3D Printing Technologies in Personalized Medicine, Nanomedicines, and Biopharmaceuticals

Innovative Pharmaceutical Techniques for Paediatric Dosage Forms: A Systematic Review on 3D Printing, Prilling/Vibration and Microfluidic Platform

The production of paediatric pharmaceutical forms represents a unique challenge within the pharmaceutical industry. The primary goal of these formulations is to ensure therapeutic efficacy, safety, and tolerability in paediatric patients, who have specific physiological needs and characteristics. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in attention towards this area, driven by the need to improve drug administration to children and ensure optimal and specific treatments. Technological innovation has played a crucial role in meeting these requirements, opening new frontiers in the design and production of paediatric pharmaceutical forms. In particular, three emerging technologies have garnered considerable interest and attention within the scientific and industrial community: 3D printing, prilling/vibration, and microfluidics. These technologies offer advanced approaches for the design, production, and customization of paediatric pharmaceutical forms, allowing for more precise dosage modulation, improved solubility, and greater drug acceptability. In this review, we delve into these cutting-edge technologies and their impact on the production of paediatric pharmaceutical forms. We analyse their potential, associated challenges, and recent developments, providing a comprehensive overview of the opportunities that these innovative methodologies offer to the pharmaceutical sector. We examine different pharmaceutical forms generated using these techniques, evaluating their advantages and disadvantages.

Development of novel 3D printable inks for protein delivery

The application of 3D printing technology in the delivery of macromolecules, such as proteins and enzymes, is limited by the lack of suitable inks. In this study, we report the development of novel inks for 3D printing of constructs containing proteins while maintaining the activity of the proteins during and after printing. Different ink formulations containing Pluronic F-127 (20-35 %, w/v), trehalose (2-10 %, w/v) or mannitol, poly (ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) (0 or 10 %, w/w), and diphenyl(2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl) phosphine oxide (TPO, 0 or 0.2 mg/mL) were prepared for 3D-microextrusion printing. The F2 formulation that contained β-galactosidase (β-gal) as a model enzyme, Pluronic F-127 (30 %), and trehalose (10 %) demonstrated the desired viscosity, printability, and dose flexibility. The shear-thinning property of the F2 formulation enabled the printing of β-gal containing constructs with a good peak force during extrusion. After 3D printing, the enzymatic activity of the β-gal in the constructs was maintained for an extended period, depending on the construct design and storage conditions. For instance, there was a 50 % reduction in β-gal activity in the two-layer constructs, but only a 20 % reduction in the four-layer construct (i.e., 54.5 ± 1.2 % and 82.7 ± 9.9 %, respectively), after 4 days of storage. The β-gal activity in constructs printed from the F2 formulation was maintained for up to 20 days when stored in sealed bags at room temperatures (21 ± 2 °C), but not when stored unsealed in the same conditions (e.g., ∼60 % activity loss within 7 days). The β-gal from constructs printed from F2 started to release within 5 min and reached 100 % after 20 min. With the design flexibility offered by the 3D printing, the β-gal release from the constructs was delayed to 3 h by printing a backing layer of β-gal-free F5 ink on the constructs printed from the F2 ink. Finally, ovalbumin as an alternative protein was also incorporated in similar ink compositions. Ovalbumin exhibited a release profile like that of the β-gal, and the release can also be modified with different shape design and/or ink composition. In conclusion, ink formulations that possess desirable properties for 3D printing of protein-containing constructs while maintaining the protein activity during and after printing were developed.

Smart Microneedle Arrays Integrating Cell-Free Therapy and Nanocatalysis to Treat Liver Fibrosis

Liver fibrosis is a chronic pathological condition lacking specific clinical treatments. Stem cells, with notable potential in regenerative medicine, offer promise in treating liver fibrosis. However, stem cell therapy is hindered by potential immunological rejection, carcinogenesis risk, efficacy variation, and high cost. Stem cell secretome-based cell-free therapy offers potential solutions to address these challenges, but it is limited by low delivery efficiency and rapid clearance. Herein, an innovative approach for in situ implantation of smart microneedle (MN) arrays enabling precisely controlled delivery of multiple therapeutic agents directly into fibrotic liver tissues is developed. By integrating cell-free and platinum-based nanocatalytic combination therapy, the MN arrays can deactivate hepatic stellate cells. Moreover, they promote excessive extracellular matrix degradation by more than 75%, approaching normal levels. Additionally, the smart MN arrays can provide hepatocyte protection while reducing inflammation levels by ≈70-90%. They can also exhibit remarkable capability in scavenging almost 100% of reactive oxygen species and alleviating hypoxia. Ultimately, this treatment strategy can effectively restrain fibrosis progression. The comprehensive in vitro and in vivo experiments, supplemented by proteome and transcriptome analyses, substantiate the effectiveness of the approach in treating liver fibrosis, holding immense promise for clinical applications.

