What Is a Snack, Why Do We Snack, and How Can We Choose Better Snacks? A Review of the Definitions of Snacking, Motivations to Snack, Contributions to Dietary Intake, and Recommendations for Improvement

Impact of breakfast consumption timing v. breakfast omission on post-lunch glycaemia and insulinaemia in adolescent girls: a randomised crossover trial

Adolescent girls often skip breakfast due to time constraints and reduced morning appetite. This study examined the acute impact of breakfast consumption timing v. breakfast omission (BO) on glycaemic and insulinaemic responses to lunch in infrequent breakfast-consuming girls. Fifteen girls (13·1 (sd 0·8) years) completed three conditions in a randomised crossover design: early-morning breakfast consumption (EM-BC; 08.30), mid-morning breakfast consumption (MM-BC; 10.30) and BO. A standardised lunch was provided at 12.30, followed by a 2-h post-lunch observation period. Blood and expired gas samples were collected periodically. Linear mixed models with Cohen's d effect sizes compared outcomes between conditions. Pre-lunch glucose and insulin incremental AUC (iAUC) were higher in the breakfast conditions v. BO (P ≤ 0·009), with no differences between breakfast conditions. MM-BC reduced post-lunch glucose iAUC by 36 % and 25 % compared with BO and EM-BC, respectively (P < 0·001, d = 0·92-1·44). A moderate, non-significant 15 % reduction in post-lunch glucose iAUC was seen with EM-BC v. BO (P = 0·077, d = 0·52). These reductions occurred without changes in post-lunch insulinemia (P ≥ 0·323) and were accompanied by increased post-lunch carbohydrate oxidation compared with BO (P ≤ 0·018, d = 0·58-0·75); with no differences between EM-BC and MM-BC. MM-BC lowered glycaemic response over the experimental period compared with BO (P = 0·033, d = 0·98) and EM-BC (P = 0·123, d = 0·93), with no difference between EM-BC and BO. Compared with BO, both breakfast conditions lowered post-lunch glycaemic responses with mid-morning breakfast eliciting a greater second-meal effect than early-morning breakfast. These findings indicate the breakfast-to-lunch meal interval may be a crucial factor affecting postprandial glycaemia in infrequent breakfast-consuming girls.

Taming "hanger" and falling prey to boredom-emotional and stress-eating in 801 healthy individuals using ecological momentary assessment

Emotional eating and Stress Eating concepts hold that affective experiences can instill the desire for palatable foods. The empirical evidence for such couplings between affective and appetitive systems, however, is mixed and it remains unclear which one precedes the other or whether interindividual differences in such relationships exist. To study the temporal relations between a range of negative and positive emotions and stress on the one hand and snacking behavior on the other, we analyzed over 40.000 questionnaire entries obtained through ecological momentary assessment from 801 participants across nine different studies. Several trait-level eating style questionnaire scores were modelled as moderators for the emotion/stress - snacking relationships. Results showed that stronger boredom was followed by more snacking. Only irritation showed the pattern of reduction following snacking that would be predicted by emotion regulation accounts of emotional eating. Restrained eaters showed larger increases in boredom after snacking (compared to not snacking) than unrestrained eaters. Eating style questionnaires did not significantly moderate any other emotion - snacking - emotion relationships. Together with other recent findings from this dataset (Aulbach et al., n.d.) the present results suggest that eating style questionnaires capture tendencies to experience food cravings, but not snacking, as the latter might be 'gated' by several internal and external conditions that our EMA data and the trait questionnaire do not capture well. Accordingly, we suggest a novel terminology for affect-eating relationships that increases precision on the temporal (affects before or after eating/craving) and the phenomenological (snacking, craving) level.

The Effect of Meal Frequency on Body Composition, Biochemical Parameters and Diet Quality in Overweight/Obese Individuals

OBJECTIVES

There is no consensus on the ideal frequency of meals for the prevention and treatment of obesity. While some studies have reported that increasing meal frequency might be beneficial in the treatment of obesity due to its positive effects on glycemic regulation, appetite and diet quality, other studies have reported negative effects. In this study, it was aimed to examine the effect of meal frequency on body composition, anthropometric measurements, some of the biochemical parameters and diet quality in overweight/obese adults.

METHODS

A total of 91 individuals, all overweight/obese, between the ages of 18-64, including 46 consuming 2 main meals (2MMG) and 45 consuming 3 main meals (3MMG) participated in the study. General characteristics and dietary habits of the individuals were obtained with a questionnaire. A 3-day food consumption record was taken to determine their daily energy and nutrient intake and to evaluate their diet quality with the "Healthy Eating Index 2015". Anthropometric measurements of the individuals were performed, body compositions were analyzed and some blood parameters were evaluated.

RESULTS

The median values of body weight, lean body mass (kg), total body water, basal metabolic rate and hip circumference of men in the 3MMG were found to be higher than men in the 2MMG (p < 0.05). The anthropometric measurements and body composition components of women were similar between the two groups (p > 0.05). The renal urea nitrogen and total cholesterol values of women in 2MMG were higher than those of women in the 3MMG. In the regression analysis, a 1-unit increase in the number of main meals was determined to lead to a 9.3 points increase in the total score of HEI 2015.

CONCLUSIONS

Regular consumption of main meals may have positive effects on diet quality, some of the biochemical parameters, basal metabolic rate and body composition in overweight/obese adults. In this group, which is known to have incorrect food preferences in general, it is important to plan the number of meals and the content of these meals correctly.

Healthy snack availability at a large Hispanic-serving university in South Florida

Objective: To audit the snack food environment and evaluate the availability of healthy items campus-wide, investigating high-traffic areas and the ways in which the placement and content of snack outlets may vary across different building types and distance to other food sources. Participants: All snack food vending machines (VM) and convenience stores (CS). Methods: A cross-sectional snack food audit was conducted between June 2019 and January 2022. VMs and CS were rated on the availability and healthfulness of foods and beverages. Frequency and distributions of snacks, healthy snacks, VM scores, building types, enrolled students, and distance to food were analyzed and differences were evaluated. Results: The campus-wide offerings of unhealthy foods in VM ranged from 84-92%, with clusters of buildings with fewer than five healthy items. CS ranked among the least healthy. Conclusions: The snack environment at this large Hispanic-serving university contains predominantly very unhealthy choices. A policy on snack foods is needed to promote healthy eating habits and prevent obesity.

Exploring motivation, goals, facilitators, and barriers to adopt health behaviors at retirement age: a focus group study

BACKGROUND

This study qualitatively investigates retirement-age adults' perspectives on engaging in health behaviors such as physical activity or a healthy diet, distinguishing facilitators, barriers, goals, and motivations (the two later in line with Self-Determination Theory).

METHODS

Two clinical psychologists conducted four focus groups with Spanish adults around retirement age. We conducted inductive and deductive content analysis.

RESULTS

The main facilitators and barriers identified were the presence and absence of social support/social network, mental health, willpower, time, and motivation. Participants reported different types of motivation (e.g., intrinsic motivation in the enjoyment of the activity of exercise or cooking) and goals (intrinsic and extrinsic); except for the goal of health management, which presented both types of motivation, participants regulated intrinsic goals autonomously, and extrinsic ones with controlled motivation. A process of internalizing the source of motivation was identified inductively by participants.

CONCLUSIONS

Facilitating social networks and addressing mental health issues could aid engagement in health behaviors among this population. Additionally, health management appeared as a significant goal, where autonomous motivation can develop even if the behavior initially arises from controlled motivation or external triggers, such as medical advice.

Sugar Composition of Thai Desserts and Their Impact on the Gut Microbiome in Healthy Volunteers: A Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

The relationship between consuming Thai desserts-predominantly composed of carbohydrates-and gut microbiome profiles remains unclear. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of consuming various Thai desserts with different GI values on the gut microbiomes of healthy volunteers.

METHODS

This open-label, parallel randomized clinical trial involved 30 healthy individuals aged 18 to 45 years. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: Phetchaburi's Custard Cake (192 g, low-GI group, n = 10), Saraburi's Curry Puff (98 g, medium-GI group, n = 10), and Lampang's Crispy Rice Cracker (68 g, high-GI group, n = 10), each consumed alongside their standard breakfast. Fecal samples were collected at baseline and 24 h post-intervention for metagenomic analysis of gut microbiome profiles using 16S rRNA gene sequencing.

RESULTS

After 24 h, distinct trends in the relative abundance of various gut microbiota were observed among the dessert groups. In the high-GI dessert group, the abundance of Collinsella and Bifidobacterium decreased compared to the low- and medium-GI groups, while Roseburia and Ruminococcus showed slight increases. Correlation analysis revealed a significant negative relationship between sugar intake and Lactobacillus abundance in the medium- and high-GI groups, but not in the low-GI group. Additionally, a moderately negative association was observed between Akkermansia abundance and sugar intake in the high-GI group. These bacteria are implicated in energy metabolism and insulin regulation. LEfSe analysis identified Porphyromonadaceae and Porphyromonas as core microbiota in the low-GI group, whereas Klebsiella was enriched in the high-GI group, with no predominant bacteria identified in the medium-GI group.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that Thai desserts with varying GI levels can influence specific gut bacteria, though these effects may be temporary.

