partition model showed more accurate values than the octanol/air model. The relations between temperature and concentration in the gas phase of PAHs were evaluated using the Clausius-Clapeyron equation. The results indicated the influence of long-range transport of the atmospheric concentrations of PAHs at the regions. Diagnostic ratio analysis showed that biomass burning, coal combustion, and vehicular emissions contributed greatly to the atmospheric PAHs in the regions. In principal component analysis analysis, wood-burning was found to be the predominant parameter in addition to PAH sources determined with diagnostic ratios. In this study, the lifetime risk of lung cancer was calculated according to the mean and max BaP-TEQ values. When calculated according to the average values, while both regions were acceptable risk levels (Ovaakca: 2.6 × 10^-6 and Cumalikizik: 8.6 × 10^-6), at low-risk level was determined according to max BaP-TEQ values only in the Cumalikizik region (1.93 × 10^-5).

Atmospheric particulate matters in an Indian urban area: Health implications from potentially hazardous elements, cytotoxicity, and genotoxicity studies

The nature of the atmospheric particulate matters (PMs) varies depending on their sizes and their origin from different activities in the background environment. These PMs are associated with potentially hazardous elements (PHEs) such as organic compounds (e.g. Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons) that can be harmful to health. The main objective of this work is the identification and investigation of the toxicological aspects of PHEs in PMs during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon season in an urban area of Northeast region (NER) of India. In the course of the study, the 24 -hs average concentrations of PMs were detected to be more than two-times higher than the Indian standard limit (NAAQ, category) which indicates poor air quality in both the seasons around the sampling sites. This study demonstrates that the concentrations of PM-bound PAHs are mutagenic and that the Excess Cancer Risks exceed the USEPA standard limits. PMs cause cytotoxicity and can also induce genotoxicity to human health analyzed by cell culture and gel electrophoresis. This study helps to promote research to evaluate the PMs bound PHEs toxicity in diverse human cell lines and also their relationship with climatic factors as well as quantitative source apportionment for mitigation purposes.

Application of quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) model in comprehensive human health risk assessment of PAHs, and alkyl-, nitro-, carbonyl-, and hydroxyl-PAHs laden in urban road dust

The carcinogenic human health risks (CHHR) posed by the exposure to PAHs and transformed PAH products (TPPs) are currently inconclusive due to the lack of toxicity equivalency factors (TEFs) for most TPPs although some of these pollutants are more potent carcinogens. The applicability of quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) model in predicting TEF of PAHs and TPPs to holistically evaluate the CHHR posed by the exposure to these pollutants in road dust from Gold Coast, Australia was examined. Statistical evaluation via ten metrics shows that partial least-squares regression (PLSR1) model has more statistical power in predicting TEF than multiple linear regression (MLR) within relevant applicability domain. For instance, the predicted residual sum of squares (PRESS) and standard deviation of error of prediction (SDEP) for PLSR is closer to zero than that of MLR. The total cancer risk estimated using the QSAR model derived TEFs and original TEFs for outliers gives a more holistic incremental lifetime cancer risk in relation to children and adults. Potential cancer risk exists for adults with this approach whereas reliance on only the originally available TEFs lead to a negligible risk diagnosis. The application of QSAR model in assessing CHHR due to PAHs and TPPs exposures is very viable.

Characterization of a multianalyte GC-MS/MS procedure for detecting and quantifying polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and PAH derivatives from air particulate matter for an improved risk assessment

A correct description of the concentration and distribution of particle bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons is important for risk assessment of atmospheric particulate matter. A new targeted GC-MS/MS method was developed for analyzing 64 PAHs including compounds with a molecular weight >300, as well as nitro-, methyl-, oxy- and hydroxyl derivatives in a single analysis. The instrumental LOD ranged between 0.03 and 0.7 pg/μL for PAHs, 0.2-7.9 pg/μL for hydroxyl and oxy PAHs, 0.1-7.4 pg/μL for nitro PAHs and 0.06-0.3 pg/μL for methyl-PAHs. As an example for the relevance of this method samples of PM₁₀ were collected at six sampling sites in Medellin, Colombia, extracted and the concentration of 64 compounds was determined. The 16 PAHs from the EPA priority list contributed only from 54% to 69% to the sum of all analyzed compounds, PAH with high molecular weight accounted for 8.8%-18.9%. Benzo(a)pyrene equivalents (BaP_eq) were calculated for the estimation of the life time cancer (LCR). The LCR according to the samples ranged from 2.75 × 10^-5 to 1.4 × 10^-4 by a calculation with toxic equivalent factors (TEF) and 5.7 × 10^-5 to 3.8 × 10^-4 with potency equivalent factor (PEF). By using the new relative potency factors (RPF) recommended by US Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.EPA) the LCR ranged from 1.3 × 10^-4 to 7.2 × 10^-4. Hence, it was around six times higher than the well-known TEF. The novel method enables the reliable quantification of a more comprehensive set of PAHs bound on PM and thus will facilitate and improve the risk assessment of them.

