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Klarquist J, Cross EW, Thompson SB, Willett B, Aldridge DL, Caffrey-Carr AK, Xu Z, Hunter CA, Getahun A, Kedl RM. B cells promote CD8 T cell primary and memory responses to subunit vaccines. Cell Rep 2021; 36:109591. [PMID: 34433030 PMCID: PMC8456706 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The relationship between B cells and CD4 T cells has been carefully studied, revealing a collaborative effort in which B cells promote the activation, differentiation, and expansion of CD4 T cells while the so-called “helper” cells provide signals to B cells, influencing their class switching and fate. Interactions between B cells and CD8 T cells are not as well studied, although CD8 T cells exhibit an accelerated contraction after certain infections in B-cell-deficient mice. Here, we find that B cells significantly enhance primary CD8 T cell responses after vaccination. Moreover, memory CD8 numbers and function are impaired in B-cell-deficient animals, leading to increased susceptibility to bacterial challenge. We also show that interleukin-27 production by B cells contributes to their impact on primary, but not memory, CD8 responses. Better understanding of the interactions between CD8 T cells and B cells may aid in the design of more effective future vaccine strategies. Generating cytotoxic CD8 T cell responses with vaccines can greatly improve their efficacy, but inducing adequate numbers of these cells can be challenging. Klarquist et al. reveal that the magnitude, persistence, and function of CD8 T cell vaccine responses depend on B cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared Klarquist
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
| | - Eric W Cross
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Scott B Thompson
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Benjamin Willett
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Daniel L Aldridge
- University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Alayna K Caffrey-Carr
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Zhenming Xu
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, The Joe R. & Teresa Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Christopher A Hunter
- University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Andrew Getahun
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Ross M Kedl
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
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2
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Roy RK, Yadav R, Jain A, Tripathi V, Jain M, Singh S, Prakash H. Yin and yang of immunological memory in controlling infections: Overriding self defence mechanisms. Int Rev Immunol 2021; 41:240-252. [PMID: 33872093 DOI: 10.1080/08830185.2021.1912037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Immunological memory is critical for host immunity and decisive for individual to respond exponentially to previously encountered infection. Both T and B cell memory are known to orchestrate immunological memory with their central and effector memory arms contributing in prolonged immunity/defence mechanisms of host. While central memory helps in maintaining prolonged immunity for a particular infection, effector memory helps in keeping local/seasonal infection in control. In addition to this, generation of long-lived plasma cells is pivotal for generating neutralizing antibodies which can enhance recall and B cell memory to control re-infection. In view of this, scaling up memory response is one of the major objectives for the expected outcome of vaccination. In this line, this review deals with the significance of memory cells, molecular pathways of their development, maintenance, epigenetic regulation and negative regulation in various infections. We have also highlighted the significance of both T and B cell memory responses in the vaccination approaches against range of infections which is not fully explored so far.[Box: see text].
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Affiliation(s)
- Roshan Kumar Roy
- Amity Institute of Virology and Immunology, Amity University, Noida, India
| | - Rakhi Yadav
- Amity Institute of Virology and Immunology, Amity University, Noida, India
| | - Aklank Jain
- Department of Zoology, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India
| | - Vishwas Tripathi
- School of Biotechnology, Gautam Buddha University, Gautam Buddha Nagar, India
| | - Manju Jain
- Department of Biochemistry, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India
| | - Sandhya Singh
- Amity Institute of Physiology and Allied Sciences, Amity University, Noida, India
| | - Hridayesh Prakash
- Amity Institute of Virology and Immunology, Amity University, Noida, India
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3
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Kilgore AM, Pennock ND, Kedl RM. cDC1 IL-27p28 Production Predicts Vaccine-Elicited CD8 + T Cell Memory and Protective Immunity. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 204:510-517. [PMID: 31871021 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1901357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Accepted: 11/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Although adjuvants and formulations are often either empirically derived, or at best judged by their ability to elicit broad inflammation, it would be ideal if specific innate correlates of adaptive immunity could be identified to set a universally applicable benchmark for adjuvant evaluation. Using an IL-27 reporter transgenic mouse model, we show in this study that conventional type 1 dendritic cell IL-27 production in the draining lymph node 12 h after s.c. vaccination directly correlates with downstream CD8+ T cell memory and protective immunity against infectious challenge. This correlation is robust, reproducible, predictive, entirely unique to vaccine biology, and is the only innate correlate of CD8+ T cell immune memory yet to be identified. Our results provide new insights into the basic biology of adjuvant-elicited cellular immunity and have clear implications for the screening and evaluation of novel adjuvants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Augustus M Kilgore
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045; and
| | | | - Ross M Kedl
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045; and
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4
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Liu M, Barton ES, Jennings RN, Oldenburg DG, Whirry JM, White DW, Grayson JM. Unsupervised learning techniques reveal heterogeneity in memory CD8 + T cell differentiation following acute, chronic and latent viral infections. Virology 2017; 509:266-279. [PMID: 28689040 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2017.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Revised: 06/14/2017] [Accepted: 06/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
CD8+ T lymphocytes are critical for the control of gammaherpesvirus latency. To determine how memory CD8+ T cells generated during latency differ from those primed during acute or chronic viral infection, we adoptively transferred naive P14 CD8+ T cells into uninfected recipients, and examined surface proteins, cytokines and transcription factors following infection with the Armstrong (acute) or Clone 13 (chronic) strains of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), or murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV68) expressing the LCMV epitope DbGP33-41. By performing k-means clustering and generating self organizing maps (SOM), we observed increased short-lived effector-like, CD27lo CD62Llo and Bcl-6lo CD8+ T cells following latent infection. In addition, we found that memory CD8+ T cells from latent primed mice underwent less expansion following adoptive transfer and antigen rechallenge. Data from cluster models were combined and visualized by principal component analysis (PCA) demonstrating memory CD8+ T cells from latent infection occupy an intermediate differentiation space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingyong Liu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
| | - Erik S Barton
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
| | - Ryan N Jennings
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | | | | | | | - Jason M Grayson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA.
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5
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Schenkel JM, Fraser KA, Casey KA, Beura LK, Pauken KE, Vezys V, Masopust D. IL-15-Independent Maintenance of Tissue-Resident and Boosted Effector Memory CD8 T Cells. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2016; 196:3920-6. [PMID: 27001957 PMCID: PMC5145194 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1502337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
IL-15 regulates central and effector memory CD8 T cell (TCM and TEM, respectively) homeostatic proliferation, maintenance, and longevity. Consequently, IL-15 availability hypothetically defines the carrying capacity for total memory CD8 T cells within the host. In conflict with this hypothesis, previous observations demonstrated that boosting generates preternaturally abundant TEM that increases the total quantity of memory CD8 T cells in mice. In this article, we provide a potential mechanistic explanation by reporting that boosted circulating TEM do not require IL-15 for maintenance. We also investigated tissue-resident memory CD8 T cells (TRM), which protect nonlymphoid tissues from reinfection. We observed up to a 50-fold increase in the total magnitude of TRM in mouse mucosal tissues after boosting, suggesting that the memory T cell capacity in tissues is flexible and that TRM may not be under the same homeostatic regulation as primary central memory CD8 T cells and TEM Further analysis identified distinct TRM populations that depended on IL-15 for homeostatic proliferation and survival, depended on IL-15 for homeostatic proliferation but not for survival, or did not depend on IL-15 for either process. These observations on the numerical regulation of T cell memory indicate that there may be significant heterogeneity among distinct TRM populations and also argue against the common perception that developing vaccines that confer protection by establishing abundant TEM and TRM will necessarily erode immunity to previously encountered pathogens as the result of competition for IL-15.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason M Schenkel
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455; Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455
| | - Kathryn A Fraser
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455; Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455
| | - Kerry A Casey
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455; Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455
| | - Lalit K Beura
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455; Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455
| | - Kristen E Pauken
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104; and Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine; University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Vaiva Vezys
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455; Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455
| | - David Masopust
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455; Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455;
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6
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Abstract
In chronic infections and cancer, T cells are exposed to persistent antigen and/or inflammatory signals. This scenario is often associated with the deterioration of T cell function: a state called 'exhaustion'. Exhausted T cells lose robust effector functions, express multiple inhibitory receptors and are defined by an altered transcriptional programme. T cell exhaustion is often associated with inefficient control of persisting infections and tumours, but revitalization of exhausted T cells can reinvigorate immunity. Here, we review recent advances that provide a clearer molecular understanding of T cell exhaustion and reveal new therapeutic targets for persisting infections and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- E John Wherry
- Department of Microbiology and Institute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
| | - Makoto Kurachi
- Department of Microbiology and Institute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
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7
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Molecular and cellular insights into T cell exhaustion. NATURE REVIEWS. IMMUNOLOGY 2015. [PMID: 26205583 DOI: 10.1038/nri3862.] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In chronic infections and cancer, T cells are exposed to persistent antigen and/or inflammatory signals. This scenario is often associated with the deterioration of T cell function: a state called 'exhaustion'. Exhausted T cells lose robust effector functions, express multiple inhibitory receptors and are defined by an altered transcriptional programme. T cell exhaustion is often associated with inefficient control of persisting infections and tumours, but revitalization of exhausted T cells can reinvigorate immunity. Here, we review recent advances that provide a clearer molecular understanding of T cell exhaustion and reveal new therapeutic targets for persisting infections and cancer.