The potential of three-dimensional printing for pediatric oral solid dosage forms

Pediatric patients often require individualized dosing of medicine due to their unique pharmacokinetic and developmental characteristics. Current methods for tailoring the dose of pediatric medications, such as tablet splitting or compounding liquid formulations, have limitations in terms of dosing accuracy and palatability. This paper explores the potential of 3D printing as a solution to address the challenges and provide tailored doses of medication for each pediatric patient. The technological overview of 3D printing is discussed, highlighting various 3D printing technologies and their suitability for pharmaceutical applications. Several individualization options with the potential to improve adherence are discussed, such as individualized dosage, custom release kinetics, tablet shape, and palatability. To integrate the preparation of 3D printed medication at the point of care, a decentralized manufacturing model is proposed. In this setup, pharmaceutical companies would routinely provide materials and instructions for 3D printing, while specialized compounding centers or hospital pharmacies perform the printing of medication. In addition, clinical opportunities of 3D printing for dose-finding trials are emphasized. On the other hand, current challenges in adequate dosing, regulatory compliance, adherence to quality standards, and maintenance of intellectual property need to be addressed for 3D printing to close the gap in personalized oral medication.

Advancements in 3D-printable polysaccharides, proteins, and synthetic polymers for wound dressing and skin scaffolding - A review

This review investigates the most recent advances in personalized 3D-printed wound dressings and skin scaffolding. Skin is the largest and most vulnerable organ in the human body. The human body has natural mechanisms to restore damaged skin through several overlapping stages. However, the natural wound healing process can be rendered insufficient due to severe wounds or disturbances in the healing process. Wound dressings are crucial in providing a protective barrier against the external environment, accelerating healing. Although used for many years, conventional wound dressings are neither tailored to individual circumstances nor specific to wound conditions. To address the shortcomings of conventional dressings, skin scaffolding can be used for skin regeneration and wound healing. This review thoroughly investigates polysaccharides (e.g., chitosan, Hyaluronic acid (HA)), proteins (e.g., collagen, silk), synthetic polymers (e.g., Polycaprolactone (PCL), Poly lactide-co-glycolic acid (PLGA), Polylactic acid (PLA)), as well as nanocomposites (e.g., silver nano particles and clay materials) for wound healing applications and successfully 3D printed wound dressings. It discusses the importance of combining various biomaterials to enhance their beneficial characteristics and mitigate their drawbacks. Different 3D printing fabrication techniques used in developing personalized wound dressings are reviewed, highlighting the advantages and limitations of each method. This paper emphasizes the exceptional versatility of 3D printing techniques in advancing wound healing treatments. Finally, the review provides recommendations and future directions for further research in wound dressings.

Liposome-Hydrogel Composites for Controlled Drug Delivery Applications

Various controlled delivery systems (CDSs) have been developed to overcome the shortcomings of traditional drug formulations (tablets, capsules, syrups, ointments, etc.). Among innovative CDSs, hydrogels and liposomes have shown great promise for clinical applications thanks to their cost-effectiveness, well-known chemistry and synthetic feasibility, biodegradability, biocompatibility and responsiveness to external stimuli. To date, several liposomal- and hydrogel-based products have been approved to treat cancer, as well as fungal and viral infections, hence the integration of liposomes into hydrogels has attracted increasing attention because of the benefit from both of them into a single platform, resulting in a multifunctional drug formulation, which is essential to develop efficient CDSs. This short review aims to present an updated report on the advancements of liposome-hydrogel systems for drug delivery purposes.