Seasonal characteristics and health risks of PM2.5-bound organic pollutants in industrial and urban areas of a China megacity

Organic pollutants are important harmful components in atmospheric fine particulate matters (PM_2.5), health risks of which varied with temporal and spatial distributions. To clarify the characteristics of atmospheric organic pollution, the concentrations, sources, and human health risks of typical organic compositions in PM_2.5 samples from both industrial and urban areas of Nanjing in eastern China were investigated monthly for a year. Results showed that, the concentrations of PM_2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and n-alkanes were higher in winter and spring than those in summer and autumn. The organic pollution was slightly higher in industrial than urban area, though the PAHs in autumn and the n-alkanes in warm season (summer and autumn) were higher in urban area. With regards to the pollutant sources, the atmospheric PAHs were dominated by motor vehicle exhaust in the urban area, and combined with coal combustion emission in the industrial area. Airborne n-alkanes were mainly from biological source accompanied by fossil fuel combustion in industrial area. The PM_2.5-bound PAHs indicated higher risks to adults in industrial area than in urban area with the seasonal patterns: winter > spring > autumn > summer. More attention should be paid to the health risks of exposure to organic pollutants accumulated in PM_2.5 during cold season. Controlling vehicle emissions might be the key measure for alleviating atmospheric PAHs and n-alkanes pollution in megacities, while coal purification can be an effective control method in industrial areas.

Effect of air pollutants and toxic emissions from various mileage of motorcycles and aerosol related carcinogenicity and mutagenicity assessment

This research investigates the mileage and the health risk assessment of aerosol carcinogenicity and mutagenicity emitted by ten in-use motorcycles. The total p-PAHs emission factor of ten in-use motorcycles are 676.3 μg km^-1 with average of 67.6 ± 13.6 μg km^-1. Naphthalene (Nap) shows the largest emission factors, followed by phenanthrene (PA) and fluoranthen (FL). The mileage present high correlation coefficient (Rsp = 0.681) with CO. CO is associated with cumulative mileage leading to bad combustion efficiency, which caused low to high relationship for total p-PAHs (Rsp = 0.388), PM_2.5 (Rsp = 0.680) and NOx (Rsp = 0.799). Both PM_2.5 and total p-PAHs are generally generated via incomplete combustion and the results expressed the moderate to high correlation (Rsp = 0.578, 0.898) with NOx. Taking into consideration of high-mileage motorcycles (30,001-50,000 km), the toxic equivalent of carcinogenicity and mutagenicity exhaust are about 4.67, 1.99 and 3.89, 2.0 times higher than low (10,001-20,000 km) and middle (20,001-30,000 km) cumulative mileages, respectively. Therefore, in the conclusion of our study in compared with that of other research directed the fact that lower carcinogenicity and mutagenicity emission factor were found at lower cumulative mileages motorcycles however, the impact increases with the high cumulative mileage motorcycles.

Burden of disease for workers attributable to exposure through inhalation of PPAHs in RSPM from cooking fumes

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), some of which are classified as possible carcinogens (WHO), have been detected in cooking fumes in considerable amounts. Distribution of 24 PAHs on varying particle sizes was analyzed in cooking emission. Analysis of cooking fumes from vegetarian and non-vegetarian food was carried out separately in the kitchen of a hostel mess in IIT Kanpur during November 2012 and February 2013. Respirable suspended particulate matter (RSPM) and particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PPAHs) showed a similar sequence regarding concentration observed in vegetarian and non-vegetarian food. PAHs with carcinogenic potential was detected and quantified mostly in the fine particles. Total PAH concentrations in the fine and ultrafine ranges together accounted for > 90% of the total carcinogenic PAHs, highlighting them as primary carriers of PAHs rather than coarser particles. Benzo [a] pyrene (B [a]P) levels contribute > 70% to total carcinogenic potential and > 60%, to mutagenic potential, respectively. The total toxicity impact on the workers due to the PAHs emitted from cooking fumes was 3.374 × 10^-10 DALYs, with B [a] P contributing the most (> 70%) despite its low concentration. Exposure to cooking fumes especially for people involved in this activity on a daily basis (chefs, hostel mess workers, among others) raises health concerns. An extensive examination of impacts due to exposure to emissions in both particle and gas phase on a long-term basis is required.