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8
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Li J, Valentin A, Ng S, Beach RK, Alicea C, Bergamaschi C, Felber BK, Pavlakis GN. Differential effects of IL-15 on the generation, maintenance and cytotoxic potential of adaptive cellular responses induced by DNA vaccination. Vaccine 2015; 33:1188-96. [PMID: 25559187 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.12.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2014] [Revised: 11/24/2014] [Accepted: 12/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
IL-15 is an important cytokine for the regulation of lymphocyte homeostasis. However, the role of IL-15 in the generation, maintenance and cytotoxic potential of antigen specific T cells is not fully understood. Because the route of antigenic delivery and the vaccine modality could influence the IL-15 requirement for mounting and preserving cytotoxic T cell responses, we have investigated the immunogenicity of DNA-based vaccines in IL-15 KO mice. DNA vaccination with SIV Gag induced antigen-specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells in the absence of IL-15. However, the absolute number of antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells was decreased in IL-15 KO mice compared to WT animals, suggesting that IL-15 is important for the generation of maximal number of antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells. Interestingly, antigen-specific memory CD8 cells could be efficiently boosted 8 months after the final vaccination in both WT and KO strains of mice, suggesting that the maintenance of antigen-specific long-term memory T cells induced by DNA vaccination is comparable in the absence and presence of IL-15. Importantly, boosting by DNA 8-months after vaccination revealed severely reduced granzyme B content in CD8(+) T cells of IL-15 KO mice compared to WT mice. This suggests that the cytotoxic potential of the long-term memory CD8(+) T cells is impaired. These results suggest that IL-15 is not essential for the generation and maintenance of adaptive cellular responses upon DNA vaccination, but it is critical for the preservation of maximal numbers and for the activity of cytotoxic CD8(+) T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinyao Li
- Human Retrovirus Section, Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Antonio Valentin
- Human Retrovirus Section, Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702, United States.
| | - Sinnie Ng
- Human Retrovirus Section, Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Rachel Kelly Beach
- Human Retrovirus Section, Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702, United States; Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Candido Alicea
- Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Cristina Bergamaschi
- Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Barbara K Felber
- Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - George N Pavlakis
- Human Retrovirus Section, Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702, United States.
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9
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Zickovich JM, Meyer SI, Yagita H, Obar JJ. Agonistic anti-CD40 enhances the CD8+ T cell response during vesicular stomatitis virus infection. PLoS One 2014; 9:e106060. [PMID: 25166494 PMCID: PMC4148391 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0106060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2014] [Accepted: 07/31/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Intracellular pathogens are capable of inducing vigorous CD8+ T cell responses. However, we do not entirely understand the factors driving the generation of large pools of highly protective memory CD8+ T cells. Here, we studied the generation of endogenous ovalbumin-specific memory CD8+ T cells following infection with recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) and Listeria monocytogenes (LM). VSV infection resulted in the generation of a large ovalbumin-specific memory CD8+ T cell population, which provided minimal protective immunity that waned with time. In contrast, the CD8+ T cell population of LM-ova provided protective immunity and remained stable with time. Agonistic CD40 stimulation during CD8+ T cell priming in response to VSV infection enabled the resultant memory CD8+ T cell population to provide strong protective immunity against secondary infection. Enhanced protective immunity by agonistic anti-CD40 was dependent on CD70. Agonistic anti-CD40 not only enhanced the size of the resultant memory CD8+ T cell population, but enhanced their polyfunctionality and sensitivity to antigen. Our data suggest that immunomodulation of CD40 signaling may be a key adjuvant to enhance CD8+ T cell response during development of VSV vaccine strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julianne M. Zickovich
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, United States of America
| | - Susan I. Meyer
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, United States of America
| | - Hideo Yagita
- Department of Immunology, Juntendo University, School of Medicine, Toyko, Japan
| | - Joshua J. Obar
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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10
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IL-12 is required for mTOR regulation of memory CTLs during viral infection. Genes Immun 2014; 15:413-23. [PMID: 24898389 PMCID: PMC4156562 DOI: 10.1038/gene.2014.33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2014] [Revised: 03/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The induction of functional memory CTLs is a major goal of vaccination against
intracellular pathogens. IL-12 is critical for the generation of memory CTLs, and
inhibition of mTOR by rapamycin can effectively enhance the memory CTL response. Yet, the
role of IL-12 in mTOR’s regulation of memory CTL is unknown. Here, we hypothesized
that the immunostimulatory effects of mTOR on memory CTLs requires IL-12 signaling. Our
results revealed that rapamycin increased the generation of memory CTLs in vaccinia virus
infection, and this enhancement was dependent upon the IL-12 signal. Furthermore, IL-12
receptor deficiency diminished the secondary expansion of rapamycin-regulated memory, and
resultant secondary memory CTLs were abolished. Rapamycin enhanced IL-12 signaling by up
regulating IL-12 receptor β2 expression and STAT4 phosphorylation in CTLs during
early infection. In addition, rapamycin continually suppressed T-bet expression in both WT
and IL-12 receptor knockout CTLs. These results indicate an essential role for IL-12 in
the regulation of memory CTLs by mTOR, and highlight the importance of considering the
interplay between cytokines and adjuvants during vaccine design.
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11
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Heterologous immunity triggered by a single, latent virus in Mus musculus: combined costimulation- and adhesion- blockade decrease rejection. PLoS One 2013; 8:e71221. [PMID: 23940724 PMCID: PMC3733932 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0071221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2013] [Accepted: 06/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms underlying latent-virus-mediated heterologous immunity, and subsequent transplant rejection, especially in the setting of T cell costimulation blockade, remain undetermined. To address this, we have utilized MHV68 to develop a rodent model of latent virus-induced heterologous alloimmunity. MHV68 infection was correlated with multimodal immune deviation, which included increased secretion of CXCL9 and CXCL10, and with the expansion of a CD8(dim) T cell population. CD8(dim) T cells exhibited decreased expression of multiple costimulation molecules and increased expression of two adhesion molecules, LFA-1 and VLA-4. In the setting of MHV68 latency, recipients demonstrated accelerated costimulation blockade-resistant rejection of skin allografts compared to non-infected animals (MST 13.5 d in infected animals vs 22 d in non-infected animals, p<.0001). In contrast, the duration of graft acceptance was equivalent between non-infected and infected animals when treated with combined anti-LFA-1/anti-VLA-4 adhesion blockade (MST 24 d for non-infected and 27 d for infected, p = n.s.). The combination of CTLA-4-Ig/anti-CD154-based costimulation blockade+anti-LFA-1/anti-VLA-4-based adhesion blockade led to prolonged graft acceptance in both non-infected and infected cohorts (MST>100 d for both, p<.0001 versus costimulation blockade for either). While in the non-infected cohort, either CTLA-4-Ig or anti-CD154 alone could effectively pair with adhesion blockade to prolong allograft acceptance, in infected animals, the prolonged acceptance of skin grafts could only be recapitulated when anti-LFA-1 and anti-VLA-4 antibodies were combined with anti-CD154 (without CTLA-4-Ig, MST>100 d). Graft acceptance was significantly impaired when CTLA-4-Ig alone (no anti-CD154) was combined with adhesion blockade (MST 41 d). These results suggest that in the setting of MHV68 infection, synergy occurs predominantly between adhesion pathways and CD154-based costimulation, and that combined targeting of both pathways may be required to overcome the increased risk of rejection that occurs in the setting of latent-virus-mediated immune deviation.