Comparison of snack characteristics by diet quality findings from a nationally representative study of Australian adolescents

Snacking is a common dietary behaviour among adolescents contributing to more than one quarter of their total energy intake; however, the relationship between snacks and diet quality remains unclear. Hence, this study aimed to examine the characteristics of snacks among adolescents with different levels of diet quality. Dietary data collected from a nationally representative sample of Australian adolescents (12-18 years old, n = 935) using one 24-hour dietary recall in the National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey were analysed. Snacks were defined based on participant-identified eating occasions, and diet quality was assessed using the Dietary Guideline Index for Children and Adolescents (DGI-CA). Marginal means and proportion of snack characteristics including snack frequency, snack energy density (ED), and commonly consumed foods at snack from the five food groups and discretionary foods at snack across DGI-CA tertiles (highest tertile indicating high guideline adherence) were estimated for both boys and girls using linear regression and logistic regression. Differences in means were tested using the F-test. The results showed no significant differences in the mean frequency of snacks across tertiles of DGI-CA scores. The mean ED of snacks decreased as DGI-CA scores increased in both boys (lowest tertile = 8.4, 95% CI [7.1, 10.0] kJ/g, highest tertile = 6.3 [5.4, 7.4] kJ/g) and girls (lowest tertile = 9.0 [7.8, 10.3] kJ/g, highest tertile = 5.9 [5.1, 6.9] kJ/g). As diet quality improved, the proportion of adolescents consuming discretionary (i.e., unhealthy) foods and foods from the five food group foods as snacks decreased and increased, respectively. In conclusion, adolescents with higher diet quality consumed snacks with a lower ED while lower proportion of them consume discretionary foods, and higher proportion of them consume from the five food groups. Encouraging the consumption of foods from the five food groups with lower ED as snacks presents an opportunity to enhance adolescent diet quality.

Effect of microwave vacuum drying time on the quality profiles, microstructures and in vitro digestibility of pork chip snacks

In present study, the quality profiles, microstructures and in vitro digestibility of pork chip snacks (PCS) prepared by microwave vacuum drying (MVD) under different drying times (20, 21, 22, 23, and 24 min) were investigated. The results revealed significant decreases in the moisture content and L*-value of PCS, while the protein/ash contents, a*-value, and b*-value of PCS markedly increased with prolonged MVD time (P < 0.05). Additionally, as MVD time extended from 20 to 24 min, the textural characteristics of PCS, particularly brittleness and crunchiness, initially increased and then gradually decreased (P < 0.05). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images showed that a moderate MVD time (22 min) resulted in the formation of larger pores in PCS, enhancing brittleness and crunchiness. However, excessive MVD time (24 min) led to the melting of these pores, subsequently reducing the brittleness and crunchiness of PCS. Furthermore, in vitro protein digestibility of PCS gradually decreased with increasing MVD time, primarily attributed to increased protein aggregation, as indicated by changes in sulfhydryl contents. In summary, our findings highlight that PCS subjected to 22 min of MVD exhibited the highest overall acceptability. This study provides a novel strategy for the application of MVD in the processing of meat snacks.

Comparative Analysis of Dietary Habits and Obesity Prediction: Body Mass Index versus Body Fat Percentage Classification Using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis

Background: Obesity remains a widely debated issue, often criticized for the limitations in its identification and classification. This study aims to compare two distinct systems for classifying obesity: body mass index (BMI) and body fat percentage (BFP) as assessed by bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA). By examining these measures, the study seeks to clarify how different metrics of body composition influence the identification of obesity-related risk factors. Methods: The study enrolled 1255 adults, comprising 471 males and 784 females, with a mean age of 36 ± 12 years. Participants exhibited varying degrees of weight status, including optimal weight, overweight, and obesity. Body composition analysis was conducted using the TANITA Body Composition Analyzer BC-418 MA III device (T5896, Tokyo, Japan), evaluating the following parameters: current weight, basal metabolic rate (BMR), adipose tissue (%), muscle mass (%), and hydration status (%). Results: Age and psychological factors like cravings, fatigue, stress, and compulsive eating were significant predictors of obesity in the BMI model but not in the BFP model. Additionally, having a family history of diabetes was protective in the BMI model (OR: 0.33, 0.11-0.87) but increased risk in the BFP model (OR: 1.66, 1.01-2.76). The BMI model demonstrates exceptional predictive ability (AUC = 0.998). In contrast, the BFP model, while still performing well, exhibits a lower AUC (0.975), indicating slightly reduced discriminative power compared to the BMI model. Conclusions: BMI classification demonstrates superior predictive accuracy, specificity, and sensitivity. This suggests that BMI remains a more reliable measure for identifying obesity-related risk factors compared to the BFP model.

Dietary Habits, Awareness, and Knowledge among Polish Healthcare Providers and Healthcare Students

Background/Objectives: Nutrition plays a significant role in preventive medicine, as up to 80% of chronic diseases could be avoided by adhering to healthy dietary principles. The aim of our study was to identify dietary habits, awareness, and nutrition knowledge in a random sample of Polish healthcare students and professionals. Methods: Initially, a total screened sample consisted of 1287 respondents, yet the actual response/participation rate was 634/1287. A validated questionnaire for the Polish population, the Dietary Habits and Nutrition Beliefs Questionnaire (KomPAN), was used for the assessment. Results: The majority of respondents were females (84.2% of medical students and 87.2% of healthcare professionals), current non-smokers (79.6% of medical students and 85.2% of healthcare professionals), and had a normal waist circumference (76.3% of medical students and 63.1% of healthcare professionals). Both clinical dieticians and students studying clinical dietetics received significantly different scores of dietary indexes (pro-healthy pHDI-10 and non-healthy nHDI-14) vs. respective groups of respondents. Both healthcare students and professionals who self-reported better nutritional knowledge indeed yielded significantly better results in the dietary indexes as well as nutritional knowledge scores. The nutrition knowledge score was positively correlated with pHDI-10 and negatively correlated with nHDI-14, BMI, age, and waist circumference. Conclusions: Our results illustrate lifestyle trends among Polish healthcare students and professionals, and such results should encourage the development of evidence-based dietary policies targeting healthcare providers. High-quality continuing nutrition education should be obligatorily provided to all healthcare providers to enhance their dietary awareness as well as ensure high quality of care and outcomes achieved by the Polish healthcare system.

Factors influencing the maternal choice of packaged snacks for 6-10 years old children: A cross-sectional study from Sri Lanka

Childhood overweight and obesity due to unhealthy diet result in several adverse effects. Mothers play a major role in selecting snacks for younger children. This study assessed the factors associated with the choice of packaged food/beverage snacks among mothers of 6- to 10-year-old children in the Medical Officer of Health area Balangoda. A community-based descriptive cross-sectional study with an analytical component was conducted in 2022 among 450 mothers with 6- to 10-year-old children through two-stage, stratified (year of birth considered as a stratum), simple random sampling technique in ten randomly selected Public Health Midwife areas in the medical officer of health area Balangoda. An interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to assess participants' sociodemographic, usual practices, attitudes, and knowledge toward packaged snacks. Factors associated with maternal practices related to packaged snack selection were assessed through the chi-square test at the p<0.05 significance level. The response rate was 99.3% (N = 447). Children were commonly provided with biscuits (94.4%) and flavoured milk (44.7%) daily (66.4%) at home (93.5%). The majority of mothers reported poor practices in selecting packaged snacks (88.8%), but good knowledge (62.9%) and favorable attitudes (93.5%) toward packaged snacks. The majority (75.5%) were aware that snacks are important for overcoming the hunger gap among children. Childs' preference (77.6%) was the leading influencing factor while, the nutritional value of the packaged snacks minimally influenced the maternal (2.7%) choice. Only 49.9% mothers knew that packaged fruits could be consumed as snacks. Maternal Sinhalese ethnicity (p<0.001), secondary or higher education (p<0.001), having one child (p = 0.003), residing in a rural or urban area (p = 0.011) and having favourable attitudes (p = 0.002) were significantly associated with poor maternal practices in packaged snack selection. Although mothers' knowledge toward packaged snacks were good, their practices in selecting packaged snacks were poor. Maternal ethnicity, educational level, number of children, area of residence and attitudes were significantly associated with mothers' selection of packaged snacks. The results of the study highlighted the need to plan, develop and implement focused health promotion programmes to empower mothers to select healthier packaged snack options for their 6- to 10-year-old children.

Evaluation of daily eating patterns on overall diet quality using decision tree analyses

BACKGROUND

Preliminary evidence suggests that meal timing is associated with higher quality diets. Less is known about whether types of food consumed during specific eating episodes (i.e., day-level eating patterns) predict diet quality.

OBJECTIVES

We investigated the association between day-level eating patterns and diet quality.

METHODS

Decision tree models were built using 24-h dietary recall data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2015 and 2017 cycles in a cross-sectional study. Sixteen food groups and 12 eating episodes (e.g., breakfast, lunch) were included as input parameters. Diet quality was scored using the Healthy Eating Index-2020 and categorized as higher or lower quality diets based on the median score. Mean decrease in impurity (MDI) ± standard deviation determined the relative contribution that day-level eating patterns had on diet quality; higher values represented greater contributions.

RESULTS

We analyzed 12,597 dietary recalls from 9347 United States adults who were aged 18 y and older with ≥1 complete recall. Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner) and respective snacking episodes had the greatest variety of dietary groups that contributed to the Healthy Eating Index-2020 score. Any whole-grain intake at breakfast predicted a higher quality diet (MDI = 0.08 ± 0.00), followed by lower solid fat intake (<8.94 g; MDI = 0.07 ± 0.00) and any plant protein intake at dinner (MDI = 0.05 ± 0.00).

