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Moore KT, Mangan MJ, Linnegar B, Athni TS, McCallum HI, Trewin BJ, Skinner E. Australian vertebrate hosts of Japanese encephalitis virus; a review of the evidence. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.23.590833. [PMID: 38712158 PMCID: PMC11071400 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.23.590833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
Japanese Encephalitis Virus (JEV) transmission in temperate Australia has underscored a critical need to characterise transmission pathways and identify probable hosts of infection within the country. This systematic review consolidates existing research on the vertebrate hosts of JEV that are known to exist in Australia. Specifically, we aim to identify probable species for JEV transmission, their potential role as either a spillover or maintenance host and identify critical knowledge gaps. Data were extracted from studies involving experimental infection, seroprevalence, and virus isolation and were available for 22 vertebrate species known to reside in Australia. A host competence score was calculated to assess the potential for a given species to infect JEV vectors and to quantity their possible role in JEV transmission. Based on the host competence score and ecology of each species, we find ardeid birds, feral pigs, and flying foxes have potential as maintenance hosts for JEV in the Australian context. We also note that brushtail possums and domestic pigs have potential as spillover hosts under certain outbreak conditions. However, evidence to confirm these roles in localized transmission or outbreaks is sparse, emphasizing the need for further targeted research. This review provides a foundation for future investigations into JEV transmission in Australia, advocating for enhanced surveillance and standardized research methodologies to better understand and mitigate the virus's impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin T. Moore
- Centre for Planetary Health and Food Security, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD 4222, Australia
| | - Madelyn J. Mangan
- Centre for Planetary Health and Food Security, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD 4222, Australia
| | - Belinda Linnegar
- Centre for Planetary Health and Food Security, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD 4222, Australia
| | - Tejas S. Athni
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Hamish I. McCallum
- Centre for Planetary Health and Food Security, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD 4222, Australia
| | | | - Eloise Skinner
- Centre for Planetary Health and Food Security, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD 4222, Australia
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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2
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Walsh MG, Webb C, Brookes V. An evaluation of the landscape structure and La Niña climatic anomalies associated with Japanese encephalitis virus outbreaks reported in Australian piggeries in 2022. One Health 2023; 16:100566. [PMID: 37363260 PMCID: PMC10285696 DOI: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2023.100566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The widespread activity of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) reported in previously unaffected regions of eastern and southern Australia in 2022 represents the most significant local arbovirus emergency in almost 50 years. Japanese encephalitis virus is transmitted by mosquitoes and maintained in wild ardeid birds and amplified in pigs, the latter of which suffer significant reproductive losses as a result of infection. The landscape epidemiology of JEV in mainland Australia is almost entirely unknown, particularly in the eastern and southern parts of the country where the virus has not been previously documented. Although other areas with endemic JEV circulation in the Indo-Pacific region have demonstrated the importance of wild waterbird-livestock interface in agricultural-wetland mosaics, no such investigation has yet determined the composition and configuration of pathogenic landscapes for Australia. Moreover, the recent emergence in Australia has followed substantial precipitation and temperature anomalies associated with the La Niña phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation. This study investigated the landscape epidemiology of JEV outbreaks in Australian piggeries reported between January and April of 2022 to determine the influence of ardeid habitat suitability, hydrogeography, hydrology, land cover and La Niña-associated climate anomalies. Outbreaks of JEV in domestic pigs were associated with intermediate ardeid species richness, cultivated land and grassland fragmentation, waterway proximity, temporary wetlands, and hydrological flow accumulation. This study has identified the composition and configuration of landscape features that were associated with piggery outbreaks reported in 2022 in Australia. Although preliminary, these findings can inform actionable strategies for the development of new One Health JEV surveillance specific to the needs of Australia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael G. Walsh