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12
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Toe JG, Pellegrini M, Mak TW. Promoting immunity during chronic infection--the therapeutic potential of common gamma-chain cytokines. Mol Immunol 2013; 56:38-47. [PMID: 23685259 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2013.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Accepted: 04/08/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The continued global burden wrought by chronic infectious disease is unrelenting. Current therapies have curbed the severity of disease for patients, but Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Hepatitis B (HBV) infection remain incurable and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) is rapidly becoming resistant to our existing antibiotics. Much attention has been given to enhancing T cell immunity through the use of certain common gamma-chain cytokines, which have proven to be essential and necessary for T cell survival and function. This article reviews the pre-clinical and clinical literature surrounding IL-2, IL-7, IL-15 and IL-21 and we comment on the potential therapeutic promise of these cytokines as adjuvant treatments for chronic infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse G Toe
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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13
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Cox MA, Kahan SM, Zajac AJ. Anti-viral CD8 T cells and the cytokines that they love. Virology 2013; 435:157-69. [PMID: 23217625 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2012.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2012] [Accepted: 09/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Viral infections cause an immunological disequilibrium that provokes CD8 T cell responses. These cells play critical roles in purging acute infections, limiting persistent infections, and conferring life-long protective immunity. At every stage of the response anti-viral CD8 T cells are sensitive to signals from cytokines. Initially cytokines operate as immunological warning signs that inform of the presence of an infection, and also influence the developmental choices of the responding cells. Later during the course of the response other sets of cytokines support the survival and maintenance of the differentiated anti-viral CD8 T cells. Although many cytokines promote virus-specific CD8 T cells, other cytokines can suppress their activities and thus favor viral persistence. In this review we discuss how select cytokines act to regulate anti-viral CD8 T cells throughout the response and influence the outcome of viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maureen A Cox
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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Verbist KC, Klonowski KD. Functions of IL-15 in anti-viral immunity: multiplicity and variety. Cytokine 2012; 59:467-78. [PMID: 22704694 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2012.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2012] [Revised: 05/14/2012] [Accepted: 05/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
An effective immune response to an invading viral pathogen requires the combined actions of both innate and adaptive immune cells. For example, NK cells and cytotoxic CD8 T cells are capable of the direct engagement of infected cells and the mediation of antiviral responses. Both NK and CD8 T cells depend on common gamma chain (γc) cytokine signals for their development and homeostasis. The γc cytokine IL-15 is very well characterized for its role in promoting the development and homeostasis of NK cells and CD8 T cells, but emerging literature suggests that IL-15 mediates the anti-viral responses of these cell populations during an active immune response. Both NK cells and CD8 T cells must become activated, migrate to sites of infection, survive at those sites, and expand in order to maximally exert effector functions, and IL-15 can modulate each of these processes. This review focuses on the functions of IL-15 in the regulation of multiple aspects of NK and CD8 T cell biology, investigates the mechanisms by which IL-15 may exert such diverse functions, and discusses how these different facets of IL-15 biology may be therapeutically exploited to combat viral diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine C Verbist
- Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2607, USA
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15
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Sehrawat S, Kirak O, Koenig PA, Isaacson MK, Marques S, Bozkurt G, Simas JP, Jaenisch R, Ploegh HL. CD8(+) T cells from mice transnuclear for a TCR that recognizes a single H-2K(b)-restricted MHV68 epitope derived from gB-ORF8 help control infection. Cell Rep 2012; 1:461-71. [PMID: 22832272 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2012.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2011] [Revised: 03/07/2012] [Accepted: 03/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
To study the CD8(+) T cell response against a mouse γ-herpes virus, we generated K(b)-MHV-68-ORF8(604-612)RAG(-/-) CD8(+) T cell receptor transnuclear (TN) mice as a source of virus-specific CD8(+) T cells. K(b)-ORF8-Tet(+) CD8(+) T cells, expanded in the course of a resolving MHV-68 infection, served as a source of nucleus donors. Various in vivo and ex vivo assay criteria demonstrated the fine specificity and functionality of TN cells. TN cells proliferated extensively in response to viral infection, helped control viral burden, and exhibited a phenotype similar to that of endogenous K(b)-ORF8-Tet(+) cells. When compared to OT-1 cells, TN cells displayed distinct properties in response to lymphopenia and cognate antigen stimulation, which may be attributable to the affinity of the TCR expressed by the TN cells. The availability of MHV-68-specific CD8(+) TCR TN mice provides a new tool for investigating aspects of host-pathogen interactions unique to γ-herpes viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharvan Sehrawat
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 9 Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
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Freeman ML, Burkum CE, Jensen MK, Woodland DL, Blackman MA. γ-Herpesvirus reactivation differentially stimulates epitope-specific CD8 T cell responses. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 188:3812-9. [PMID: 22407914 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1102787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The γ-herpesviruses are characterized by their ability to establish lifelong latency. Subsequent immune suppression leads to viral reactivation from latency and the onset of a variety of pathologies, including lymphoproliferative disease and cancers. CD8 T cells play a key role in preventing reactivation of latent virus. Therefore, to develop effective therapeutic immune strategies, it is essential to understand the maintenance of CD8 T cell responses during latency. Because the γ-herpesviruses are highly species-specific and mice cannot be infected with the human pathogens, EBV or Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, we have used a natural rodent γ-herpesvirus experimental infection model, γ-herpesvirus-68. In this report, we show that during long-term latent infection, naive CD8 T cells are recruited into the ongoing immune response in an epitope-specific manner. When virus reactivation is induced in vivo, the recruitment of CD8 T cells for some, but not all, epitopes is enhanced. The variation in recruitment is not due to differences in epitope presentation. We also show that CD8 T cells that are newly stimulated during reactivation are functionally impaired compared with acutely stimulated cells in terms of cytokine production. Thus, our results demonstrate unexpected complexity in the response of CD8 T cells specific for different viral epitopes that were stimulated during acute infection, quiescent latency, and reactivation.
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Tsai CY, Hu Z, Zhang W, Usherwood EJ. Strain-dependent requirement for IFN-γ for respiratory control and immunotherapy in murine gammaherpesvirus infection. Viral Immunol 2011; 24:273-80. [PMID: 21830899 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2011.0004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and perforin (pfp) are important effector mechanisms used by CD8 T cells to clear virus-infected cells. In this study, we used IFN-γ/pfp double knockout mice to address if these two effector molecules play redundant roles in the control of acute infection with murine gammaherpesvirus-68 (MHV-68) in BALB/C mice. Perforin knockout (KO) mice and wild-type mice cleared infectious virus from the lungs, even following high-dose infection. However, the IFN-γ KO and IFN-γ/pfp double knockout (DKO) groups had higher virus titers in the lungs at day 10 post-infection, and both groups had higher mortality rates. In IFN-γ/pfp DKO mice, the virus titer and mortality rate were significant higher than in IFN-γ KO mice, indicating a role for perforin in protection from disease. WT mice given IFN-γ blocking antibody also showed significantly higher viral titers. In contrast, IFN-γ KO mice on a C57BL/6 background controlled respiratory infection comparably to wild-type mice. These data show that perforin plays a redundant role in the control of virus replication, but IFN-γ plays an essential role in BALB/C mice infected with MHV-68. We conclude that there is a marked strain-dependent difference in the effector mechanisms needed to control acute MHV-68 infection between C57BL/6 and BALB/C mice. In addition we show that immune therapy that re-establishes viral control after spontaneous reactivation in CD4-deficient mice depends upon perforin in C57BL/6 mice but IFN-γ in BALB/C mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ching-Yi Tsai
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
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Freeman ML, Burkum CE, Lanzer KG, Jensen MK, Ahmed M, Yager EJ, Flaño E, Winslow GM, Woodland DL, Blackman MA. Cutting edge: activation of virus-specific CD4 T cells throughout γ-herpesvirus latency. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 187:6180-4. [PMID: 22079983 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1102745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
CD4 T cells are essential for immune control of γ-herpesvirus latency. We previously identified a murine MHC class II-restricted epitope in γ-herpesvirus-68 gp150 (gp150(67-83)I-A(b)) that elicits CD4 T cells that are maintained throughout long-term infection. However, it is unknown whether naive cells can be recruited into the antiviral CD4 T cell pool during latency. In this study, we generate a mouse transgenic for a gp150-specific TCR and show epitope-specific activation of transgenic CD4 T cells during acute and latent infections. Furthermore, although only dendritic cells can stimulate virus-specific CD8 T cells during latency, we show that both dendritic cells and B cells stimulate transgenic CD4 T cells. These studies demonstrate that naive CD4 T cells specific for a viral glycoprotein can be stimulated throughout infection, even during quiescent latency, suggesting that CD4 T cell memory is maintained in part by the continual recruitment of naive cells.