CONCLUSIONS

Day-level eating patterns were associated with diet quality, emphasizing the relevance of both food type and timing in relation to a high-quality diet. Future interventions should investigate the potential impact of targeting food type and timing to improve diet quality.

Taste sensitivities mediate differential snack choices across BMI groups: a study with New Zealand young male individuals

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to: 1) test for the link between snack choices and BMI using a novel sensory-based classification method; and 2) elucidate the role of gustatory sensitivity in orienting snack choices.

METHODS

The study employed a dual approach involving sensory and nutritional assessments. Ninety-eight European male individuals were tested for gustatory sensitivities to sweetness, saltiness, umami, and lipid perception. Participant food intake was measured over 4 days. A separate cohort of 327 participants categorized the recorded snacks based on taste patterns, enabling profiling of snack choices across body-weight groups.

RESULTS

Results showed clear differentiations in snack choices across the BMI groups: Individuals with a higher BMI consumed more "Sweet" and "Sweet+Fat" snacks and less "Savory" snacks compared with the lower-BMI group (p < 0.05). Mediation analyses confirmed a significant effect of gustatory sensitivity, showing that the greater choice for "Sweet" and "Sweet+Fat" snacks among those with a higher BMI was mediated by sensitivities to sweetness and lipid perception (p = 0.008-0.044).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study revealed that gustatory sensitivity can mediate the relationship between BMI and energy consumption from different snacks. These findings highlight the significance of taste perception in shaping snack choice, suggesting potential strategies for interventions aimed at addressing gustatory sensitivity to promote healthier dietary preferences.

Within- and between-person associations of time-varying determinants with snacking in older adults: an ecological momentary assessment study

Promoting healthy snacking is important in addressing malnutrition, overweight and obesity among an ageing population. However, little is known about the factors underlying snacking behaviour in older adults. The present study aimed to explore within- and between-person associations between determinants (i.e. intention, visibility of snacks, social modelling and emotions) and snacking behaviours (i.e. decision to snack, health factor of the snack and portion size) in older adults (60+). Conducting a two-part intensive longitudinal design, data were analysed from forty-eight healthy older adults consisting of (1) an event-based self-report ecological momentary assessment (EMA) diary every time they had a snack and (2) a time-based EMA questionnaire on their phone five times per day. Analysis through generalised linear mixed models indicated that higher intention to snack healthily leads to healthier snacking while higher levels of social modelling and cheerfulness promote unhealthier choices within individuals. At the between-person level, similar results were found for intention and social modelling. Visibility of a snack increased portion size at both a within- and between-person level, while the intention to eat a healthy snack only increased portion size at the between-person level. No associations were found between the decision to snack and all determinants. This is the first study to investigate both within- and between-person associations between time-varying determinants and snacking in older adults. Such information holds the potential for incorporation into just-in-time adaptive interventions, allowing for personalised tailoring, more effective promotion of healthier snacking behaviours and thus pursuing the challenge of healthy ageing.

Nutritional Quality of the Mid-Afternoon Snack of Schooled Children between the Ages of 3 and 12 Years in Three Areas in Spain

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to analyze the nutritional quality of mid-afternoon snacks for schooled children aged 3 to 12 years in three areas of Catalonia (Spain).

METHODS

A descriptive observational study collected information on habits and the mid-afternoon snack of 782 schooled children aged 3 to 12 years in three cities, Barcelona, Girona, and Lleida, located in Catalonia (Spain). The children's families voluntarily agreed to complete an online questionnaire that collected information about demographic data and snacking habits in the afternoon, as well as a record of mid-afternoon snack intake over three school days.

RESULTS

A total of 2163 mid-afternoon snacks were analyzed from a sample of 764 families with 3 to 12 year-old children. Sandwiches emerged as the most prevalent choice, accounting for 41.89%, followed by pastries at 23.86%, fruit at 14.38%, and a combination of fruit and pastries at 6.29%. Of the mid-afternoon snacks recorded, 22.19% were healthy, 20.90% were quite healthy, 12.85% were quite unhealthy, and 44.06% were unhealthy.

CONCLUSIONS

The nutritional quality of mid-afternoon snacks for a large majority of schooled children should be improved. It is essential to develop food education programs to improve the quality of this intake from early childhood and to consider it as an opportunity to adjust the daily dietary requirements of Spanish children.

Self-perceived food literacy in relation to the quality of overall diet and main meals: A cross-sectional study in Japanese adults

This cross-sectional study aimed to assess the relationship between self-perceived food literacy (SPFL) and quality of overall diet and main meals in Japanese adults. In total, 5998 adults aged 20-79 years were included in this analysis. The SPFL was assessed using the Japanese version of the 29-item Dutch SPFL scale (score range 1-5). Using validated dietary information, the Healthy Eating Index-2015 (HEI-2015) was calculated (score range 0-100). The mean SPFL was 3.18; the internal consistency of the overall scale was considered good (Cronbach's alpha: 0.80). The mean HEI-2015 for overall diet was 50.4. The SPFL was significantly and positively associated with the HEI-2015. Using multiple linear regression, one point increase of SPFL corresponded to an increase in HEI-2015 by a point of 4.8 for overall diet, 6.2 for breakfast, 4.6 for lunch, and 3.6 for dinner (all P < 0.0001). Six of the eight domains of SPFL (i.e., food preparation skills, resilience and resistance, healthy snack styles, examining food labels, healthy budgeting, and healthy food stockpiling) were significantly associated with the HEI-2015 for overall diet. When the HEI-2015 for each meal was examined, the domains showing significant associations with all three meals included food preparation skills, healthy snack styles, and healthy budgeting. The healthy food stockpiling was associated with the HEI-2015 for breakfast and lunch, but not dinner. The social and conscious eating and daily food planning were associated with the breakfast HEI-2015 only, with the resilience and resistance associated with the dinner HEI-2015 only. In conclusion, the SPFL was cross-sectionally associated with the quality of overall diet and main meals in Japanese adults. Further observation and intervention studies are needed to confirm the associations observed here.

Antimicrobial Activity of Grapefruit Seed Extract on Edible Mushrooms Contaminations: Efficacy in Preventing Pseudomonas spp. in Pleurotus eryngii

Pleurotus eryngii is an edible mushroom that suffers significant losses due to fungal contamination and bacteriosis. The Pseudomonadaceae family represents one of the most frequent etiologic agents. Grapefruit seed extract (GSE) is a plant extract that contains different bioactive components, such as naringin, and exhibits a strong antibacterial and antioxidant activity. Over the last decade, GSE use as an alternative to chemical treatments in the food sector has been tested. However, to our knowledge, its application on mushroom crops has never been investigated. This study focuses on evaluating GSE efficacy in preventing P. eryngii yellowing. GSE antibiotic activity, inhibitory and bactericidal concentrations, and antibiofilm activity against several microorganisms were tested with the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion assay, the broth microdilution susceptibility test, and the Crystal violet assay, respectively. In vitro, the extract exhibited antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity against Staphylococcus aureus 6538 and MRSA (wild type), Escherichia coli ATCC 8739, and Pseudomonas spp. (Pseudomonas aeruginosa 9027, P. fluorescens (wild type)). GSE application in vivo, in pre- and post-sprouting stages, effectively prevented bacterial infections and subsequent degradation in the mushroom crops: none of the P. eryngii treated manifested bacteriosis. Our findings support the use of GSE as an eco-friendly and sustainable alternative to chemical treatments for protecting P. eryngii crops from bacterial contamination, consequently ensuring food safety and preventing financial losses due to spoilage. Furthermore, GSE's potential health benefits due to its content in naringin and other bioactive components present new possibilities for its use as a nutraceutical in food fortification and supplementation.

Food insecurity is associated with low diet quality and unhealthy cooking and eating habits in Iranian women

BACKGROUND

Food insecurity affects diet and nutrition intakes. We explored the relationship between food insecurity and dietary intakes in a group of Iranian women.

METHODS

The cross-sectional study was performed on 190 healthy females aged 20-55 years attending primary healthcare centers in Shiraz. Food insecurity was evaluated by Household Food Insecurity Access Scale, which is a validated tool for assessing food insecurity in developing countries. Diet was assessed using a food frequency questionnaire. The association of dietary patterns and food insecurity was assessed by linear regression.

RESULTS

Assessment of dietary intakes revealed that consumption of red meat, poultry, fish, dairy, fruits, non-starchy vegetables, and nuts decreased whereas that of grains, processed meats, potato, and sugary foods increased with increasing food insecurity. Among nutrients, carbohydrates, fiber, vitamin A, vitamin C, folic acid, potassium, calcium, and magnesium decreased while fat and sodium increased as food insecurity increased. Three major dietary patterns were detected. Healthy dietary patterns showed inverse associations with food insecurity in the crude (β = -0.422 and - 0.435, P < 0.001) and adjusted (adjusted for age, marital status, and educational level) (β = -0.475 and - 0.341, P < 0.001) models of regression analysis but unhealthy pattern did not show an association with food insecurity. Compared to food secure participants, a higher percentage of food insecure individuals indicated unhealthy eating habits, such as skipping breakfast, lower snack ingestion, more fast and fried food consumption, and using unhealthy cooking methods.