Systematic screening of photopolymer resins for stereolithography (SLA) 3D printing of solid oral dosage forms: Investigation of formulation factors on printability outcomes

Pharmaceutical three-dimensional printing (3DP) is now in its golden age. Recent years have seen a dramatic increase in the research in 3D printed pharmaceuticals due to their potential to deliver highly personalised medicines, thus revolutionising the way medicines are designed, manufactured, and dispensed. A particularly attractive 3DP technology used to manufacture medicines is stereolithography (SLA), which features key advantages in terms of printing resolution and compatibility with thermolabile drugs. Nevertheless, the enthusiasm for pharmaceutical SLA has not been followed by the introduction of novel excipients specifically designed for the fabrication of medicines; hence, the choice of biocompatible polymers and photoinitiators available is limited. This work provides an insight on how to maximise the usefulness of the limited materials available by evaluating how different formulation factors affect printability outcomes of SLA 3D printed medicines. 156 photopolymer formulations were systematically screened to evaluate the influence of factors including photoinitiator amount, photopolymer molecular size, and type and amount of liquid filler on the printability outcomes. Collectively, these factors were found highly influential in modulating the print quality of the final dosage forms. Findings provide enhanced understanding of formulation parameters informing the future of SLA 3D printed medicines and the personalised medicines revolution.

Use of Biomaterials in 3D Printing as a Solution to Microbial Infections in Arthroplasty and Osseous Reconstruction

The incidence of microbial infections in orthopedic prosthetic surgeries is a perennial problem that increases morbidity and mortality, representing one of the major complications of such medical interventions. The emergence of novel technologies, especially 3D printing, represents a promising avenue of development for reducing the risk of such eventualities. There are already a host of biomaterials, suitable for 3D printing, that are being tested for antimicrobial properties when they are coated with bioactive compounds, such as antibiotics, or combined with hydrogels with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, such as chitosan and metal nanoparticles, among others. The materials discussed in the context of this paper comprise beta-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP), biphasic calcium phosphate (BCP), hydroxyapatite, lithium disilicate glass, polyetheretherketone (PEEK), poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF), poly(trimethylene carbonate) (PTMC), and zirconia. While the recent research results are promising, further development is required to address the increasing antibiotic resistance exhibited by several common pathogens, the potential for fungal infections, and the potential toxicity of some metal nanoparticles. Other solutions, like the incorporation of phytochemicals, should also be explored. Incorporating artificial intelligence (AI) in the development of certain orthopedic implants and the potential use of AI against bacterial infections might represent viable solutions to these problems. Finally, there are some legal considerations associated with the use of biomaterials and the widespread use of 3D printing, which must be taken into account.

Trends of regenerative tissue engineering for oral and maxillofacial reconstruction in veterinary medicine

Oral and maxillofacial (OMF) defects are not limited to humans and are often encountered in other species. Reconstructing significant tissue defects requires an excellent strategy for efficient and cost-effective treatment. In this regard, tissue engineering comprising stem cells, scaffolds, and signaling molecules is emerging as an innovative approach to treating OMF defects in veterinary patients. This review presents a comprehensive overview of OMF defects and tissue engineering principles to establish proper treatment and achieve both hard and soft tissue regeneration in veterinary practice. Moreover, bench-to-bedside future opportunities and challenges of tissue engineering usage are also addressed in this literature review.

Poly(ɛ-caprolactone) and Eudragit E blends modulate the drug release profiles from FDM printlets

Thermoplastic polymers have been used to produce filaments by hot melt extrusion (HME), which can be applied to obtain 3D printlets by fused deposition modelling (FDM). Poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) is a low melting point thermoplastic polymer that provides HME filaments with excellent mechanical and printability properties. However, due to the highly hydrophobic properties of PCL, they afford printlets with slow drug release behaviour. We hypothesized that blending a less hydrophobic polymer, the Eudragit E (EudE), with PCL could be an approach to increase the drug release rate from PCL 3D printlets. PCL and EudE were blended at different proportions, 50:50, 60:40, 70:30, and 80:20 (w/w), to produce HME filaments. They were produced with dexamethasone at 5 % (w/w) and were effectively extruded and printable by FDM, except that composed of 50:50 (w/w). Printlets had homogeneous distribution of their components. Their drug release behaviour was dependent on the ratio of the polymeric blends. The highest EudE ratio (60:40 w/w) afforded printlets showing the highest release rate. Therefore, adding up to 40 % (w/w) of EudE to PCL does not impair the mechanical and printability properties of its HME filaments. This innovative approach is proposed here to modulate the drug release behaviour from PCL printlets.