Fine particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at an urban site of Wuhan, central China: Characteristics, potential sources and cancer risks apportionment

Levels, compositions, sources, and cancer risks of fine particle (PM_2.5)-bound PAHs were investigated at an urban site of Wuhan, Central China. Totally 115 PM_2.5 samples collected during four seasons from 2014 to 2015 were analyzed for 16 USEPA priority PAHs. The annual average of PM_2.5 and total PAHs were 106 ± 41.7 μg m^-3 and 25.1 ± 19.4 ng m^-3, respectively. The seasonal levels of PM_2.5 and PAHs varied in a similar trend, with the highest concentrations in winter and the lowest in summer. PM_2.5-bound PAHs under different pollution level was discussed and the highest average PAH levels were found at a moderate (115-150 μg m^-3) air quality level. Three sources including coal combustion and biomass burning, petrogenic source, and vehicle emissions were extracted and quantified by the positive matrix factorization (PMF) model, accounting for 22.7 ± 21.3%, 34.4 ± 29.0% and 42.9 ± 31.3% of the total PAHs, respectively. The potential source contribution function (PSCF) and the concentration-weighted trajectory (CWT) were combined to explore the geographic origins of PAHs. The spatial distributions of coal combustion and biomass burning, petrogenic source, and vehicle emissions were well correlated with medium molecular weight (MMW), low molecular weight (LMW) and high molecular weight (HMW) PAHs, respectively. Results of PSCF and CWT indicated that the long-distance transport form north of Wuhan as far as northern and eastern of China was higher than that from the southern China while the contribution of local areas was higher than those from the long-range transport. The overall lifetime lung cancer risk (LLCR) via inhalation exposure to PM_2.5-bound PAHs was estimated as 3.03 × 10^-4, with vehicle emissions contributed 57.1% (1.6 × 10^-4) to the total risk on average, followed by coal combustion and biomass burning (31.0%, 9.6 × 10^-5), and petrogenic source (11.9%, 3.6 × 10^-5).

Carcinogenic Potency of Airborne Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Relation to the Particle Fraction Size

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that are bound to particulate matter can have adverse effects on human health. Particle size plays an important role in assessing health risks. The aim of this study was to compare concentrations of PAHs bound to particle fractions PM10, PM2.5, and PM₁, as well as to estimate their carcinogenic potency and relative contributions of the individual PAHs to the carcinogenic potency in relation to the size of the particle. Measurements of ten PAHs were carried out in 2014 at an urban location in the northern part of Zagreb, Croatia. 24-h samples of the PM10, PM2.5, and PM₁ particle fraction were collected over forty days per season. Carcinogenic potency of PAHs was estimated by calculating benzo(a)pyrene equivalent concentrations while using three different toxic equivalence factor (TEF) schemes. The total carcinogenic potency (TCP) and percentage contributions differed significantly depending on the TEF scheme used. The lowest PAH mass concentrations and TCPs were in summer and the highest in winter. The contributions of individual PAHs to the sum of PAH mass concentrations remained similar in all fractions and seasons, while in fractions PM10⁻2.5 and PM2.5⁻1 they varied significantly. Road traffic represented the important source of PAHs in all fractions and throughout all seasons. Other sources (wood and biomass burning, petroleum combustion) were also present, especially during winter as a consequence of household heating. The highest contribution to the TCP came from benzo(a)pyrene, dibenzo(ah)antrachene, indeno(1,2,3,cd)pyrene, and benzo(b)fluoranthene (together between 87% and 96%) in all fractions and seasons. In all cases, BaP showed the highest contribution to the TCP regardless relatively low contributions to the mass of total PAHs and it can be considered as a good representative for assessing the carcinogenicity of the PAH mixture. When comparing the TCP of PAHs in PM10 and PM2.5 fractions, it was found that about 21⁻26% of carcinogenic potency of the PAH mixture belonged to the PM2.5 fraction. Comparison of TCP in PM2.5 and PM₁ showed that about 86% of carcinogenic potency belonged to the PM₁ fraction, regardless of the TEF scheme used.