CONCLUSION

Overall, this study showed that food insecurity was associated with less healthy diet and unhealthy cooking and eating habits.

Mediterranean lifestyle index and 24-h systolic blood pressure and heart rate in community-dwelling older adults

Specific foods, nutrients, dietary patterns, and physical activity are associated with lower blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR), but little is known about the joint effect of lifestyle factors captured in a multidimensional score. We assessed the association of a validated Mediterranean-lifestyle (MEDLIFE) index with 24-h-ambulatory BP and HR in everyday life among community-living older adults. Data were taken from 2,184 individuals (51% females, mean age: 71.4 years) from the Seniors-ENRICA-2 cohort. The MEDLIFE index consisted of 29 items arranged in three blocks: 1) Food consumption; 2) Dietary habits; and 3) Physical activity, rest, and conviviality. A higher MEDLIFE score (0-29 points) represented a better Mediterranean lifestyle adherence. 24-h-ambulatory BP and HR were obtained with validated oscillometric devices. Analyses were performed with linear regression adjusted for the main confounders. The MEDLIFE-highest quintile (vs Q1) was associated with lower nighttime systolic BP (SBP) (-3.17 mmHg [95% CI: -5.25, -1.08]; p-trend = 0.011), greater nocturnal-SBP fall (1.67% [0.51, 2.83]; p-trend = 0.052), and lower HR (-2.04 bpm [daytime], -2.33 bpm [nighttime], and -1.93 bpm [24-h]; all p-trend < 0.001). Results were similar for each of the three blocks of MEDLIFE and by hypertension status (yes/no). Among older adults, higher adherence to MEDLIFE was associated with lower nighttime SBP, greater nocturnal-SBP fall, and lower HR in their everyday life. These results suggest a synergistic BP-related protection from the components of the Mediterranean lifestyle. Future studies should determine whether these results replicate in older adults from other Mediterranean and non-Mediterranean countries.

Eating patterns in Korean adults, 1998-2018: increased energy contribution of ultra-processed foods in main meals and snacks

PURPOSE

Unfavorable changes in eating patterns over time may contribute to upward trends in chronic diseases, such as obesity. We examined 20-year trends in the percentage of energy from main meals and snacks and the food sources of each eating occasion among Korean adults.

METHODS

This study used nationally representative data from the 1st, 4th, and 7th Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (1998, 2007-2009, and 2016-2018) among adults aged 20-69 years (n = 29,389). Each eating occasion (breakfast, lunch, dinner, and snacks) was defined by respondents during a 24-h dietary recall interview. To identify the food sources of each eating occasion, we used the NOVA system. The percentage of energy at each eating occasion and that from each NOVA group across survey cycles were estimated, and tests for linear trends were conducted using orthogonal polynomial contrasts in linear regression models. All analyses accounted for the complex survey design.

RESULTS

After adjusting for age and sex, the percentage of energy from breakfast decreased from 25.0% in 1998 to 16.7% in 2018 (difference, - 8.2%; standard error [SE], 0.3), whereas that from dinner and snacks increased from 31.1 to 33.8% (difference, + 2.7%; SE, 0.4) and from 14.0 to 19.0% (difference, + 5.0%; SE, 0.5), respectively (all P < 0.001). At all eating occasions, the percentage of energy from minimally processed foods declined (difference, - 18.6% for breakfast; - 13.1% for lunch; - 21.1% for dinner; - 20.7% for snacks), while that from ultra-processed foods increased (difference, + 17.0% for breakfast; + 11.3% for lunch; + 18.0% for dinner; + 30.7% for snacks). When stratified by age, the given trends were shown to a greater extent in younger adults (< 50 years old) than in older adults (≥ 50 years old).

CONCLUSIONS

The eating patterns of Korean adults changed from 1998 to 2018, with the greatest decrease in energy intake from breakfast and the greatest increase from snacking. At all eating occasions, the contribution of minimally processed foods declined, while that of ultra-processed foods increased, especially among younger adults.

Snack quality and snack timing are associated with cardiometabolic blood markers: the ZOE PREDICT study

BACKGROUND

Snacking is a common diet behaviour which accounts for a large proportion of daily energy intake, making it a key determinant of diet quality. However, the relationship between snacking frequency, quality and timing with cardiometabolic health remains unclear.

DESIGN

Demography, diet, health (fasting and postprandial cardiometabolic blood and anthropometrics markers) and stool metagenomics data were assessed in the UK PREDICT 1 cohort (N = 1002) (NCT03479866). Snacks (foods or drinks consumed between main meals) were self-reported (weighed records) across 2-4 days. Average snacking frequency and quality [snack diet index (SDI)] were determined (N = 854 after exclusions). Associations between snacking frequency, quality and timing with cardiometabolic blood and anthropometric markers were assessed using regression models (adjusted for age, sex, BMI, education, physical activity level and main meal quality).

RESULTS

Participants were aged (mean, SD) 46.1 ± 11.9 years, had a mean BMI of 25.6 ± 4.88 kg/m2 and were predominantly female (73%). 95% of participants were snackers (≥ 1 snack/day; n = 813); mean daily snack intake was 2.28 snacks/day (24 ± 16% of daily calories; 203 ± 170 kcal); and 44% of participants were discordant for meal and snack quality. In snackers, overall snacking frequency and quantity of snack energy were not associated with cardiometabolic risk markers. However, lower snack quality (SDI range 1-11) was associated with higher blood markers, including elevated fasting triglycerides (TG (mmol/L) β; - 0.02, P = 0.02), postprandial TGs (6hiAUC (mmol/L.s); β; - 400, P = 0.01), fasting insulin (mIU/L) (β; - 0.15, P = 0.04), insulin resistance (HOMA-IR; β; - 0.04, P = 0.04) and hunger (scale 0-100) (β; - 0.52, P = 0.02) (P values non-significant after multiple testing adjustments). Late-evening snacking (≥ 9 pm; 31%) was associated with lower blood markers (HbA1c; 5.54 ± 0.42% vs 5.46 ± 0.28%, glucose 2hiAUC; 8212 ± 5559 vs 7321 ± 4928 mmol/L.s, P = 0.01 and TG 6hiAUC; 11,638 ± 8166 vs 9781 ± 6997 mmol/L.s, P = 0.01) compared to all other snacking times (HbA1c remained significant after multiple testing).

CONCLUSION

Snack quality and timing of consumption are simple diet features which may be targeted to improve diet quality, with potential health benefits.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRY NUMBER AND WEBSITE

NCT03479866, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03479866?term=NCT03479866&draw=2&rank=1.

Sensing the Snacking Experience: Bodily Sensations Linked to the Consumption of Healthy and Unhealthy Snack Foods-A Comparison between Body Mass Index Levels

The World Health Organisation (WHO) has highlighted the need for immediate action regarding the escalating global prevalence of overweight and obesity. Based on the need for long-term strategies supporting dietary behaviour changes, the concept of 'interoception' (i.e., sensing the body's internal state) has been proposed as promising for understanding and controlling food intake behaviours. As eating behaviours are motivated by the need for securing energy demands as well as the desire for pleasure, investigating the bodily sensations perceived in relation to food consumption can support our understanding of human food and eating behaviours. Here, a consumer study was conducted on 286 Danish consumers to explore the interoceptive experience of snack food consumption. This study included an investigation of the consumers' interoceptive capabilities and ability to feel pleasure, intuitive eating behaviours, snack food consumption frequency, the drivers of snack food consumption, food-related pleasure, and post-ingestive sensations linked to snack food consumption. The study was conducted on consumers with different Body Mass Index (BMI) levels to study potential differences between these groups. The study showed normal interoceptive capabilities and abilities to feel pleasure, with no differences between BMI groups. Regarding intuitive eating, the study found intuitive eating to be more prevalent among the group holding normal BMI. No significant differences between BMI groups were found in terms of snack intake frequency. However, differences between BMI groups were found in terms of: the drivers of snack consumption, the aspects bringing food-related pleasure from snack consumption, and the post-ingestive sensations felt after eating snack foods.

Nutrient Density, Added Sugar, and Fiber Content of Commercially Available Fruit Snacks in the United States from 2017 to 2022

Fruit snacks have become a popular and convenient snacking choice and have the potential to contribute to a well-balanced diet. However, the nutritional quality of fruit snack products has not yet been studied. The objective of the present study is to provide a nutritional assessment of the fruit snack product category. This study used the Mintel Global New Product Database to collect data about fruit snack products launched in the United States from 2017 to 2022. Fruit snack products (n = 2405) are divided into nine product categories based on product characteristics. Nutrition composition was assessed using a comprehensive score, Nutrient Rich Food (NRF) model, and by examining individual components (added sugar and fiber). The results show that dried fruit has the highest nutrient density, fiber content, and the lowest added sugar content. Conversely, fruit-flavored snacks have the lowest nutrient density, fiber content, and added sugar content. Currently, fruit puree, canned fruit with juice, and dried fruit are the only fruit snacks that meet the current recommendations set by the USDA Dietary Guidelines. Future directions for the fruit snack category should consider decreasing the added sugar content, increasing the fiber content, and enhancing their sensory profile to improve the overall nutrient density.