Empowering Precision Medicine: The Impact of 3D Printing on Personalized Therapeutic

This review explores recent advancements and applications of 3D printing in healthcare, with a focus on personalized medicine, tissue engineering, and medical device production. It also assesses economic, environmental, and ethical considerations. In our review of the literature, we employed a comprehensive search strategy, utilizing well-known databases like PubMed and Google Scholar. Our chosen keywords encompassed essential topics, including 3D printing, personalized medicine, nanotechnology, and related areas. We first screened article titles and abstracts and then conducted a detailed examination of selected articles without imposing any date limitations. The articles selected for inclusion, comprising research studies, clinical investigations, and expert opinions, underwent a meticulous quality assessment. This methodology ensured the incorporation of high-quality sources, contributing to a robust exploration of the role of 3D printing in the realm of healthcare. The review highlights 3D printing's potential in healthcare, including customized drug delivery systems, patient-specific implants, prosthetics, and biofabrication of organs. These innovations have significantly improved patient outcomes. Integration of nanotechnology has enhanced drug delivery precision and biocompatibility. 3D printing also demonstrates cost-effectiveness and sustainability through optimized material usage and recycling. The healthcare sector has witnessed remarkable progress through 3D printing, promoting a patient-centric approach. From personalized implants to radiation shielding and drug delivery systems, 3D printing offers tailored solutions. Its transformative applications, coupled with economic viability and sustainability, have the potential to revolutionize healthcare. Addressing material biocompatibility, standardization, and ethical concerns is essential for responsible adoption.

Personalized Nasal Protective Devices: Importance and Perspectives

Nowadays, in addition to diseases caused by environmental pollution, the importance of personalized protection against various infectious agents has become of paramount importance. Besides medicine, several technical and technological studies have been carried out to develop suitable devices. One such revolutionary solution is the use of personalized nasal filters, which allow our body to defend itself more effectively against external environmental damage and pathogens. These filters are small devices that are placed in the nose and specifically filter the inhaled environmental contaminants, allergens, and microorganisms according to individual needs. These devices not only play a key role in maintaining our health but also contribute to environmental protection, reducing the inhalation of pollutants and their harmful impact on the natural environment. Another advantage of personalized filters is that they also provide an opportunity to strengthen our individual immune systems. The use of personalized filters allows medicine to provide optimized protection for everyone, focusing on individual genetic and immunological conditions. The momentum behind the development and research of personalized nasal filters has reached astonishing proportions today. Nowadays, many research groups and medical institutions are working to create new materials, nanotechnologies, and bioinformatics solutions in order to create even more effective personalized nasal filters that can also be shaped easily and safely. Considering the needs of the users is at least as important during development as the efficiency of the device. These two properties together determine the success of the product. Industry research focuses not only on improving the efficiency of devices, but also on making them more responsive to user needs, comfort, and portability. Based on all this, it can be concluded that personalized nasal filters can be a promising and innovative solution for protection against environmental pollutants and pathogens. Through a commitment to the research and development of technology, the long-term impact of such devices on our health and the environment can be significant, contributing to improving people's quality of life and creating a sustainable future. With unique solutions and continuous research, we give hope that in the future, despite the environmental challenges, we can enjoy the protection of our health with even more efficient and sophisticated devices.

Enhancing antioxidant delivery through 3D printing: a pathway to advanced therapeutic strategies

The rapid advancement of 3D printing has transformed industries, including medicine and pharmaceuticals. Integrating antioxidants into 3D-printed structures offers promising therapeutic strategies for enhanced antioxidant delivery. This review explores the synergistic relationship between 3D printing and antioxidants, focusing on the design and fabrication of antioxidant-loaded constructs. Incorporating antioxidants into 3D-printed matrices enables controlled release and localized delivery, improving efficacy while minimizing side effects. Customization of physical and chemical properties allows tailoring of antioxidant release kinetics, distribution, and degradation profiles. Encapsulation techniques such as direct mixing, coating, and encapsulation are discussed. Material selection, printing parameters, and post-processing methods significantly influence antioxidant release kinetics and stability. Applications include wound healing, tissue regeneration, drug delivery, and personalized medicine. This comprehensive review aims to provide insights into 3D printing-assisted antioxidant delivery systems, facilitating advancements in medicine and improved patient outcomes for oxidative stress-related disorders.