- The University of Sydney, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Sydney School of Public Health, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
- The University of Sydney, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Sydney Infectious Diseases Institute, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia
- One Health Centre, The Prasanna School of Public Health, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
- The Prasanna School of Public Health, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
| | - Cameron Webb
- The University of Sydney, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Sydney Infectious Diseases Institute, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia
- Department of Medical Entomology, NSW Health Pathology, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Victoria Brookes
- The University of Sydney, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Sydney Infectious Diseases Institute, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia
- Faculty of Science, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
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3
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Frank JC, Song BH, Lee YM. Mice as an Animal Model for Japanese Encephalitis Virus Research: Mouse Susceptibility, Infection Route, and Viral Pathogenesis. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12050715. [PMID: 37242385 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12050715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), a zoonotic flavivirus, is principally transmitted by hematophagous mosquitoes, continually between susceptible animals and incidentally from those animals to humans. For almost a century since its discovery, JEV was geographically confined to the Asia-Pacific region with recurrent sizable outbreaks involving wildlife, livestock, and people. However, over the past decade, it has been detected for the first time in Europe (Italy) and Africa (Angola) but has yet to cause any recognizable outbreaks in humans. JEV infection leads to a broad spectrum of clinical outcomes, ranging from asymptomatic conditions to self-limiting febrile illnesses to life-threatening neurological complications, particularly Japanese encephalitis (JE). No clinically proven antiviral drugs are available to treat the development and progression of JE. There are, however, several live and killed vaccines that have been commercialized to prevent the infection and transmission of JEV, yet this virus remains the main cause of acute encephalitis syndrome with high morbidity and mortality among children in the endemic regions. Therefore, significant research efforts have been directed toward understanding the neuropathogenesis of JE to facilitate the development of effective treatments for the disease. Thus far, multiple laboratory animal models have been established for the study of JEV infection. In this review, we focus on mice, the most extensively used animal model for JEV research, and summarize the major findings on mouse susceptibility, infection route, and viral pathogenesis reported in the past and present, and discuss some unanswered key questions for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan C Frank
- Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, College of Agriculture and Applied Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA
| | - Byung-Hak Song
- Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, College of Agriculture and Applied Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA
| | - Young-Min Lee
- Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, College of Agriculture and Applied Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA
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4
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Thomson TN, Marsland MJ, Minko C, Snow KJ, Friedman ND. Japanese encephalitis: A rapid review of reported prevalence of infection, clinical disease and sequelae in immunologically naive populations to inform Australia’s response. Aust N Z J Public Health 2023; 47:100041. [PMID: 37024425 DOI: 10.1016/j.anzjph.2023.100041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
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Xu G, Gao T, Wang Z, Zhang J, Cui B, Shen X, Zhou A, Zhang Y, Zhao J, Liu H, Liang G. Re-Emerged Genotype IV of Japanese Encephalitis Virus Is the Youngest Virus in Evolution. Viruses 2023; 15:626. [PMID: 36992335 PMCID: PMC10054483 DOI: 10.3390/v15030626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2023] [Revised: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2023] Open
Abstract