Reasons for meal termination, eating frequency, and typical meal context differ between persons with and without a spinal cord injury

Overeating associated with neurogenic obesity after spinal cord injury (SCI) may be related to how persons with SCI experience satiation (processes leading to meal termination), their eating frequency, and the context in which they eat their meals. In an online, cross-sectional study, adults with (n = 688) and without (Controls; n = 420) SCI completed the Reasons Individuals Stop Eating Questionnaire-15 (RISE-Q-15), which measures individual differences in the experience of factors contributing to meal termination on five scales: Physical Satisfaction, Planned Amount, Decreased Food Appeal, Self-Consciousness, and Decreased Priority of Eating. Participants also reported weekly meal and snack frequency and who prepares, serves, and eats dinner with them at a typical dinner meal. Analysis revealed that while Physical Satisfaction, Planned Amount, and Decreased Food Appeal were reported as the most frequent drivers of meal termination in both groups, scores for the RISE-Q-15 scales differed across the groups. Compared to Controls, persons with SCI reported Physical Satisfaction and Planned Amount as drivers of meal termination less frequently, and Decreased Food Appeal and Decreased Priority of Eating more frequently (all p < 0.001). This suggests that persons with SCI rely less on physiological satiation cues for meal termination than Controls and instead rely more on hedonic cues. Compared to Controls, persons with SCI less frequently reported preparing and serving dinner meals and less frequently reported eating alone (all p < 0.001), indicating differences in meal contexts between groups. Individuals with SCI reported consuming fewer meals than Controls but reported a higher overall eating frequency due to increased snacking (p ≤ 0.015). A decrease in the experience of physical fullness, along with a dependence on a communal meal context and frequent snacking, likely contribute to overeating associated with neurogenic obesity after SCI.

Association between body weight misperception and snacking patterns among adolescents: a population-based cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Unhealthy snacking behaviors and body weight misperception are both significant concerns in adolescent health. Weight misperception are common among youth and may influence their motivation to engage in health-related behaviors, however, the effect on snacking patterns choice remains unclear. Our study aimed to examine the relationship between body weight misperception and snacking pattern choice among school adolescents.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted using an online survey platform. Body weight misperception was defined based on perceived body weight and true weight. Snack intake was measured using a qualitative food-frequency questionnaire. Factor analysis was used to identify snacking patterns, and multiple linear regression was employed to examine the association between body weight misperception and snacking patterns.

RESULTS

190,296 students with the average age of 13.3 ± 1.0 years was included, and 44.5% of students misperceived their weight. Overestimation was more prevalent than underestimation. Two snacking patterns, namely a high-calorie snacking pattern and a healthy snacking pattern, were identified with eigenvalues > 1. Weight underestimation was positively linked to high-calorie snacking pattern scores for both normal weight students (β: 0.16, 95% CI: 0.11, 0.21) and students with overweight/obesity (β: 0.44, 95% CI: 0.35, 0.52), and to healthy snacking scores for students with overweight/obesity (β: 0.28, 95% CI: 0.22, 0.33), but negatively linked to healthy snacking pattern scores for normal weight students (β: -0.12, 95% CI: -0.15, -0.09). Conversely, weight overestimation was negatively linked to both high-calorie and healthy snacking pattern scores for normal weight students (β: -0.07, 95% CI: -0.11, -0.04 and β: -0.13, 95% CI: -0.15, -0.10), but positively linked to healthy snacking scores for underweight students (β: 0.15, 95% CI: 0.08, 0.21). Interactions were found between sex, grade, accommodation, only child, primary guardians, parental education level and weight misperception to snacking patterns.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescents with normal weight and overweight/obesity who misperceived their weight exhibited less healthy snacking patterns, whereas underweight students who misperceived their weight displayed healthier snacking patterns. Comprehensive programs are crucial to educate and guide adolescents in understanding their weight status and making healthier snack choices, involving families, schools, and society.

Snack consumption frequency of children and adults in the Vaal region of Gauteng, South Africa

Background

Energy-dense, nutrient-poor snacks are associated with an increased risk of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and the double burden of malnutrition, especially among poor communities.

Aim

To determine and compare the snacking preferences and consumption frequency of children and adults from a low SES community in South Africa.

Setting

A preschool, primary school, and an elderly centre in Gauteng.

Methods

A cross-sectional study with a convenience sample of 90 children (3-8 years) and 100 adults (≥ 18 years) to assess snack consumption frequency and preferences of children and adults by means of a snack survey. Mann-Whitney U test was used to determine the differences in preferences and snack consumption frequency of children and adults.

Results

The most preferred and consumed snacks included fruits, potato chips, corn chips, sweets, and cookies. Children frequently ate more potato chips (p < 0.001), corn chips (p < 0.001), cheese curls (p < 0.001), and muffins (p = 0.024) than adults. In contrast, adults frequently consumed more peanuts or nuts (p = 0.024), savoury biscuits (p = 0.048) and biltong (p < 0.001) than children.

Conclusion

Apart from fruits, the most preferred and frequently consumed snacks by the sample were highly processed snacks, which are low in fibre and high in added sugars, saturated fat, and sodium.

Contributions

Findings from this study highlight current snack trends and can guide future nutrition education interventions on healthy snacking and in developing nutritious snacks for the South African community.

Snack frequency, size, and energy density are associated with diet quality among US adolescents

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate snacking and diet quality among US adolescents.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional analysis examined snack frequency (snacks/day), size (kcal/snack) and energy density (kcal/g/snack) as predictors of diet quality using the mean of two 24-h dietary recalls. Diet quality was assessed using the Healthy Eating Index (HEI-2015, 0-100), a mean adequacy ratio (MAR, 0-100) for under-consumed nutrients (potassium, fibre, Ca, vitamin D) and mean percentage of recommended limits for over-consumed nutrients (added sugar, saturated fat, Na). Linear regression models examined total snacks, food only snacks and beverage only snacks, as predictors of diet quality adjusting for demographic characteristics and estimated energy reporting accuracy.

SETTING

2007-2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.

PARTICIPANTS

Adolescents 12-19 years (n 4985).

RESULTS

Snack frequency was associated with higher HEI-2015 (β = 0·7 (0·3), P < 0·05) but also with higher intake of over-consumed nutrients (β = 3·0 (0·8), P ≤ 0·001). Snack size was associated with lower HEI (β = -0·005 (0·001), P ≤ 0·001) and MAR (β = -0·005 (0·002), P < 0·05) and higher intake of over-consumed nutrients (β = 0·03 (0·005), P ≤ 0·001). Associations differed for food only and beverage only snacks. Food only snack frequency was associated with higher HEI-2015 (β = 1·7 (0·03), P ≤ 0·001), while food only snack size (β = -0·006 (0·0009), P ≤ 0·001) and food only snack energy density (β = -1·1 (0·2), P ≤ 0·001) were associated with lower HEI-2015. Conversely, beverage only snack frequency (β = 4·4 (2·1) P < 0·05) and beverage only snack size (β = 0·03 (0·01), P ≤ 0·001) were associated with higher intake of over-consumed nutrients.

CONCLUSIONS

Smaller, frequent, less energy-dense food only snacks are associated with higher diet quality in adolescents; beverages consumed as snacks are associated with greater intake of over-consumed nutrients.

Snacks contribute considerably to total dietary intakes among adults stratified by glycemia in the United States

Little is known about the snacking patterns among adults with type 2 diabetes. The contribution of snacks to energy and nutrient intakes is important to further understand dietary patterns and glycemic control. The purpose of this study is to evaluate snack consumption among adults according to diabetes status in the United States. One NHANES 24-hour dietary recall for each participant collected between 2005-2016 was utilized for analysis (n = 23,708). Analysis of covariance was used to compare differences in nutrient and food groups intakes from snacks across levels of glycemic control, while controlling for age, race/ethnicity, income, marital status, and gender. Results of this analysis inform that adults with type 2 diabetes consume less energy, carbohydrates, and total sugars from snacks than adults without diabetes. Those with controlled type 2 diabetes consumed more vegetables and less fruit juice than other groups, yet adults with type 2 diabetes in general consumed more cured and luncheon meats than adults without diabetes or with prediabetes. Protein from all snacks for those without diabetes is higher than all other groups. This study elucidates common snacking patterns among US adults with diabetes and highlights the need for clinicians and policymakers to take snacking into consideration when evaluating and providing dietary recommendations.

The role of attention and health goals in nudging healthy food choice

Introduction

Nudging is a promising intervention technique that supports people in pursuing their healthy eating goals. Recent research suggests that, despite previous assumptions, disclosure of the presence of a nudge does not compromise nudge effectiveness. However, it is unknown whether attention to a nudge affects nudge effects. We assessed the role of attention systematically, by examining explicit and implicit attention to nudges, while also exploring healthy eating goals as a potential moderator.

Methods

Participants were assigned to a nudge (i.e., a shopping basket inlay with pictures of healthy items) or control condition (i.e., a shopping basket inlay with neutral pictures) and chose a snack in an experimental supermarket field study. Explicit and implicit attention (with a mobile eye-tracker) to nudges, healthiness of snack choice, and healthy eating goals were assessed.

Results

Results showed that attention to the nudge did not hamper the nudge's effect. Furthermore, individuals with strong healthy eating goals made healthier food choices in the nudge condition. Individuals with weak to non-existent healthy eating goals were not influenced by the nudge.

Discussion

Findings are in line with the viewpoint that nudging does not by definition work 'in the dark', and suggests that nudges support people in adhering to their healthy eating goal.