Perspectives on Scaffold Designs with Roles in Liver Cell Asymmetry and Medical and Industrial Applications by Using a New Type of Specialized 3D Bioprinter

Cellular asymmetry is an important element of efficiency in the compartmentalization of intracellular chemical reactions that ensure efficient tissue function. Improving the current 3D printing methods by using cellular asymmetry is essential in producing complex tissues and organs such as the liver. The use of cell spots containing at least two cells and basement membrane-like bio support materials allows cells to be tethered at two points on the basement membrane and with another cell in order to maintain cell asymmetry. Our model is a new type of 3D bioprinter that uses oriented multicellular complexes with cellular asymmetry. This novel approach is necessary to replace the sequential and slow processes of organogenesis with rapid methods of growth and 3D organ printing. The use of the extracellular matrix in the process of bioprinting with cells allows one to preserve the cellular asymmetry in the 3D printing process and thus preserve the compartmentalization of biological processes and metabolic efficiency.

Rapid Prototyping Technologies: 3D Printing Applied in Medicine

Three-dimensional printing technology has been used for more than three decades in many industries, including the automotive and aerospace industries. So far, the use of this technology in medicine has been limited only to 3D printing of anatomical models for educational and training purposes, which is due to the insufficient functional properties of the materials used in the process. Only recent advances in the development of innovative materials have resulted in the flourishing of the use of 3D printing in medicine and pharmacy. Currently, additive manufacturing technology is widely used in clinical fields. Rapid development can be observed in the design of implants and prostheses, the creation of biomedical models tailored to the needs of the patient and the bioprinting of tissues and living scaffolds for regenerative medicine. The purpose of this review is to characterize the most popular 3D printing techniques.

Recent advances and future directions of 3D to 6D printing in brain cancer treatment and neural tissue engineering

The field of neural tissue engineering has undergone a revolution due to advancements in three-dimensional (3D) printing technology. This technology now enables the creation of intricate neural tissue constructs with precise geometries, topologies, and mechanical properties. Currently, there are various 3D printing techniques available, such as stereolithography and digital light processing, and a wide range of materials can be utilized, including hydrogels, biopolymers, and synthetic materials. Furthermore, the development of four-dimensional (4D) printing has gained traction, allowing for the fabrication of structures that can change shape over time using techniques such as shape-memory polymers. These innovations have the potential to facilitate neural regeneration, drug screening, disease modeling, and hold tremendous promise for personalized diagnostics, precise therapeutic strategies against brain cancers. This review paper provides a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art techniques and materials for 3D printing in neural tissue engineering and brain cancer. It focuses on the exciting possibilities that lie ahead, including the emerging field of 4D printing. Additionally, the paper discusses the potential applications of five-dimensional and six-dimensional printing, which integrate time and biological functions into the printing process, in the fields of neuroscience.

Three-Dimensional Bioprinting in Cardiovascular Disease: Current Status and Future Directions

Three-dimensional (3D) printing plays an important role in cardiovascular disease through the use of personalised models that replicate the normal anatomy and its pathology with high accuracy and reliability. While 3D printed heart and vascular models have been shown to improve medical education, preoperative planning and simulation of cardiac procedures, as well as to enhance communication with patients, 3D bioprinting represents a potential advancement of 3D printing technology by allowing the printing of cellular or biological components, functional tissues and organs that can be used in a variety of applications in cardiovascular disease. Recent advances in bioprinting technology have shown the ability to support vascularisation of large-scale constructs with enhanced biocompatibility and structural stability, thus creating opportunities to replace damaged tissues or organs. In this review, we provide an overview of the use of 3D bioprinting in cardiovascular disease with a focus on technologies and applications in cardiac tissues, vascular constructs and grafts, heart valves and myocardium. Limitations and future research directions are highlighted.