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Bou Ghanem EN, Nelson CC, D’Orazio SEF. T Cell-Intrinsic Factors Contribute to the Differential Ability of CD8+ T Cells To Rapidly Secrete IFN-γ in the Absence of Antigen. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 186:1703-12. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1001960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Bannard O, Kraman M, Fearon DT. Cutting edge: Virus-specific CD8+ T cell clones and the maintenance of replicative function during a persistent viral infection. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2010; 185:7141-5. [PMID: 21068412 PMCID: PMC7212032 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1002537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Persistent viral infections induce the differentiation and accumulation of large numbers of senescent CD8(+) T cells, raising the possibility that repetitive stimulation drives clones of T cells to senesce. It is therefore unclear whether T cell responses are maintained by the self-renewal of Ag-experienced peripheral T cell subsets or by the continuous recruitment of newly generated naive T cells during chronic infections. Using a transgenic mouse model that permits the indelible marking of granzyme B-expressing cells, we found that T cells primed during the initial stages of a persistent murine γ-herpes infection persisted and continued to divide during a latent phase of up to 7 mo. Such cells maintained an ability to extensively replicate in response to challenge with influenza virus expressing the same Ag. Therefore, Ag-experienced, virus-specific CD8(+) T cell populations contain a subset that maintains replicative potential, despite long-term, persistent antigenic stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Bannard
- Wellcome Trust Immunology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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Abstract
In response to infection or effective vaccination, naive antigen-specific CD8+ T cells undergo a dramatic highly orchestrated activation process. Initial encounter with an appropriately activated antigen-presenting cell leads to blastogenesis and an exponential increase in antigen-specific CD8+ T cell numbers. Simultaneously, a dynamic differentiation process occurs, resulting in formation of both primary effector and long-lived memory cells. Current findings have emphasized the heterogeneity of effector and memory cell populations with the description of multiple cellular subsets based on phenotype, function, and anatomic location. Yet, only recently have we begun to dissect the underlying factors mediating the temporal control of the development of distinct effector and memory CD8+ T cell sublineages. In this review we will focus on the requirements for mounting an effective CD8+ T cell response and highlight the elements regulating the differentiation of effector and memory subsets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua J Obar
- Center for Integrated Immunology and Vaccine Research, Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06107, USA
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Kalia V, Sarkar S, Ahmed R. CD8 T-Cell Memory Differentiation during Acute and Chronic Viral Infections. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2010; 684:79-95. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-6451-9_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Itsumi M, Yoshikai Y, Yamada H. IL-15 is critical for the maintenance and innate functions of self-specific CD8(+) T cells. Eur J Immunol 2009; 39:1784-93. [PMID: 19544306 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200839106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
IL-15 is a pleiotropic cytokine involved in host defense as well as autoimmunity. IL-15-deficient mice show a decrease of memory phenotype (MP) CD8(+) T cells, which develop naturally in naïve mice and whose origin is unclear. It has been shown that self-specific CD8(+) T cells developed in male H-Y antigen-specific TCR transgenic mice share many similarities with naturally occurring MP CD8(+) T cells in normal mice. In this study, we found that H-Y antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells in male but not female mice decreased when they were crossed with IL-15-deficient mice, mainly due to impaired peripheral maintenance. The self-specific TCR transgenic CD8(+) T cells developed in IL-15-deficient mice showed altered surface phenotypes and reduced effector functions ex vivo. Bystander activation of the self-specific CD8(+) T cells was induced in vivo during infection with Listeria monocytogenes, in which proliferation but not IFN-gamma production was IL-15-dependent. These results indicated important roles for IL-15 in the maintenance and functions of self-specific CD8(+) T cells, which may be included in the naturally occurring MP CD8(+) T-cell population in naïve normal mice and participate in innate host defense responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Momoe Itsumi
- Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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Sauce D, Larsen M, Abbott RJM, Hislop AD, Leese AM, Khan N, Papagno L, Freeman GJ, Rickinson AB. Upregulation of interleukin 7 receptor alpha and programmed death 1 marks an epitope-specific CD8+ T-cell response that disappears following primary Epstein-Barr virus infection. J Virol 2009; 83:9068-78. [PMID: 19605492 PMCID: PMC2738242 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00141-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2009] [Accepted: 06/29/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In immunocompetent individuals, the stability of the herpesvirus-host balance limits opportunities to study the disappearance of a virus-specific CD8(+) T-cell response. However, we noticed that in HLA-A 0201-positive infectious mononucleosis (IM) patients undergoing primary Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection, the initial CD8 response targets three EBV lytic antigen-derived epitopes, YVLDHLIVV (YVL), GLCTLVAML (GLC), and TLDYKPLSV (TLD), but only the YVL and GLC reactivities persist long-term; the TLD response disappears within 10 to 27 months. While present, TLD-specific cells remained largely indistinguishable from YVL and GLC reactivities in many phenotypic and functional respects but showed unique temporal changes in two markers of T-cell fate, interleukin 7 receptor alpha (IL-7Ralpha; CD127) and programmed death 1 (PD-1). Thus, following the antigen-driven downregulation of IL-7Ralpha seen on all populations in acute IM, in every case, the TLD-specific population recovered expression unusually quickly post-IM. As well, in four of six patients studied, TLD-specific cells showed very strong PD-1 upregulation in the last blood sample obtained before the cells' disappearance. Our data suggest that the disappearance of this individual epitope reactivity from an otherwise stable EBV-specific response (i) reflects a selective loss of cognate antigen restimulation (rather than of IL-7-dependent signals) and (ii) is immediately preceded, and perhaps mediated, by PD-1 upregulation to unprecedented levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delphine Sauce
- CRUK Institute for Cancer Studies and MRC Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom, INSERM U543, Hôpital Pitié-Salpétrière, Université Pierre et Marie Curie 6, Paris, France, Department of Medical Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Martin Larsen
- CRUK Institute for Cancer Studies and MRC Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom, INSERM U543, Hôpital Pitié-Salpétrière, Université Pierre et Marie Curie 6, Paris, France, Department of Medical Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Rachel J. M. Abbott
- CRUK Institute for Cancer Studies and MRC Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom, INSERM U543, Hôpital Pitié-Salpétrière, Université Pierre et Marie Curie 6, Paris, France, Department of Medical Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Andrew D. Hislop
- CRUK Institute for Cancer Studies and MRC Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom, INSERM U543, Hôpital Pitié-Salpétrière, Université Pierre et Marie Curie 6, Paris, France, Department of Medical Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Alison M. Leese
- CRUK Institute for Cancer Studies and MRC Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom, INSERM U543, Hôpital Pitié-Salpétrière, Université Pierre et Marie Curie 6, Paris, France, Department of Medical Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Naeem Khan
- CRUK Institute for Cancer Studies and MRC Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom, INSERM U543, Hôpital Pitié-Salpétrière, Université Pierre et Marie Curie 6, Paris, France, Department of Medical Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Laura Papagno
- CRUK Institute for Cancer Studies and MRC Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom, INSERM U543, Hôpital Pitié-Salpétrière, Université Pierre et Marie Curie 6, Paris, France, Department of Medical Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Gordon J. Freeman
- CRUK Institute for Cancer Studies and MRC Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom, INSERM U543, Hôpital Pitié-Salpétrière, Université Pierre et Marie Curie 6, Paris, France, Department of Medical Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Alan B. Rickinson
- CRUK Institute for Cancer Studies and MRC Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom, INSERM U543, Hôpital Pitié-Salpétrière, Université Pierre et Marie Curie 6, Paris, France, Department of Medical Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
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Cush SS, Flaño E. Protective antigen-independent CD8 T cell memory is maintained during {gamma}-herpesvirus persistence. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2009; 182:3995-4004. [PMID: 19299697 PMCID: PMC3044338 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0803625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Ag persistence during high-titer chronic viral infections induces CD8 T cell dysfunction and lack of Ag-independent CD8 T cell memory formation. However, we have a poor understanding of the generation and maintenance of CD8 T cell memory during asymptomatic persistent viral infections, particularly gamma-herpesvirus infections. In this study, we demonstrate that the continuous presence of cognate Ag in the host is not required for the maintenance of CD8 T cell memory during a persistent gamma-herpesvirus infection. Importantly, the Ag-independent CD8 T cell memory that is maintained during gamma-herpesvirus persistence has the capacity to survive long-term under homeostatic conditions and to mount a protective recall response to a secondary encounter with the pathogen. These data highlight the ability of the immune system to maintain a population of protective memory CD8 T cells with capacity for long-term Ag-independent survival in the presence of systemic virus persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie S. Cush