An outbreak of viral encephalitis caused by a Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) genotype IV infection occurred in Australia between 2021 and 2022. A total of 47 cases and seven deaths were reported as of November 2022. This is the first outbreak of human viral encephalitis caused by JEV GIV since it was first isolated in Indonesia in the late 1970s. Here, a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis based on the whole genome sequences of JEVs revealed it emerged 1037 years ago (95% HPD: 463 to 2100 years). The evolutionary order of JEV genotypes is as follows: GV, GIII, GII, GI, and GIV. The JEV GIV emerged 122 years ago (95% HPD: 57-233) and is the youngest viral lineage. The mean substitution rate of the JEV GIV lineage was 1.145 × 10-3 (95% HPD values, 9.55 × 10-4, 1.35 × 10-3), belonging to rapidly evolving viruses. A series of amino acid mutations with the changes of physico-chemical properties located in the functional important domains within the core and E proteins distinguished emerging GIV isolates from old ones. These results demonstrate the JEV GIV is the youngest JEV genotype at a rapid evolution stage and has good host/vector adaptability for introduction to non-endemic areas. Thus, surveillance of JEVs is highly recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guanlun Xu
- Shandong Provincial Research Center for Bioinformatic Engineering and Technique, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255049, China
| | - Tingting Gao
- Shandong Provincial Research Center for Bioinformatic Engineering and Technique, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255049, China
| | - Zhijie Wang
- Shandong Provincial Research Center for Bioinformatic Engineering and Technique, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255049, China
| | - Jun Zhang
- Shandong Provincial Research Center for Bioinformatic Engineering and Technique, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255049, China
| | - Baoqiu Cui
- Shandong Provincial Research Center for Bioinformatic Engineering and Technique, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255049, China
| | - Xinxin Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Anyang Zhou
- Shandong Provincial Research Center for Bioinformatic Engineering and Technique, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255049, China
| | - Yuan Zhang
- Shandong Provincial Research Center for Bioinformatic Engineering and Technique, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255049, China
| | - Jie Zhao
- Shandong Provincial Research Center for Bioinformatic Engineering and Technique, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255049, China
| | - Hong Liu
- Shandong Provincial Research Center for Bioinformatic Engineering and Technique, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255049, China
| | - Guangdong Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 102206, China
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Tajima S, Maeki T, Nakayama E, Faizah AN, Kobayashi D, Isawa H, Maekawa Y, Bendryman SS, Mulyatno KC, Rohmah EA, Mori Y, Sawabe K, Ebihara H, Lim CK. Growth, Pathogenesis, and Serological Characteristics of the Japanese Encephalitis Virus Genotype IV Recent Strain 19CxBa-83-Cv. Viruses 2023; 15:239. [PMID: 36680278 PMCID: PMC9866982 DOI: 10.3390/v15010239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Genotype IV Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus (GIV JEV) is the least common and most neglected genotype in JEV. We evaluated the growth and pathogenic potential of the GIV strain 19CxBa-83-Cv, which was isolated from a mosquito pool in Bali, Indonesia, in 2019, and serological analyses were also conducted. The growth ability of 19CxBa-83-Cv in Vero cells was intermediate between that of the genotype I (GI) strain Mie/41/2002 and the genotype V (GV) strain Muar, whereas 19CxBa-83-Cv and Mie/41/2002 grew faster than Muar in mouse neuroblastoma cells. The neuroinvasiveness of 19CxBa-83-Cv in mice was higher than that of Mie/41/2002 but lower than that of Muar; however, there were no significant differences in neurovirulence in mice among the three strains. The neutralizing titers of sera from 19CxBa-83-Cv- and Mie/41/2002-inoculated mice against 19CxBa-83-Cv and Mie/41/2002 were similar, whereas the titers against Muar were lower than those of the other two viruses. The neutralizing titers of JE vaccine-inoculated mouse pool serum against 19CxBa-83-Cv and Muar were significantly lower than those against Mie/41/2002. The neutralizing titers against the three viruses were similar in three out of the five serum samples from GI-infected JE patients, although the titers against Mie/41/2002 were higher than those against 19CxBa-83-Cv and Muar in the remaining two sera samples. In summary, we identified the basic characteristics of 19CxBa-83-Cv, but further studies are needed to better understand GIV JEV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigeru Tajima
- Department of Virology 1, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
| | - Takahiro Maeki
- Department of Virology 1, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
| | - Eri Nakayama
- Department of Virology 1, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
| | - Astri Nur Faizah
- Department of Medical Entomology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
| | - Daisuke Kobayashi
- Department of Medical Entomology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
| | - Haruhiko Isawa