Continuous Manufacturing of Cocrystals Using 3D-Printed Microfluidic Chips Coupled with Spray Coating

Using cocrystals has emerged as a promising strategy to improve the physicochemical properties of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) by forming a new crystalline phase from two or more components. Particle size and morphology control are key quality attributes for cocrystal medicinal products. The needle-shaped morphology is often considered high-risk and complex in the manufacture of solid dosage forms. Cocrystal particle engineering requires advanced methodologies to ensure high-purity cocrystals with improved solubility and bioavailability and with optimal crystal habit for industrial manufacturing. In this study, 3D-printed microfluidic chips were used to control the cocrystal habit and polymorphism of the sulfadimidine (SDM): 4-aminosalicylic acid (4ASA) cocrystal. The addition of PVP in the aqueous phase during mixing resulted in a high-purity cocrystal (with no traces of the individual components), while it also inhibited the growth of needle-shaped crystals. When mixtures were prepared at the macroscale, PVP was not able to control the crystal habit and impurities of individual mixture components remained, indicating that the microfluidic device allowed for a more homogenous and rapid mixing process controlled by the flow rate and the high surface-to-volume ratios of the microchannels. Continuous manufacturing of SDM:4ASA cocrystals coated on beads was successfully implemented when the microfluidic chip was connected in line to a fluidized bed, allowing cocrystal formulation generation by mixing, coating, and drying in a single step.

Engineering 3D-Printed Advanced Healthcare Materials for Periprosthetic Joint Infections

The use of additive manufacturing or 3D printing in biomedicine has experienced fast growth in the last few years, becoming a promising tool in pharmaceutical development and manufacturing, especially in parenteral formulations and implantable drug delivery systems (IDDSs). Periprosthetic joint infections (PJIs) are a common complication in arthroplasties, with a prevalence of over 4%. There is still no treatment that fully covers the need for preventing and treating biofilm formation. However, 3D printing plays a major role in the development of novel therapies for PJIs. This review will provide a deep understanding of the different approaches based on 3D-printing techniques for the current management and prophylaxis of PJIs. The two main strategies are focused on IDDSs that are loaded or coated with antimicrobials, commonly in combination with bone regeneration agents and 3D-printed orthopedic implants with modified surfaces and antimicrobial properties. The wide variety of printing methods and materials have allowed for the manufacture of IDDSs that are perfectly adjusted to patients' physiognomy, with different drug release profiles, geometries, and inner and outer architectures, and are fully individualized, targeting specific pathogens. Although these novel treatments are demonstrating promising results, in vivo studies and clinical trials are required for their translation from the bench to the market.

Recent patent-based review on the role of three-dimensional printing technology in pharmaceutical and biomedical applications

Three-dimensional printing (3DP) is emerging as an innovative manufacturing technology for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications, since the US FDA approval of Spritam as a 3D-printed drug. In the present review, we have highlighted the potential benefits of 3DP technology in healthcare, such as the ability to create patient-specific medical devices and implants, as well as the possibility of on-demand production of drugs and personalized dosage forms. We have further discussed future research to optimize 3DP processes and materials for pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. Cohesively, we have put forward the current state of active patents and applications related to 3DP technology in the healthcare and pharmaceutical industries including hearing aids, prostheses, medical devices and drug-delivery systems.

Polypharmacology: promises and new drugs in 2022

Polypharmacology is an emerging strategy of design, synthesis, and clinical implementation of pharmaceutical agents that act on multiple targets simultaneously. It should not be mixed up with polytherapy, which is based on the use of multiple selective drugs and is considered a cornerstone of current clinical practice. However, this 'classic' approach, when facing urgent medical challenges, such as multifactorial diseases, increasing resistance to pharmacotherapy, and multimorbidity, seems to be insufficient. The 'novel' polypharmacology concept leads to a more predictable pharmacokinetic profile of multi-target-directed ligands (MTDLs), giving a chance to avoid drug-drug interactions and improve patient compliance due to the simplification of dosing regimens. Plenty of recently marketed drugs interact with multiple biological targets or disease pathways. Many offer a significant additional benefit compared to the standard treatment regimens. In this paper, we will briefly outline the genesis of polypharmacology and its differences to polytherapy. We will also present leading concepts for obtaining MTDLs. Subsequently, we will describe some successfully marketed drugs, the mechanisms of action of which are based on the interaction with multiple targets. To get an idea, of whether MTDLs are indeed important in contemporary pharmacology, we also carefully analyzed drugs approved in 2022 in Germany: 10 out of them were found multi-targeting, including 7 antitumor agents, 1 antidepressant, 1 hypnotic, and 1 drug indicated for eye disease.