Effects of a health versus hedonic mindset on daily-life snacking behaviour

BACKGROUND

In today's obesogenic environment high-caloric palatable foods are omnipresent, making it hard for many to reach and maintain a healthy body weight. This study investigates the effects of a health versus hedonic mindset on daily-life snacking behaviour. The hypothesis is that a health mindset leads to reduced snacking behaviour compared to a hedonic mindset. This effect is expected to be most pronounced with high dietary restraint and least pronounced with high trait self-control.

METHODS

For 3 weeks, degree of craving and amount of snacks that were craved and consumed were assessed four times a day, using smartphone Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA). A total of 111 female participants (body mass index range: 20-23.5) were randomly assigned to a 1-week health (n = 53) or hedonic (n = 58) mindset, occurring in week 2 of the EMA protocol. The mindset manipulations consisted of text messages, focusing either on the enjoyment of tasty food (hedonic) or on healthy living and eating (health).

RESULTS

contrary to our hypotheses, mindset did not affect snacking behaviour. Instead, degree of craving and intake of snacks reduced significantly over time, not moderated by mindset, dietary restraint (Restraint Scale) or trait self-control (Brief Self-Control Scale). Importantly, this was not due to reduced compliance. Possibly, the reduced craving and snacking behaviour were due to monitoring and/or socially desirable answering tendencies. Additional time point analyses showed that craving was strongest in the late afternoon (3:30-5:00 PM), and-across mindset conditions-degree of craving correlated negatively with trait self-control.

CONCLUSIONS

future studies could manipulate degree of monitoring and design individually tailored manipulations.

The patterns and position of snacking in children in aged 2-12 years: A scoping review

BACKGROUND

Childhood obesity is associated with serious comorbidities during childhood and into adulthood. One potential risk factor for childhood obesity is consumption of unhealthy, energy-dense foods. This scoping review examines evidence on snacking in children aged 2-12 years of age and presents the patterns and position of snacking in children's diets.

METHODS

A search of electronic databases (MEDLINE, Web of Science, PubMed, Embase) for articles published from March 2011 to November 2022 was conducted. Articles providing insight into the position of snacking (e.g., energy contribution), or patterns (e.g., location, timing), in children aged 2-12 years were included. A quality assessment was conducted and data was synthesised according to data source (nationally representative or other).

RESULTS

Twenty-one articles were included, most (n = 13) reporting nationally representative data. The average number of daily snacks was 3, with 92.9-100.0% of children consuming snacks. Most were consumed in the afternoon (75.2-84.0%) and at home (46.5-67.3%). Snacks frequently consumed were 'fruits and vegetables', 'baked desserts', 'sweets, candy and confectionery', and 'dairy products'. Snacks contributed 231-565 kcal daily, up to a third of daily carbohydrate intake, a quarter of fat intake, and a fifth of protein intake. Snacks provided up to one third of vitamin C intake, one quarter of vitamin E, potassium and magnesium intake, and a fifth of calcium, folic acid, vitamins D and B12, iron and sodium intake.

DISCUSSION

This scoping review provides insight into patterns and position of snacking within children's diets. Snacking plays a significant role in children's diets with multiple snacking occasions occurring throughout a child's day, the overconsumption of which has the potential to increase risk of childhood obesity. Further research is required into the role of snacking, particularly specific foods playing a role in micronutrient intake, and clear guidance for snacking intake in children.

Snacking practices from infancy to adolescence: parental perspectives from longitudinal lived experience research in England

Consumption of snacks and ultra-processed foods (UPF) high in fat, salt and sugar (HFSS) is associated with rising rates of obesity and growing socioeconomic disparities in nutrition. While infancy, childhood and adolescence are critical periods for development of dietary preferences, there remains a dearth of research exploring factors that underpin snacking behaviour over this time. This review aims to address this gap by drawing from qualitative lived experience research, with 122 families of different socioeconomic position (SEP), to explore how the (i) home food environment, (ii) food environment and (iii) social value and meanings of food shape parental provision of snacks. This review shows that snacking holds important meanings in everyday family life, with infants integrated into existing snacking practices from an early age. Price promotions, low-cost and long shelf-lives all make UPF and HFSS snacks an appealing option for many low-SEP parents; while children's requests and preferences for HFSS snacks present a challenge across SEP. However, higher-SEP parents can ensure fresh fruits are always available as an alternative snack, while fruit is described as a financially risky expenditure for low-SEP families. The present findings also indicate that retailers and producers are increasingly promoting 'healthier' snacks through product packaging and marketing, such as 'meets one of your five a day', despite these products displaying similar nutritional profiles to traditional UPF and HFSS snacks. We outline a series of policy recommendations, including extending Healthy Start Vouchers and the Fruit and Vegetable Scheme in schools and action to address misleading product marketing and packaging.

Changes in Food Consumption and Eating Behaviours of Children and Their Families Living in Italy during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The EPaS-ISS Study

The aim of the EPaS-ISS study was to describe the changes in food consumption and eating behaviours of children (mainly aged 8-9 years) and their families between the pre-COVID-19 period (before February/March 2020) and the COVID-19 period (from February/March 2020 to April 2022). A web questionnaire completed by parents was used to collect data. The sociodemographic characteristics of the children and their parents were also explored through the web questionnaire. Seventeen regions out of nineteen and the two autonomous provinces (PA) of Italy participated in the study. The survey was completed for 4863 children (47.9% females). The study showed that only small changes in children's food consumption happened between the pre-COVID-19 period and the COVID-19 period; in particular, about 25% of parents reported an increase in savoury snacks and sweet food. A decrease in fruit and vegetable (about 8%) and fish (14%) consumption was also found. However, the changes seem to have mainly affected children from most disadvantaged families. The results also indicate positive changes during the COVID-19 pandemic in some families' eating behaviours, such as eating more home-cooked meals (42%) and family meals (39%), as well as cooking more with children (42%).

Nutrient Intake from Voluntary Fortified Foods and Dietary Supplements in Japanese Consumers: A Cross-Sectional Online Survey

Consuming voluntary fortified foods (vFFs) and dietary supplements (DSs) is one method for addressing micronutrient inadequacy, but their efficacy is unclear. This study explored the use of vFFs and DSs, and the role of package labels. We conducted a nationwide online survey of 4933 Japanese adults in 2020. The use of vFFs and DSs was 23.3%. The reported vFFs were cereal products (n = 370), milk products/milk substitutes (n = 229), and one-shot drinks (n = 144). Vitamins, calcium, and iron were the main micronutrients added to the vFFs. Most users consumed vitamins C and B from vFFs and/or DSs, and females also consumed iron. The median intake of vitamins B6 and C, selenium, and zinc (plus vitamin B2 and copper in females) exceeded 50% of the respective estimated average requirement values. Approximately 60-70% of the users referred to nutrition labels. However, only a small percent of the respondents clearly understood the nutrient content. To address insufficient nutrient intake, the use of vFFs and DSs may be a good alternative; however, consumer education on the use of vFFs/DSs and package labels needs to be implemented before encouraging their use.

Wolffia globosa-Based Nutritious Snack Formulation with High Protein and Dietary Fiber Contents

Wolffia globosa (W. globosa) or duckweed is a small aquatic plant with high protein, dietary fiber, and lipid contents that can be combined with food products to develop nutritious snacks as one strategy to mitigate malnutrition. Here, response surface methodology (RSM) with mixture design was used to develop snacks from W. globosa freeze-dried powder (WP). The physical properties, proximate analysis, amino acid profiles, sensory evaluation, phytochemical analysis, antioxidant properties, and genotoxicity (Ames test) of the snacks were evaluated. The optimal W. globosa snack formula was 64% glutinous rice flour, 10% tapioca flour, and 26% WP, giving a highly desirable liking score of 1.00. Addition of WP increased crude protein, essential amino acids, and dietary fiber compared with the control snack by 51%, 147%, and 83%, respectively. According to the Thai recommended daily intakes, the developed W. globosa snack had high protein and dietary fiber. Phytochemical contents and antioxidant activities of the W. globosa snack such as total phenolic contents (TPCs), total flavonoid contents (TFCs), ferric ion reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) activity, and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) activity were significantly higher than the control snack. The novel combination of WP with snack product ingredients greatly enhanced nutritional value.

Perception and demand for healthy snacks/beverages among US consumers vary by product, health benefit, and color

Concerns about the numerous health problems associated with unhealthy snacks prompted recommendations to steer individuals toward healthier eating habits. One such recommendation advises limiting unhealthy snacks and replacing them with more fruits and vegetables with significant health benefits. This study investigates US consumers' perceptions and preferences for healthy (vegetable-based) snacks/beverages. An online survey was designed to estimate consumer perception and willingness-to-pay (WTP) for vegetable-based crackers, spreads, and beverages. A sampling company sent the survey to its national consumer panels in 2020, resulting in a sample of 402 US consumers. Eligible participants were adults, primary grocery shoppers who consumed crackers, spreads, and beverages. Consumer WTP for healthy snacks/beverages, the dependent variable, was elicited using a payment card method. Independent variables include personality traits (Innovativeness and Extraversion) and the important factors affecting healthy snack purchases, health consciousness, and demographic variables. Results show that consumers' preferences for healthy snacking vary by product, even when the products have similar health benefits. Significant positive associations exist between WTP for healthy snacks/beverages and personality traits, health consciousness, and some demographics. This study provides critical insights to policymakers and informs marketing campaigns to promote healthy snacking in the US more effectively.