- Center for Vaccines and Immunity, Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH 43205
| | - Emilio Flaño
- Center for Vaccines and Immunity, Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH 43205
- Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH 43210
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Zuo J, Stohlman SA, Parra GI, Bergmann CC. IL-15 independent maintenance of virus-specific CD8(+) T cells in the CNS during chronic infection. J Neuroimmunol 2009; 207:32-8. [PMID: 19106006 PMCID: PMC2679951 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2008.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2008] [Revised: 11/14/2008] [Accepted: 11/14/2008] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The role of IL-15 in T cell survival was examined during chronic CNS coronavirus infection. Similar numbers of virus-specific CD8(+) T cells were retained in the CNS of IL-15(-/-) and wt mice, consistent with loss of IL-2/15 receptor (CD122) expression. IL-15 deficiency also had no affect on IL-7 receptor (CD127) expression, Bcl-2 upregulation, granzyme B expression, or IFN-gamma secretion in CNS persisting CD8(+) T cells. Furthermore, CD8(+) T cell division in the CNS was reduced compared to spleen. CD8(+) T cells in the persistently infected CNS are thus characterized by IL-15 independent, low level proliferation and an activated/memory phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Zuo
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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27
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Gigley JP, Fox BA, Bzik DJ. Cell-mediated immunity to Toxoplasma gondii develops primarily by local Th1 host immune responses in the absence of parasite replication. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2009; 182:1069-78. [PMID: 19124750 PMCID: PMC2615398 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.182.2.1069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A single inoculation of mice with the live, attenuated Toxoplasma gondii uracil auxotroph strain cps1-1 induces long-lasting immunity against lethal challenge with hypervirulent strain RH. The mechanism for this robust immunity in the absence of parasite replication has not been addressed. The mechanism of long-lasting immunity, the importance of route of immunization, cellular recruitment to the site of infection, and local and systemic inflammation were evaluated. Our results show that infection with cps1-1 elicits long-lasting CD8+ T cell- mediated immunity. We show that immunization with cps1-1-infected dendritic cells elicits long-lasting immunity. Intraperitoneal infection with cps1-1 induced a rapid influx of GR1+ neutrophils and two stages of GR1+CD68+ inflammatory monocyte infiltration into the site of inoculation. CD19+ B cells and CD3+ T cells steadily increase for 8 days after infection. CD8+ T cells were rapidly recruited to the site of infection and increased faster than CD4+ T cells. Surprisingly, cps1-1 infection induced high systemic levels of bioactive IL-12p70 and a very low level and transient systemic IFN-gamma. Furthermore, we show significant levels of these inflammatory cytokines were locally produced at the site of cps1-1 inoculation. These findings offer new insight into immunological mechanisms and local host responses to a non-replicating type I parasite infection associated with development of long-lasting immunity to Toxoplasma gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason P. Gigley
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dartmouth Medical School, 1 Medical Center Drive, Lebanon, NH 03756
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037
| | - Barbara A. Fox
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dartmouth Medical School, 1 Medical Center Drive, Lebanon, NH 03756
| | - David J. Bzik
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dartmouth Medical School, 1 Medical Center Drive, Lebanon, NH 03756
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28
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Bixby LM, Tarleton RL. Stable CD8+ T cell memory during persistent Trypanosoma cruzi infection. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2008; 181:2644-50. [PMID: 18684955 PMCID: PMC2735072 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.181.4.2644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
CD8(+) T cell responses to persistent infections caused by intracellular pathogens are dominated by resting T effectors and T effector memory cells, with little evidence suggesting that a T central memory (T(CM)) population is generated. Using a model of Trypanosoma cruzi infection, we demonstrate that in contrast to the T effector/T effector memory phenotype of the majority of T. cruzi-specific CD8(+) T cells, a population of cells displaying hallmark characteristics of T(CM) cells is also present during long-term persistent infection. This population expressed the T(CM) marker CD127 and a subset expressed one or more of three other T(CM) markers: CD62L, CCR7, and CD122. Additionally, the majority of CD127(high) cells were KLRG1(low), indicating that they have not been repetitively activated through TCR stimulation. These CD127(high) cells were better maintained than their CD127(low) counterparts following transfer into naive mice, consistent with their observed surface expression of CD127 and CD122, which confer the ability to self-renew in response to IL-7 and IL-15. CD127(high) cells were capable of IFN-gamma production upon peptide restimulation and expanded in response to challenge infection, indicating that these cells are functionally responsive upon Ag re-encounter. These results are in contrast to what is typically observed during many persistent infections and indicate that a stable population of parasite-specific CD8(+) T cells capable of Ag-independent survival is maintained in mice despite the presence of persistent Ag.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa M. Bixby
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases and Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602
| | - Rick L. Tarleton
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases and Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602
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Obar JJ, Khanna KM, Lefrançois L. Endogenous naive CD8+ T cell precursor frequency regulates primary and memory responses to infection. Immunity 2008; 28:859-69. [PMID: 18499487 PMCID: PMC2836785 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2008.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 347] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2007] [Revised: 02/21/2008] [Accepted: 04/04/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Through genetic recombination, the adaptive immune system generates a diverse T cell repertoire allowing recognition of a vast spectrum of foreign antigens. Any given CD8+ T cell specificity is thought to be rare, but none have been directly quantified. Here, major histocompatibility complex tetramer and magnetic-bead technology were coupled to quantitate naive antigen-specific CD8+ T cells and the early response to infection. Among six specificities measured, the number of naive antigen-specific precursors ranged from approximately 80 to 1200 cells/mouse. After vesicular stomatitis virus infection, the antigen-specific CD8+ T cell response occurred in discrete phases: prolonged activation of a subset of cells over the first 72 hr followed by a rapid proliferative burst. Naive precursor frequency altered response kinetics and regulated immunodominance, as well as the time required for the responding population to shift toward CD62L(hi) memory cells. Thus, initial endogenous precursor frequencies were surprisingly diverse and not only regulated initial immune response characteristics but also controlled memory CD8+ T cell lineage decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua J. Obar
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, 263 Farmington Avenue, Farmington CT 06030-1319, USA
| | - Kamal M. Khanna
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, 263 Farmington Avenue, Farmington CT 06030-1319, USA
| | - Leo Lefrançois
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, 263 Farmington Avenue, Farmington CT 06030-1319, USA
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Welton AR, Gralinski LE, Spindler KR. Mouse adenovirus type 1 infection of natural killer cell-deficient mice. Virology 2008; 373:163-70. [PMID: 18155121 PMCID: PMC2295215 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2007.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2007] [Revised: 10/23/2007] [Accepted: 11/19/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells contribute to the initial nonspecific response to viral infection, and viruses exhibit a range of sensitivities to NK cells in vivo. We investigated the role of NK cells in infection of mice by mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) using antibody-mediated depletion and knockout mice. MAV-1 causes encephalomyelitis and replicates to highest levels in brains. NK cell-depleted mice infected with MAV-1 showed brain viral loads 8-20 days p.i. that were similar to wild-type control non-depleted mice. Mice genetically deficient for NK cells behaved similarly to wild-type control mice with respect to brain viral loads and survival. We conclude that NK cells are not required to control virus replication in the brains of MAV-1-infected mice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Katherine R. Spindler
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To examine the type and risk of infections in humans and mice deficient in proinflammatory cytokines. Naturally occurring or manipulated genetic defects of tumor necrosis factor, interleukins-1, -6, -12, and -15, and interferon-gamma are examined for their increased susceptibility to, or protection from, infection. RECENT FINDINGS Interleukin-12p40 and interferon-gamma-blockers may lead to increased incidence of infections with intracellular bacteria, parasites, and fungi. In addition, we may see viral infections with interferon-gamma-blockers. Increased risk of infections is unlikely with either interleukin-1- or interleukin-15-blockers. Interleukin-6-blockers may lead to increased risk of infection with extracellular bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi. SUMMARY In tumor necrosis factor knockout mice, increased susceptibility to pathogens are reported that are normally controlled by granuloma formation. In patients treated with tumor necrosis factor-blockers, a two-fold increase of granulomatous infections, predominantly reactivation of latent tuberculosis, is found. The infections detected in tumor necrosis factor knockout mice were accurate for predicting the infections observed when using tumor necrosis factor-blockers. If a similar correlation exists for other cytokines, the use of interferon-gamma and interleukin-12p40 blockers, and possibly interleukin-6 blockers, will lead to an increased risk for severe infections. Care should be taken when new cytokine blockers/antagonists are introduced.