- Department of Medical Entomology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
| | - Yoshihide Maekawa
- Department of Medical Entomology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
| | - Sri Subekti Bendryman
- Laboratory of Entomology, Institute of Tropical Diseases, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia
| | - Kris Cahyo Mulyatno
- Laboratory of Entomology, Institute of Tropical Diseases, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia
| | - Etik Ainun Rohmah
- Laboratory of Entomology, Institute of Tropical Diseases, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia
| | - Yasuko Mori
- Division of Clinical Virology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
| | - Kyoko Sawabe
- Department of Medical Entomology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
| | - Hideki Ebihara
- Department of Virology 1, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
| | - Chang-Kweng Lim
- Department of Virology 1, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
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7
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Yakob L, Hu W, Frentiu FD, Gyawali N, Hugo LE, Johnson B, Lau C, Furuya-Kanamori L, Magalhaes RS, Devine G. Japanese Encephalitis Emergence in Australia: The Potential Population at Risk. Clin Infect Dis 2023; 76:335-337. [PMID: 36184991 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciac794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
In Australia, Japanese encephalitis virus circulated in tropical north Queensland between 1995 and 2005. In 2022, a dramatic range expansion across the southern states has resulted in 30 confirmed human cases and 6 deaths. We discuss the outbreak drivers and estimate the potential size of the human population at risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laith Yakob
- Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Wenbiao Hu
- Faculty of Health, School of Public Health and Social Work, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Francesca D Frentiu
- Faculty of Health, School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Narayan Gyawali
- Mosquito Control Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Leon E Hugo
- Mosquito Control Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Brian Johnson
- Mosquito Control Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Colleen Lau
- School of Public Health, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | | | - Ricardo Soares Magalhaes
- Queensland Alliance for One Health Sciences, School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Gregor Devine
- Mosquito Control Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
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8
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Islam N, Lau C, Leeb A, Mills D, Furuya-Kanamori L. Safety profile comparison of chimeric live attenuated and Vero cell-derived inactivated Japanese encephalitis vaccines through an active surveillance system in Australia. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2022; 18:2020573. [PMID: 35254947 PMCID: PMC8986305 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2021.2020573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Limited information is available about post-marketing safety of Japanese encephalitis (JE) vaccines. Using data from SmartVax, an active surveillance system for monitoring vaccine safety, adverse events following immunizations (AEFIs) were compared between the two JE vaccines available in Australia (a chimeric live attenuated vaccine [Imojev] and a Vero cell-derived inactivated vaccine [JEspect]). Data from 2756 patients (1855 Imojev and 901 JEspect) were included. Overall (7.0%), systemic (2.8%), and local (1.9%) AEFIs were uncommon. There were no significant differences in the odds of overall (OR = 1.27; 95%CI: 0.91–1.77), systemic (OR = 1.23; 95%CI: 0.74–2.06), or local (OR = 1.20; 95%CI: 0.65–2.22) AEFIs with Imojev compared to JEspect. There was an increase in odds of overall AEFI in patients aged <5 years (OR = 2.39; 95%CI: 1.10–5.19) compared to those aged >50 years. Both JE vaccines available in Australia are safe and well tolerated. Odds of AEFIs were age-dependent, young children should be carefully observed for AEFIs after vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazmul Islam
- Department of Public Health, College of Health Sciences, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Colleen Lau
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, Australia.,Dr Deb The Travel Doctor, Travel Medicine Alliance, Brisbane, Australia.,Research School of Population Health, College of Health and Medicine, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Alan Leeb
- Illawarra Medical Centre, Perth, Australia
| | - Deborah Mills
- Dr Deb The Travel Doctor, Travel Medicine Alliance, Brisbane, Australia.,Research School of Population Health, College of Health and Medicine, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Luis Furuya-Kanamori
- UQ Centre for Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, Australia