3D Printing Technology as a Promising Tool to Design Nanomedicine-Based Solid Dosage Forms: Contemporary Research and Future Scope

3D printing technology in medicine is gaining great attention from researchers since the FDA approved the first 3D-printed tablet (Spritam®) on the market. This technique permits the fabrication of various types of dosage forms with different geometries and designs. Its feasibility in the design of different types of pharmaceutical dosage forms is very promising for making quick prototypes because it is flexible and does not require expensive equipment or molds. However, the development of multi-functional drug delivery systems, specifically as solid dosage forms loaded with nanopharmaceuticals, has received attention in recent years, although it is challenging for formulators to convert them into a successful solid dosage form. The combination of nanotechnology with the 3D printing technique in the field of medicine has provided a platform to overcome the challenges associated with the fabrication of nanomedicine-based solid dosage forms. Therefore, the major focus of the present manuscript is to review the recent research developments that involved the formulation design of nanomedicine-based solid dosage forms utilizing 3D printing technology. Utilization of 3D printing techniques in the field of nanopharmaceuticals achieved the successful transformation of liquid polymeric nanocapsules and liquid self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDS) to solid dosage forms such as tablets and suppositories easily with customized doses as per the needs of the individual patient (personalized medicine). Furthermore, the present review also highlights the utility of extrusion-based 3D printing techniques (Pressure-Assisted Microsyringe-PAM; Fused Deposition Modeling-FDM) to produce tablets and suppositories containing polymeric nanocapsule systems and SNEDDS for oral and rectal administration. The manuscript critically analyzes contemporary research related to the impact of various process parameters on the performance of 3D-printed solid dosage forms.

(Bio)printing in Personalized Medicine—Opportunities and Potential Benefits

The global development of technologies now enters areas related to human health, with a transition from conventional to personalized medicine that is based to a significant extent on (bio)printing. The goal of this article is to review some of the published scientific literature and to highlight the importance and potential benefits of using 3D (bio)printing techniques in contemporary personalized medicine and also to offer future perspectives in this research field. The article is prepared according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect databases were used in the literature search. Six authors independently performed the search, study selection, and data extraction. This review focuses on 3D bio(printing) in personalized medicine and provides a classification of 3D bio(printing) benefits in several categories: overcoming the shortage of organs for transplantation, elimination of problems due to the difference between sexes in organ transplantation, reducing the cases of rejection of transplanted organs, enhancing the survival of patients with transplantation, drug research and development, elimination of genetic/congenital defects in tissues and organs, and surgery planning and medical training for young doctors. In particular, we highlight the benefits of each 3D bio(printing) applications included along with the associated scientific reports from recent literature. In addition, we present an overview of some of the challenges that need to be overcome in the applications of 3D bioprinting in personalized medicine. The reviewed articles lead to the conclusion that bioprinting may be adopted as a revolution in the development of personalized, medicine and it has a huge potential in the near future to become a gold standard in future healthcare in the world.

Development of depot PLGA-based in-situ implant of Linagliptin: Sustained release and glycemic control

High percentage of diabetic people are diagnosed as type 2 who require daily dosing of an antidiabetic drug such as Linagliptin (Lina) to manage their blood glucose levels. This study aimed to develop injectable Lina-loaded biodegradable poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) in-situ implants (ISIs) to deliver a desired burst effect of Lina followed by a sustained release over several days for controlling the blood glucose levels over prolonged time periods. The morphological, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacodynamic assessments of the Lina-loaded ISIs were performed. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) study revealed the rapid exchange between the water miscible solvent (N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone; NMP) and water during the ISI preparation, hence enhancing the initial burst Lina release. While, triacetin of lower water affinity could lead to formation of more compact and dense ISI structure with slower drug release. By comparing various ISI formulations containing different solvents and different PLGA concentrations, the ISI containing 40 % PLGA and triacetin was selected for its sustained release of Lina (93.06 ± 1.50 %) after 21 days. The pharmacokinetic results showed prolonged half life (t_1/2) and higher area under the curve (AUC) values of the selected Lina-loaded ISI when compared to those of oral Lina preparation. The single Lina-ISI injection produced a hypoglycemic control in the diabetic rats very similar to the daily oral administration of Lina after 7 and 14 days. In conclusion, PLGA-based ISIs confirmed their suitability for prolonging Lina release in patients receiving long-term antidiabetic therapy, thereby achieving more enhanced patient compliance and reduced dosing frequency.