Characterization and Risk Assessment of Atmospheric PM2.5 and PM10 Particulate-Bound PAHs and NPAHs in Rwanda, Central-East Africa

Exposure to airborne particulates is estimated as the largest cause of premature human mortality worldwide and is of particular concern in sub-Saharan Africa where emissions are high and data are lacking. Particulate matter (PM) contains several toxic organic species including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and nitrated PAHs (NPAHs). This study provides the first characterization and source identification for PM₁₀- and PM_2.5-bound PAHs and NPAHs in sub-Saharan Africa during a three-month period that spanned dry and wet seasons at three locations in Rwanda. The 24-h mean PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ concentrations were significantly higher in the dry than the wet season. PAH and NPAH concentrations at the urban roadside site were significantly higher than the urban background and rural site. Source identification using diagnostic ratio analysis and principal component analysis (PCA) revealed diesel and gasoline-powered vehicles at the urban location and wood burning at the rural location as the major sources of PAHs and NPAHs. Our analysis demonstrates that PM concentrations and lifetime cancer risks resulting from inhalation exposure to PM-bound PAHs and NPAHs exceed World Health Organization safe limits. This study provides clear evidence that an immediate development of emission control measures is required.

Chemical characterization of atmospheric particulate matter in Friuli Venezia Giulia (NE Italy) by exploratory data analysis with multisite and multivariate approach

The chemical composition of atmospheric particulate (PM10) in the Friuli Venezia Giulia (FVG) region (NE Italy) has been characterized for the first time with the help of exploratory data analysis (EDA) techniques (uni-, bi-, and multivariated, i.e., principal components analysis), molecular and elemental diagnostic ratios, and seasonal trends. Despite that the available analytical data was limited to the parameters routinely analyzed on PM10 by ARPA FVG (11 elements and 16 PAH congeners), the large number of samples and of measured chemical parameters, together with the applied techniques of data analysis, allowed us to extract useful latent information from the dataset, resulting in a greater knowledge of both regional and local features. Specifically, we succeeded in matching data patterns to the known pollution sources of some sampling stations, both industrial (two secondary fusion steelworks and one coke oven) and urban (traffic and domestic heating), and in defining the mainly urban or mainly industrial feature of some questionable sampling stations. This is of paramount importance to check for possible industrial inputs in urban stations, allowing policymakers to implement the most appropriate response.

Lung function growth trajectories in non-asthmatic children aged 4-9 in relation to prenatal exposure to airborne particulate matter and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons - Krakow birth cohort study

BACKGROUND

Patterns of lung function development during childhood can be helpful in understanding the pathogenesis of respiratory diseases. A variety of environmental and lifestyle factors, present from the prenatal period to adulthood, may affect or modulate lung function growth. The aim of this study was to investigate, the associations between individual growth trajectories of children's lung function during childhood and prenatal exposure to airborne fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), which were hypothesized to adversely affect spirometry parameters.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study group comprised 294 non-asthmatic, full term children from the Krakow birth cohort, who underwent annual spirometry testing at the ages of 4-9 years. Individual personal air monitoring of PM_2.5 and PAH were performed over 48 h in the second trimester of pregnancy. Possible confounders or modifiers such as child's gender, height, atopic status and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) were considered. Polynomial multilevel mixed models were used to assess the growth rates of children's lung functions.

RESULTS

Lung function trajectories differed significantly for boys and girls for FVC, FEV1 and FEF25-75. Girls had lower rates of increase than boys: - 20.5 (95%CI: - 32.4; - 8.6) ml/year (FVC); - 19.9 (95%CI: -30.7;-9.0) ml/year (FEV1); and - 32.5 (95%CI: - 56.9; - 8.2) ml/year (FEF25-75). Spirometry functions increased with age; however the growth rate decelerated over time. Significant lung function impairment (lower FVC and FEV1 levels) was observed from 4 to 9 years among subjects prenatally exposed to higher levels of PM_2.5 as well as PAH, but not in the case of FEF25-75. No significant differences were observed in the rates of increase over time in relation to prenatal PM_2.5 and PAH exposure.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that in non-asthmatic children high prenatal exposure to airborne PM_2.5 and PAH is associated with lower trajectories of FVC and FEV1, but not the rate of increase over time, suggesting that the initial effect is not diminishing in time.