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Sarkar S, Teichgräber V, Kalia V, Polley A, Masopust D, Harrington LE, Ahmed R, Wherry EJ. Strength of stimulus and clonal competition impact the rate of memory CD8 T cell differentiation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 179:6704-14. [PMID: 17982060 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.10.6704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The developmental pathways of long-lived memory CD8 T cells and the lineage relationship between memory T cell subsets remain controversial. Although some studies indicate the two major memory T cell subsets, central memory T (T(CM)) and effector memory T (T(EM)), are related lineages, others suggest that these subsets arise and are maintained independently of one another. In this study, we have investigated this issue and examined the differentiation of memory CD8 T cell subsets by tracking the lineage relationships of both endogenous and TCR transgenic CD8 T cell responses after acute infection. Our data indicate that TCR transgenic as well as nontransgenic T(EM) differentiate into T(CM) in the absence of Ag. Moreover, the rate of memory CD8 T cell differentiation from T(EM) into the self-renewing and long-lived pool of T(CM) is influenced by signals received during priming, including Ag levels, clonal competition, and/or the duration of infection. Although some T(EM) appear to not progress to T(CM), the vast majority of T(CM) are derived from T(EM). Thus, long-lasting, Ag-independent CD8 T cell memory results from progressive differentiation of memory CD8 T cells, and the rate of memory T cell differentiation is governed by events occurring early during T cell priming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surojit Sarkar
- Department of Microbiology, Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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33
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Shin H, Wherry EJ. CD8 T cell dysfunction during chronic viral infection. Curr Opin Immunol 2007; 19:408-15. [PMID: 17656078 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2007.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 275] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2007] [Accepted: 06/08/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Clearance of primary infection often leads to the development of highly functional memory T cells capable of rapid and long-lasting protective immunity. By contrast, chronic infections can result in T cell dysfunction and poor pathogen control. In this review, we will discuss recent work that highlights two main types of T cell dysfunction during chronic infection: exhaustion of effector functions and altered memory T cell development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haina Shin
- Immunology Program, The Wistar Institute, 3601 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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34
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Cush SS, Anderson KM, Ravneberg DH, Weslow-Schmidt JL, Flaño E. Memory generation and maintenance of CD8+ T cell function during viral persistence. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2007; 179:141-53. [PMID: 17579032 PMCID: PMC3110076 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.1.141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
During infection with viruses that establish latency, the immune system needs to maintain lifelong control of the infectious agent in the presence of persistent Ag. By using a gamma-herpesvirus (gammaHV) infection model, we demonstrate that a small number of virus-specific central-memory CD8+ T cells develop early during infection, and that virus-specific CD8+T cells maintain functional and protective capacities during chronic infection despite low-level Ag persistence. During the primary immune response, we show generation of CD8+ memory T cell precursors expressing lymphoid homing molecules (CCR7, L-selectin) and homeostatic cytokine receptors (IL-7alpha, IL-2/IL-15beta). During long-term persistent infection, central-memory cells constitute 20-50% of the virus-specific CD8+ T cell population and maintain the expression of L-selectin, CCR7, and IL-7R molecules. Functional analyses demonstrate that during viral persistence: 1) CD8+ T cells maintain TCR affinity for peptide/MHC complexes, 2) the functional avidity of CD8+ T cells measured as the capacity to produce IFN-gamma is preserved intact, and 3) virus-specific CD8+ T cells have in vivo killing capacity. Next, we demonstrate that at 8 mo post-virus inoculation, long-term CD8+ T cells are capable of mediating a protective recall response against the establishment of gammaHV68 splenic latency. These observations provide evidence that functional CD8+ memory T cells can be generated and maintained during low-load gammaHV68 persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie S. Cush
- Center for Vaccines and Immunity, Columbus Children’s Research Institute, Columbus, OH 43205
| | - Kathleen M. Anderson
- Center for Vaccines and Immunity, Columbus Children’s Research Institute, Columbus, OH 43205
| | - David H. Ravneberg
- Center for Vaccines and Immunity, Columbus Children’s Research Institute, Columbus, OH 43205
| | - Janet L. Weslow-Schmidt
- Center for Vaccines and Immunity, Columbus Children’s Research Institute, Columbus, OH 43205
| | - Emilio Flaño
- Center for Vaccines and Immunity, Columbus Children’s Research Institute, Columbus, OH 43205
- College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
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35
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Shin H, Blackburn SD, Blattman JN, Wherry EJ. Viral antigen and extensive division maintain virus-specific CD8 T cells during chronic infection. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 204:941-9. [PMID: 17420267 PMCID: PMC2118542 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20061937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Efficient maintenance of memory CD8 T cells is central to long-term protective immunity. IL-7– and IL-15–driven homeostatic proliferation is essential for long-term memory CD8 T cell persistence after acute infections. During chronic infections, however, virus-specific CD8 T cells respond poorly to these cytokines. Yet, virus-specific CD8 T cells often persist for long periods of time during chronic infections. We have addressed this apparent paradox by examining the mechanism for maintaining virus-specific CD8 T cells during chronic infection. We find that homeostatic cytokines (e.g., IL-7/15), inflammatory signals, and priming of recent thymic emigrants are not sufficient to maintain virus-specific CD8 T cells over time during chronic infection. Rather, our results demonstrate that viral peptide is required for virus-specific CD8 T cell persistence during chronic infection. Moreover, this viral antigen-dependent maintenance results in a dramatically different type of T cell division than is normally observed during memory T cell homeostasis. Rather than undergoing slow, steady homeostatic turnover during chronic viral infection, CD8 T cells undergo extensive peptide-dependent division, yet cell numbers remain relatively stable. These results indicate that antigen-specific CD8 T cell responses during persisting infection are maintained by a mechanism distinct from that after acute infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haina Shin
- Immunology Program, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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36
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van Leeuwen EMM, ten Berge IJM, van Lier RAW. Induction and maintenance of CD8+ T cells specific for persistent viruses. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2007; 590:121-37. [PMID: 17191382 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-34814-8_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ester M M van Leeuwen
- Dept. of Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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37
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38
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Turner DL, Cauley LS, Khanna KM, Lefrançois L. Persistent antigen presentation after acute vesicular stomatitis virus infection. J Virol 2006; 81:2039-46. [PMID: 17151119 PMCID: PMC1797569 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02167-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-term antigen expression is believed to play an important role in modulation of T-cell responses to chronic virus infections. However, recent studies suggest that immune responses may occur late after apparently acute infections. We have now analyzed the CD8 T-cell response to vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), which is thought to cause to an infection characterized by rapid virus clearance by innate and adaptive immune system components. Unexpectedly, virus-encoded antigen was detectable more than 6 weeks after intranasal VSV infection in both draining and nondraining lymph nodes by adoptively transferred CD8 T cells. Infection with Listeria monocytogenes expressing the same antigen did not result in prolonged antigen presentation. Weeks after VSV infection, discrete T-cell clustering with dendritic cells within the lymph node was observed after transfer of antigen-specific CD8 T cells. Moreover, memory CD8 T cells as defined by phenotype and function were generated from naïve CD8 T cells entering the response late after infection. These findings suggested that protracted antigen presentation after an apparently acute virus infection may contribute to an ongoing antiviral immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damian L Turner
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, 263 Farmington Avenue, Farmington, CT 06030-1319, USA
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39
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Salerno-Gonçalves R, Sztein MB. Cell-mediated immunity and the challenges for vaccine development. Trends Microbiol 2006; 14:536-42. [PMID: 17055276 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2006.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2006] [Revised: 09/13/2006] [Accepted: 10/10/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
One of the hallmarks of successful vaccination is the induction of strong and persistent memory T cell responses, a process that involves striking changes in the number and functional properties of T cells. Many questions pertaining to this complex, multifaceted process remain unanswered. Some of the key issues and challenges to optimize memory T cell responses and foster vaccine development include the optimization of effector T cell burst sizes, the use of adjuvants, cytokines and co-stimulatory molecules, epitope enhancement and the standardization of techniques to detect specific T cells. Age also has an impact on vaccine design because of the physiological changes in cell-mediated immunity that occur throughout life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosangela Salerno-Gonçalves
- Center for Vaccine Development, Department of Pediatrics, University of Maryland, 685 West Baltimore Street, HSF-1, Room 480, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
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40
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Abstract
The immune system has evolved by continuously increasing its complexity to provide the host with an advantage over infectious agents. The development of immunological memory engenders long-lasting protection and lengthens the lifespan of the host. The generation of subsets of memory T cells with distinct homing and functional properties increases our defensive capabilities. However, the developmental relationship of memory T-cell subsets is a matter of debate. In this Opinion article, in light of recent developments, we suggest that it is probable that two distinct lineages comprise the memory CD8+ T-cell population generated in response to infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leo Lefrançois
- University of Connecticut Health Center, Department of Immunology, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, USA.