Caregiver perceptions of snacks for young children: A thematic synthesis of qualitative research

Snacks are inconsistently defined in nutrition research and dietary guidelines for young children, challenging efforts to improve diet quality. Although some guidelines suggest that snacks include at least two food groups and fit into an overall health promoting dietary pattern, snacks high in added sugars and sodium are highly marketed and frequently consumed. Understanding how caregivers perceive "snacks" for young children may aid in development of effective nutrition communications and behaviourally-informed dietary interventions for obesity prevention. We aimed to synthesize caregivers' perceptions of snacks for young children across qualitative studies. Four databases were searched for peer-reviewed qualitative articles including caregiver perceptions of "snacks" for children ≤5 years. We conducted thematic synthesis of study findings, concluding with the development of analytical themes. Data synthesis of fifteen articles from ten studies, conducted in the U.S., Europe, and Australia, revealed six analytical themes that captured food type, hedonic value, purpose, location, portion size, and time. Caregivers perceived snacks as both "healthy" and "unhealthy" foods. Less healthy snacks were described as highly liked foods, which required restriction and were consumed outside the home. Caregivers used snacks to manage behavior and curb hunger. Snack portions were described as "small", although caregivers reported various methods to estimate child portion size. Caregivers' perceptions of snacks revealed opportunities for targeted nutrition messaging, especially supporting responsive feeding and nutrient-dense food choices. In high-income countries, expert recommendations should consider caregivers' perceptions of snacks, more clearly defining nutrient-dense snacks that are enjoyable, achieve dietary requirements, reduce hunger, and promote healthy weight.

Development and validation of an online tool to assess perceived portion size norms of discretionary foods

BACKGROUND

Perceived portion size norms (typical perception of how much of a given food individuals choose to eat at a single occasion) may have shifted towards larger sizes due to the ubiquity of large serving sizes. However, there is a lack of validated tools to assess such norms for energy-dense and nutrient-poor discretionary foods. This study aimed to develop and validate an online tool to examine the perceived portion size norms of discretionary foods.

METHODS

An online image-series tool of 15 commonly consumed discretionary foods was developed, with eight successive portion size options included for each food. Using a randomised-crossover design, adult consumers (18-65 years) completed the validation study in a laboratory session (April-May 2022) by reporting their perceived portion size norms for each food twice, once based on food images on a computer and another time based on equivalent real food portion size options at food stations in the laboratory. Agreement between methods for each test food was examined using cross-classification and intra-class correlation (ICC).

RESULTS

A sample of 114 subjects were recruited (mean age 24.8 years). Cross-classification indicated >90% of selections were matched in the same or adjacent portion size option. ICC was 0.85 across all foods, demonstrating a good level of agreement.

CONCLUSION

This novel online image-series tool developed to examine perceived portion size norms of discretionary foods showed good agreement with equivalent real food portion size options and may be valuable to investigate perceived portion size norms of common discretionary foods in future studies.

Snacking and anxiety during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic: A prospective cohort study

Anxiety and snacking increased during the initial coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) lockdowns, but it remains unknown whether this change in snacking persisted and if it related to anxiety levels. We used prospective data to examine changes in snacking frequency from t1 (eased restrictions in England in May-June 2020) to t2 (national lockdown in December 2020-March 2021), the association of anxiety (assessed by the Generalised Anxiety Disorder-7 questionnaire at t1) with the snacking change, and the mediating and moderating effects of disinhibition and flexible restraint (assessed by the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire in 2016-17). Analyses including 2128 adults (mean age 28.4 y) residing in England from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children showed that snacking frequency increased over time (mean change 1.23 (95% CI 0.81, 1.65) snacks/wk). Linear regressions of snacking adjusted for sociodemographic covariates showed that having clinical levels of generalised anxiety at t1, versus not, was associated with 1.22 (95% CI 0.07, 2.37) more snacks/wk at t2. Disinhibition partially mediated the association between Generalised Anxiety Disorder and snacking (βindirect = 0.15, 95% CI 0.01, 0.32), while there was no evidence that flexible restraint moderated the association (β = 0.05, 95% CI -0.57, 0.66). Our longitudinal findings highlight a detrimental anxiety-snacking association partly operating via disinhibition, suggesting future research could target mitigating anxiety and disinhibited eating behaviours to benefit diet-related outcomes following the pandemic.

Reciprocal Interactions between Circadian Clocks, Food Intake, and Energy Metabolism

Like other biological functions, food intake and energy metabolism display daily rhythms controlled by the circadian timing system that comprises a main circadian clock and numerous secondary clocks in the brain and peripheral tissues. Each secondary circadian clock delivers local temporal cues based on intracellular transcriptional and translational feedback loops that are tightly interconnected to intracellular nutrient-sensing pathways. Genetic impairment of molecular clocks and alteration in the rhythmic synchronizing cues, such as ambient light at night or mistimed meals, lead to circadian disruption that, in turn, negatively impacts metabolic health. Not all circadian clocks are sensitive to the same synchronizing signals. The master clock in the suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus is mostly synchronized by ambient light and, to a lesser extent, by behavioral cues coupled to arousal and exercise. Secondary clocks are generally phase-shifted by timed metabolic cues associated with feeding, exercise, and changes in temperature. Furthermore, both the master and secondary clocks are modulated by calorie restriction and high-fat feeding. Taking into account the regularity of daily meals, the duration of eating periods, chronotype, and sex, chrononutritional strategies may be useful for improving the robustness of daily rhythmicity and maintaining or even restoring the appropriate energy balance.

Snacking Consumption among Adults in the United States: A Scoping Review

Snacks are a staple of the American diet, contributing to approximately 20% of energy intake. Most U.S. adults consume one to three snacks/day, yet few reviews have focused on snacking among this population. This scoping review was conducted to characterize snacks and snacking occasions among U.S. adults to further inform healthy eating practices. The protocol was prepared following the PRISMA-Extension for Scoping Reviews. Three web databases were used to identify articles using snacking or eating occasions as primary or secondary outcomes among U.S. adults. A search strategy was developed using subject headings, truncation, and phrase searching in the title and abstract of articles published between 2010 and 2022. A two-stage, multi-step screening process identified 31 of 4795 publications as meeting the inclusion criteria. Findings included identification of snacking themes, e.g., cues and motivations; diet composition; and weight management. Food quality, time of consumption, and convenience emerged as characteristics of snacking; time of day was found to influence food choice. Snacks contribute to or detract from a healthy diet. Strategic selection of healthy snack options can improve diet quality. Applied to nutrition education, this information can help strengthen programs or policies, ultimately contributing to health and wellbeing.

Are commonly used lab-based measures of food value and choice predictive of self-reported real-world snacking? An ecological momentary assessment study

OBJECTIVES

While the assessment of actual food intake is essential in the evaluation of behaviour change interventions for weight-loss, it may not always be feasible to collect this information within traditional experimental paradigms. For this reason, measures of food preference (such as measures of food value and choice) are often used as more accessible alternatives. However, the predictive validity of these measures (in relation to subsequent food consumption) has not yet been studied. Our aim was to investigate the extent to which three commonly used measures of preference for snack foods (explicit food value, unhealthy food choice and implicit preference) predicted self-reported real-world snacking occasions.

DESIGN

Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) design.

METHOD

Over a seven-day study period, participants (N = 49) completed three daily assessments where they reported their healthy and unhealthy snack food consumption and completed the three measures of preference (explicit food value, unhealthy food choice and implicit preference).

RESULTS

Our findings demonstrated some weak evidence that unhealthy Visual Analogue Scale scores predicted between-subject increases in unhealthy snacking frequency (OR = 1.018 [1.006, 1.030], p = .002). No other preference measures significantly predicted self-reported healthy or unhealthy snacking occasions (ps > .05).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings raise questions in relation to the association between measures of preference and self-reported real-world snack food consumption. Future research should further evaluate the predictive and construct validity of these measures in relation to food behaviours and explore the development of alternative assessment methods within eating behaviour research.

Lifestyle Habits Determinants of Health-Related Quality of Life in Moroccan College Students

The transition to university is a critical period during which considerable life changes arise. Useful national data to design tailored interventions aimed at promoting health-related quality of life (HRQoL) among Moroccan students are lacking. The present study is aimed at filling this gap by investigating the levels and associated factors of HRQoL among a national sample of Moroccan university students. HRQoL was assessed using the EQ-5D-5L instrument. Data from 2759 university students were collected in a large, cross-sectional, web-based survey. All statistical analyses were conducted using the R software. The EQ-5D-5L findings showed that the majority of students rated level 1 (no problems) and level 2 (slight problems) for the "Mobility", "Self-Care", "Usual Activities", and "Pain/Discomfort" HRQoL dimensions. However, the "Anxiety/Depression" dimension was the exception; more than half (57.1%) of the students were slightly to extremely anxious or depressed. The levels of lifestyle habits were of concern among participants of this study. With respect to sedentary behaviors and physical activity, we found that approximately 80% of participants spent ≥2 h/day on different screen-based sedentary behaviors, and 60% were physically inactive. Lifestyle habits that were found to be associated with HRQoL are sleeping time, physical activity, leisure, hygiene, household activities, homework, and social media time. The multiple regression model explained 93% of the EQ-VAS score variance. The findings could be of great importance for researchers and policymakers interested in promoting health of university students.