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41
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Obar JJ, Fuse S, Leung EK, Bellfy SC, Usherwood EJ. Gammaherpesvirus persistence alters key CD8 T-cell memory characteristics and enhances antiviral protection. J Virol 2006; 80:8303-15. [PMID: 16912282 PMCID: PMC1563881 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00237-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2006] [Accepted: 06/07/2006] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
In herpesvirus infections, the virus persists for life but is contained through T-cell-mediated immune surveillance. How this immune surveillance operates is poorly understood. Recent studies of other persistent infections have indicated that virus persistence is associated with functional deficits in the CD8(+) T-cell response. To test whether this is the case in a herpesvirus infection, we used a mutant murine gammaherpesvirus that is defective in its ability to persist in the host. By comparing the immune response to this virus with a revertant virus that can persist, we were able to dissect the changes in the antiviral CD8(+) T-cell response that are induced by virus persistence. Surprisingly, persistently infected mice controlled a secondary challenge infection more rapidly than nonpersistently infected mice, indicating enhanced rather than diminished effector functions. Consistent with this, virus-specific CD8 T cells from these mice exhibited faster upregulation of the cytotoxic mediator granzyme B. Another unexpected finding was that CD8(+) T cells from neither infection responded efficiently to homeostatic cytokines. The unresponsiveness of the memory cells from the nonpersistently infected mice appears to be linked to the prolonged replication of virus within the lungs. Other changes seen in different chronic infection models were also observed, such as changes in Bcl-2 levels, interleukin-2 production, and the immunodominance hierarchy. These data show persistence of gammaherpesvirus type 68 alters the properties of CD8(+) T cells and illustrates that immune surveillance does not require CD8 T cells with the same attributes as "classical" memory CD8(+) T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua J Obar
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
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42
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Fuse S, Obar JJ, Bellfy S, Leung EK, Zhang W, Usherwood EJ. CD80 and CD86 control antiviral CD8+ T-cell function and immune surveillance of murine gammaherpesvirus 68. J Virol 2006; 80:9159-70. [PMID: 16940527 PMCID: PMC1563936 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00422-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2006] [Accepted: 06/27/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The interactions between CD80 and CD86 on antigen-presenting cells and CD28 on T cells serve as an important costimulatory signal in the activation of T cells. Although the simplistic two-signal hypothesis has been challenged in recent years by the identification of different costimulators, this classical pathway has been shown to significantly impact antiviral humoral and cellular immune responses. How the CD80/CD86-CD28 pathway affects the control of chronic or latent infections has been less well characterized. In this study, we investigated its role in antiviral immune responses against murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68) and immune surveillance using CD80/CD86(-/-) mice. In the absence of CD80/CD86, primary antiviral CD8(+) T-cell responses and the induction of neutralizing antibodies were severely impaired. During long-term immune surveillance, the virus-specific CD8(+) T cells were impaired in IFN-gamma production and secondary expansion and exhibited an altered phenotype. Surprisingly, a low level of viral reactivation in the lung was observed, and this effect was independent of CD28 and CTLA-4. Thus, CD80 and CD86, signaling through CD28 and possibly another unidentified receptor, are required for optimal immune surveillance and antiviral immune responses to murine gammaherpesvirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinichiro Fuse
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dartmouth Medical School, 1 Medical Center Drive, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
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43
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Wherry EJ, Day CL, Draenert R, Miller JD, Kiepiela P, Woodberry T, Brander C, Addo M, Klenerman P, Ahmed R, Walker BD. HIV-specific CD8 T cells express low levels of IL-7Ralpha: implications for HIV-specific T cell memory. Virology 2006; 353:366-73. [PMID: 16860834 PMCID: PMC5638446 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2006.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2006] [Revised: 05/06/2006] [Accepted: 06/02/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Chronic infections in mice can result in defects in memory CD8 T cell properties including low expression of the IL-7Ralpha (CD127). To determine whether defects in memory CD8 T cell formation exist during human chronic infections and to what extent these defects may be allele- or epitope-specific, we compared influenza (Flu), vaccinia (VV) and EBV-specific CD8 T cells to HIV-specific CD8 T cells, using a panel of 13 HIV tetramers. Compared to Flu, VV or EBV, HIV tetramer+ CD8 T cells expressed significantly lower levels of CD127, and this reduction was pervasive across all epitopes and alleles tested and over a wide range of viral loads and CD4 counts. These results indicate impaired HIV-specific memory CD8 T cell differentiation, regardless of level of control of viremia, epitopes targeted or restricting HLA alleles.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. John Wherry
- Emory Vaccine Center and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- Corresponding authors. (E.J. Wherry), (B.D. Walker)
| | - Cheryl L. Day
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Peter Medawar Building, University of Oxford, UK
| | - Rika Draenert
- Partners AIDS Research Center and Infectious Disease Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Joseph D. Miller
- Emory Vaccine Center and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Photini Kiepiela
- HIV Pathogenesis Program, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, University of KwaZulu Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Tonia Woodberry
- Partners AIDS Research Center and Infectious Disease Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Christian Brander
- Partners AIDS Research Center and Infectious Disease Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Marylyn Addo
- Partners AIDS Research Center and Infectious Disease Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Paul Klenerman
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Peter Medawar Building, University of Oxford, UK
| | - Rafi Ahmed
- Emory Vaccine Center and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Bruce D. Walker
- Partners AIDS Research Center and Infectious Disease Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Corresponding authors. (E.J. Wherry), (B.D. Walker)
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44
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Sauce D, Larsen M, Curnow SJ, Leese AM, Moss PAH, Hislop AD, Salmon M, Rickinson AB. EBV-associated mononucleosis leads to long-term global deficit in T-cell responsiveness to IL-15. Blood 2006; 108:11-8. [PMID: 16543467 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2006-01-0144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In mice, interleukin-7 (IL-7) and IL-15 are involved in T-cell homeostasis and the maintenance of immunologic memory. Here, we follow virus-induced responses in infectious mononucleosis (IM) patients from primary Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection into long-term virus carriage, monitoring IL-7 and IL-15 receptor (IL-R) expression by antibody staining and cytokine responsiveness by STAT5 phosphorylation and in vitro proliferation. Expression of IL-7Ralpha was lost from all CD8+ T cells, including EBV epitope-specific populations, during acute IM. Thereafter, expression recovered quickly on total CD8+ cells but slowly and incompletely on EBV-specific memory cells. Expression of IL-15Ralpha was also lost in acute IM and remained undetectable thereafter not just on EBV-specific CD8+ populations but on the whole peripheral T- and natural killer (NK)-cell pool. This deficit, correlating with defective IL-15 responsiveness in vitro, was consistently observed in patients up to 14 years after IM but not in patients after cytomegalovirus (CMV)-associated mononucleosis, or in healthy EBV carriers with no history of IM, or in EBV-naive individuals. By permanently scarring the immune system, symptomatic primary EBV infection provides a unique cohort of patients through which to study the effects of impaired IL-15 signaling on human lymphocyte functions in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delphine Sauce
- Cancer Research United Kingdom (CRUK) Institute for Cancer Studies and the Medical Research Council (MRC) Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
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45
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Rausch A, Hessmann M, Hölscher A, Schreiber T, Bulfone-Paus S, Ehlers S, Hölscher C. Interleukin-15 mediates protection against experimental tuberculosis: a role for NKG2D-dependent effector mechanisms of CD8+ T cells. Eur J Immunol 2006; 36:1156-67. [PMID: 16619285 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200535290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