Pleurotus eryngii Chips-Chemical Characterization and Nutritional Value of an Innovative Healthy Snack

Nowadays, as the pandemic has reshaped snacking behaviors, and consumers have become more health-conscious, the need for the incorporation of "healthy snacking" in our diets has emerged. Although there is no agreed-upon definition of "healthy snacking", dietary guidelines refer to snack foods with high nutritional and biological value. The aim of this study was to chemically characterize and determine the nutritional value of an innovative UVB-irradiated and baked snack from Pleurotus eryngii mushrooms. P. eryngii is an edible mushroom native to the Mediterranean basin. We applied proximate composition, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and macro and trace elements analyses. Also, we computed indices to assess the nutritional quality of food, and we evaluated the sensory characteristics of the mushroom snack. We found high nutritional, consumer, and biological values for the snack. More specifically it was low in calories, high in fibre and protein, low in lipids, without added sugars, and high in ergosterol and beta-glucans. Additionally, it had some vitamins and trace elements in significant quantities. Its NRF9.3 score was considerably high compared to most popular snacks, and the snack exhibited high hypocholesterolemic and low atherogenic and thrombogenic potentials. In conclusion, as a result of UVB-irradiation and baking of P. eryngii mushrooms, the snack's nutritional and biological value were not affected; instead, it provided a "healthy snacking" option.

Associations of chronotype and social jetlag with eating jetlag and their changes among German students during the first COVID-19 lockdown. The Chronotype and Nutrition study

Due to their biologically later chronotype, young students are vulnerable to a discrepant sleeping pattern between work- and free days, coined social jetlag (SJL). This study examined whether a later chronotype and/or a larger SJL are related to an analogous discrepancy in meal timing defined as eating jetlag (EJL) and whether chronotype and/or changes in SJL during the first COVID-19 related lockdown in Germany associated with changes in EJL. Baseline data were collected from September 2019-January 2020 among 317 students (58% females) aged 18-25 years of which a total of 156 students (67% females) completed an online follow-up survey in June-July 2020 (1st lockdown). Data were collected on daily routines, timing of meals/snacks, and physical activity. Chronotype was determined using the Munich ChronoType Questionnaire; SJL and EJL correspond to the difference in the daily midpoint of sleep/eating duration between work- and free days. Multivariable linear regression revealed that students with a later chronotype or a larger SJL experienced a larger EJL (p_adjusted = 0.0124 and p_adjusted<0.0001). A later chronotype at baseline and reductions in SJL during lockdown associated with concurrent reductions in EJL (p_adjusted = 0.027 and p_adjusted<0.0001). In conclusion, students with a later chronotype exhibit a more erratic meal pattern, which associates with SJL. During lockdown, flexible daily schedules allowed students to align the meal timing with their inner clock.

Contribution of Snacks to Dietary Intakes Stratified by Race/Ethnicity in the United States

BACKGROUND

Snacking recommendations do not exist, yet snacks contribute substantially to daily energy intakes. While dietary intakes of adults in the United States vary by race/ethnicity, little is known about their snacking patterns. The aim of this study was to assess the quality of snacks stratified by race/ethnicity in adults who participated in the 2011-2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES).

METHOD

Dietary data from 18,679 adults older than 19 years were assessed to examine differences in intakes from snacking occasions by self-identified race/ethnicity. Mean intakes were estimated for total snacking occasions, percentage of day, nutrient density per 100 kcals, and the average snack. Healthy Eating Index-2015 (HEI) scores were computed for intakes from total day, snack only, and meals only. Analysis of covariance assessed differences between racial/ethnic groups. US Department of Agriculture food categories determined sources of snack foods. Data were weighted to create a nationally representative sample.

RESULTS

Asians consumed the least amount of daily energy in the form of snacks, while Blacks and Whites consumed the most. Mean intakes of saturated fats and added sugars consumed during snacking occasions were significantly lowest in Asians, and highest in Blacks and Whites. While total and percentage of daily intakes of sodium were lowest in Asians during snacking occasions, they had significantly lowest meal-only HEI sodium subscore, indicating higher sodium consumption of sodium during mealtimes.

CONCLUSIONS

Diet quality of snacks varies significantly by race/ethnicity. These data support the need for development of snacking recommendations with culturally appropriate dietary interventions.

Carbon Footprint of Away-From-Home Food Consumption in Brazilian Diet

Environmentally unsustainable diets are often characterized by being high in calories, processed foods, and red meats, characteristics related to away-from-home food (AFHF). The aim of this study is to evaluate if AFHF consumption is related to environmental sustainability. Data of 20,780 adults from 24 h recalls collected in the 2017-2018 Brazilian National Dietary Survey (NDS) were used to estimate carbon footprint coefficients. The mean carbon footprint was estimated among individuals who consumed AFHF and non-consumers. Linear regression models were used to evaluate differences between away-from-home eating and the carbon footprint of the diet, adjusting for age and income. A total of 41% of Brazilians consumed AFHF during the previous day. The mean carbon footprint from foods consumed away from home represented 18% of the total carbon footprint. AFHF was positively associated with increased total carbon footprint (β: 204.1; p-value: 0.0145). In conclusion, the consumption of foods away from home in urban areas of Brazil was associated with atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions independently of age and income. Away-from-home food consumption should be considered to reinforce the influence of diet on individual and planet health.

Nutrition Education to Reduce Metabolic Dysfunction for Spinal Cord Injury: A Module-Based Nutrition Education Guide for Healthcare Providers and Consumers

Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in a high prevalence of neurogenic obesity and metabolic dysfunction. The increased risk for neurogenic obesity and metabolic dysfunction is mainly due to the loss of energy balance because of significantly reduced energy expenditure following SCI. Consequently, excessive energy intake (positive energy balance) leads to adipose tissue accumulation at a rapid rate, resulting in neurogenic obesity, systemic inflammation, and metabolic dysfunction. The purpose of this article is to review the existing literature on nutrition, dietary intake, and nutrition education in persons with SCI as it relates to metabolic dysfunction. The review will highlight the poor dietary intakes of persons with SCI according to authoritative guidelines and the need for nutrition education for health care professionals and consumers. Nutrition education topics are presented in a module-based format with supporting literature. The authors emphasize the role of a diet consisting of low-energy, nutrient-dense, anti-inflammatory foods consistent with the Dietary Guidelines for Americans' MyPlate to effectively achieve energy balance and reduce the risk for neurogenic obesity and metabolic dysfunction in individuals with SCI.

Low- and Medium-Socioeconomic-Status Group Members' Perceived Challenges and Solutions for Healthy Nutrition: Qualitative Focus Group Study

BACKGROUND

Although digital tools for healthy nutrition have shown great potential, their actual impact remains variable as digital solutions often do not fit users' needs and barriers. This is especially poignant for priority communities in society. Involving these groups in citizen science may have great benefits even beyond the increase in knowledge of the lives and experiences of these groups. However, this requires specialized skills. Participants from priority groups could benefit from an approach that offers sensitization and discussion to help them voice their needs regarding healthy nutrition and technology to support healthy eating.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to gather insights into people's thoughts on everyday eating practices, self-regulation in healthy eating, and skill acquisition and on applying technological innovations to these domains.

METHODS

Participants answered 3 daily questionnaires to garner their current practices regarding habits, self-regulation, skills, and technology use surrounding healthy eating and make it easier for them to collect their thoughts and experiences (sensitization). Within a week of filling out the 3 questionnaires, participants took part in a web-based focus group discussion session. All sessions were transcribed and analyzed using a thematic qualitative approach.

RESULTS

A total of 42 people took part in 7 focus group interviews of 6 people each. The analysis showed that participants would like to receive support from technology for a broad range of aspects of nutrition, such as measuring the effect their personal nutrition has on their individual health, providing them with reliable product information, giving them practical guidance for healthy eating and snacking, and reducing the burden of registering food intake. Technology should be easy to use, reduce burdens, and be tailored to personal situations. Privacy and cost were major concerns for the participants.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows that people from low- and medium-socioeconomic-status groups have a need for specific support in tailoring their knowledge of healthy nutrition to their own situation and see technology as a means to achieve this.

Association of weight status with the types of foods consumed at snacking occasions among US adolescents

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate snack food-group composition by weight status among United States adolescents.

METHODS

Cross-sectional analysis of adolescent food-group-component intake from snacking occasions using two 24-hour dietary recalls from the 2007 through 2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES; n = 5264; 12-19 years) was conducted. ANCOVA models evaluated food intakes by BMI percentile (BMI%; normal weight [NW]: <85th BMI%; overweight [OW]: 85th-95th BMI%; and obesity [OB]: ≥95th BMI%), adjusting for energy misreporting and key covariates.

RESULTS

Adolescents with OB consumed greater total daily energy from snacks (mean [SE]: NW = 424 [10] kcal; OW = 527 [16] kcal; OB = 603 [22] kcal; p < 0.001) than adolescents with OW and NW. Adolescents with OW or OB consumed higher amounts of refined grains, dairy, protein, oil, solid fat, and added sugar from snacks than adolescents with NW (p < 0.05-0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescents with OW or OB consume more calories and higher levels of overconsumed dietary components, i.e., added sugar, solid fats, and refined grains, from snacks than adolescents with NW. Age-specific snacking recommendations to inform dietary guidance are needed to prevent excess intake of overconsumed nutrients and calories.