CD8+ T cells are involved in protection against Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection and represent a promising target for new vaccine strategies. Because IL-15 is important for the homeostasis of CD8+ T cells, we studied the immune response in IL-15-deficient mice during tuberculosis. In the absence of IL-15, CD8+ T cells failed to efficiently accumulate in draining lymph nodes and at the site of infection. The expression of antigen-specific effector functions, such as the production of interferon-gamma and cytotoxicity, were impaired in CD8+ T cells, but not CD4+ T cells, from IL-15-deficient mice. This defect was associated with an increased mortality of IL-15-deficient mice during the chronic phase of infection. The lectin-like stimulatory receptor natural killer group 2D (NKG2D) was up-regulated on CD8+ T cells only from wild-type mice, but not from IL-15-deficient mice. Mechanistically, blocking NKG2D function with an mAb inhibited M. tuberculosis-directed CD8+ T cell responses in vitro. We conclude that in addition to regulating the expansion of CD8+ T cells, IL-15 is also necessary for inducing effector mechanisms in CD8+ T cells that depend on NKG2D expression. Hence, our results implicate IL-15 and NKG2D as promising targets for modulating CD8+ T cell-mediated protection against tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Rausch
- Junior Research Group Molecular Infection Biology, Research Center Borstel, Borstel, Germany
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46
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Combe CL, Moretto MM, Schwartzman JD, Gigley JP, Bzik DJ, Khan IA. Lack of IL-15 results in the suboptimal priming of CD4+ T cell response against an intracellular parasite. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:6635-40. [PMID: 16614074 PMCID: PMC1458934 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0506180103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
IFN-gamma-producing CD4+ T cells, although important for protection against acute Toxoplasma gondii infection, can cause gut pathology, which may prove to be detrimental for host survival. Here we show that mice lacking IL-15 gene develop a down-regulated IFN-gamma-producing CD4+ T cell response against the parasite, which leads to a reduction in gut necrosis and increased level of survival against infection. Moreover, transfer of immune CD4+ T cells from WT to IL-15-/- mice reversed inhibition of gut pathology and caused mortality equivalent to levels of parental WT mice. Down-regulated CD4+ T cell response in the absence of IL-15, manifested as reduced antigen-specific proliferation, was due to defective priming of the T cell subset by dendritic cells (DCs) of these animals. When stimulated with antigen-pulsed DCs from WT mice, CD4+ T cells from IL-15-/- mice were primed optimally, and robust proliferation of these cells was observed. A defect in the DCs of knockout mice was further confirmed by their reduced ability to produce IL-12 upon stimulation with Toxoplasma lysate antigen. Addition of exogenous IL-15 to DC cultures from knockout mice led to increased IL-12 production by these cells and restored their ability to prime an optimal parasite-specific CD4+ T cell response. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of the role of IL-15 in the development of CD4+ T cell immunity against an intracellular pathogen. Furthermore, based on these observations, targeting of IL-15 should have a beneficial effect on individuals suffering from CD4+ T cell-mediated autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crescent L. Combe
- *Department of Microbiology, Parasitology, and Immunology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112; and
| | - Magali M. Moretto
- *Department of Microbiology, Parasitology, and Immunology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112; and
| | | | | | - David J. Bzik
- Microbiology, Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, NH 03755
| | - Imtiaz A. Khan
- *Department of Microbiology, Parasitology, and Immunology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112; and
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47
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Saito K, Yajima T, Kumabe S, Doi T, Yamada H, Sad S, Shen H, Yoshikai Y. Impaired protection against Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guerin infection in IL-15-deficient mice. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:2496-504. [PMID: 16456010 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.4.2496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the potential role of endogenous IL-15 in mycobacterial infection, we examined protective immunity in IL-15-deficient (IL-15(-/-)) mice after infection with Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) or recombinant OVA-expressing BCG (rBCG-OVA). IL-15(-/-) mice exhibited an impaired protection in the lung on day 120 after BCG infection as assessed by bacterial growth. CD4(+) Th1 response capable of producing IFN-gamma was normally detected in spleen and lung of IL-15(-/-) mice on day 120 after infection. Although Ag-specific CD8 responses capable of producing IFN-gamma and exhibiting cytotoxic activity were detected in the lung on day 21 after infection with rBCG-OVA, the responses were severely impaired on days 70 and 120 in IL-15(-/-) mice. The degree of proliferation of Ag-specific CD8(+) T cells in IL-15(-/-) mice was similar to that in wild-type mice during the course of infection with rBCG-OVA, whereas sensitivity to apoptosis of Ag-specific CD8(+) T cells significantly increased in IL-15(-/-) mice. These results suggest that IL-15 plays an important role in the development of long-lasting protective immunity to BCG infection via sustaining CD8 responses in the lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimika Saito
- Division of Host Defense, Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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48
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Zuo J, Stohlman SA, Hoskin JB, Hinton DR, Atkinson R, Bergmann CC. Mouse hepatitis virus pathogenesis in the central nervous system is independent of IL-15 and natural killer cells. Virology 2006; 350:206-15. [PMID: 16510164 PMCID: PMC7111870 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2006.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2005] [Revised: 01/05/2006] [Accepted: 01/20/2006] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Infection by the neurotropic JHM strain of mouse hepatitis virus (JHMV) results in an acute encephalomyelitis associated with demyelination. T cells are critical in controlling viral replication, but also contribute to central nervous system (CNS) pathogenesis. To reveal a role for innate effectors in anti-viral immunity and neurological disease, JHMV pathogenesis was studied in mice deficient in interleukin-15 (IL-15−/−) and natural killer (NK) cells. Clinical disease, CNS inflammation and demyelination in infected IL-15−/− mice were similar to wild-type mice. Despite the absence of NK cells and suboptimal CD8+ T cell responses, IL-15−/− mice controlled JHMV replication as efficiently as wild-type mice. Similar kinetics of class I and class II upregulation on microglia further suggested no role of NK cells in regulating major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule expression on resident CNS cells. IL-15 and NK cells thus appear dispensable for anti-viral immunity and CNS pathogenesis during acute JHMV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Zuo
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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49
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Usherwood EJ, Meadows SK, Crist SG, Bellfy SC, Sentman CL. Control of murine gammaherpesvirus infection is independent of NK cells. Eur J Immunol 2005; 35:2956-61. [PMID: 16134085 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200526245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Numerous studies have shown that NK cells are important in controlling the early stages of infection with alpha- or betaherpesviruses. In contrast, little is known about the impact of NK cells on gammaherpesvirus infections. We tested mice with defects in NK cells for their ability to resist murine gammaherpesvirus (MHV-68) infection. The depletion of NK cells had no effect on the control of the acute or latent stages of the infection. In addition, transgenic mice deficient in NK cells controlled the infection in a comparable manner to wild-type mice. We also showed that the antiviral CD8 T cell response was unaffected by the presence or absence NK cells. We conclude that NK cells contribute little to the control of MHV-68 infection, and therefore, NK cells are not essential for controlling all herpesvirus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward J Usherwood
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA.
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50
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Muthukumar A, Zhou D, Paiardini M, Barry AP, Cole KS, McClure HM, Staprans SI, Silvestri G, Sodora DL. Timely triggering of homeostatic mechanisms involved in the regulation of T-cell levels in SIVsm-infected sooty mangabeys. Blood 2005; 106:3839-45. [PMID: 16105985 PMCID: PMC1895113 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2005-01-0394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Sooty mangabeys, the natural host of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIVsm), generally avoid progressive depletion of CD4+ T cells and opportunistic infections associated with infection of humans (HIV) and macaques (SIVmac). The means by which the SIVsm-infected mangabeys maintain CD4+ T-cell levels despite high rates of viral replication is unknown. One cytokine that has a key role in the regulation of T-cell levels is interleukin-7 (IL-7). Here, the longitudinal assessment of 6 SIVsm-infected mangabeys identified an early increase in plasma IL-7 levels at weeks 1 to 5 after infection. This IL-7 increase correlated with an early decline in CD4+ T-cell levels (decline of 492-1171 cells/microL) accompanying acute viremia. Elevated IL-7 levels were followed by increased T-cell proliferation (Ki67) and maintenance of lower but stable (more than 500 cells/microL) CD4+ T-cell levels in each mangabey through 37 weeks of infection. These data contrast with our earlier studies in SIVmac-infected macaques, in which the IL-7 increase was delayed until 20 to 40 weeks after infection, just before the onset of simian AIDS. Taken together, these data suggest that timely triggering of IL-7 is important for stabilizing healthy T-cell levels in mangabeys and that timely administration of exogenous IL-7 may show benefit during pathogenic SIVmac and HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alagarraju Muthukumar
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas, TX 75390-9113, USA
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