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Sikazwe C, Neave MJ, Michie A, Mileto P, Wang J, Cooper N, Levy A, Imrie A, Baird RW, Currie BJ, Speers D, Mackenzie JS, Smith DW, Williams DT. Molecular detection and characterisation of the first Japanese encephalitis virus belonging to genotype IV acquired in Australia. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010754. [PMID: 36409739 PMCID: PMC9721490 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Revised: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A fatal case of Japanese encephalitis (JE) occurred in a resident of the Tiwi Islands, in the Northern Territory of Australia in February 2021, preceding the large JE outbreak in south-eastern Australia in 2022. This study reports the detection, whole genome sequencing and analysis of the virus responsible (designated JEV/Australia/NT_Tiwi Islands/2021). METHODS Reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) testing was performed on post-mortem brain specimens using a range of JE virus (JEV)-specific assays. Virus isolation from brain specimens was attempted by inoculation of mosquito and mammalian cells or embryonated chicken eggs. Whole genome sequencing was undertaken using a combination of Illumina next generation sequencing methodologies, including a tiling amplicon approach. Phylogenetic and selection analyses were performed using alignments of the Tiwi Islands JEV genome and envelope (E) protein gene sequences and publicly available JEV sequences. RESULTS Virus isolation was unsuccessful and JEV RNA was detected only by RT-qPCR assays capable of detecting all JEV genotypes. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the Tiwi Islands strain is a divergent member of genotype IV (GIV) and is closely related to the 2022 Australian outbreak virus (99.8% nucleotide identity). The Australian strains share highest levels of nucleotide identity with Indonesian viruses from 2017 and 2019 (96.7-96.8%). The most recent common ancestor of this Australian-Indonesian clade was estimated to have emerged in 2007 (95% HPD range: 1998-2014). Positive selection was detected using two methods (MEME and FEL) at several sites in the E and non-structural protein genes, including a single site in the E protein (S194N) unique to the Australian GIV strains. CONCLUSION This case represents the first detection of GIV JEV acquired in Australia, and only the second confirmed fatal human infection with a GIV JEV strain. The close phylogenetic relationship between the Tiwi Islands strain and recent Indonesian viruses is indicative of the origin of this novel GIV lineage, which we estimate has circulated in the region for several years prior to the Tiwi Islands case.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chisha Sikazwe
- PathWest Laboratory Medicine Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Matthew J. Neave
- CSIRO Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Alice Michie
- PathWest Laboratory Medicine Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Patrick Mileto
- CSIRO Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jianning Wang
- CSIRO Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Natalie Cooper
- PathWest Laboratory Medicine Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Avram Levy
- PathWest Laboratory Medicine Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Allison Imrie
- PathWest Laboratory Medicine Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Robert W. Baird
- Pathology and Infectious Diseases Departments, Royal Darwin Hospital, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia
| | - Bart J. Currie
- Pathology and Infectious Diseases Departments, Royal Darwin Hospital, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia
| | - David Speers
- PathWest Laboratory Medicine Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
| | - John S. Mackenzie
- PathWest Laboratory Medicine Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Bentley, Western Australia, Australia
| | - David W. Smith
- PathWest Laboratory Medicine Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
- * E-mail: (DWS); (DTW)
| | - David T. Williams
- CSIRO Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail: (DWS); (DTW)
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10
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Japanese Encephalitis Virus: The Emergence of Genotype IV in Australia and Its Potential Endemicity. Viruses 2022; 14:v14112480. [PMID: 36366578 PMCID: PMC9698845 DOI: 10.3390/v14112480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
A fatal case of Japanese encephalitis (JE) occurred in northern Australia in early 2021. Sequence studies showed that the virus belonged to genotype IV (GIV), a genotype previously believed to be restricted to the Indonesian archipelago. This was the first locally acquired case of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) GIV to occur outside Indonesia, and the second confirmed fatal human case caused by a GIV virus. A closely related GIV JEV strain subsequently caused a widespread outbreak in eastern Australia in 2022 that was first detected by fetal death and abnormalities in commercial piggeries. Forty-two human cases also occurred with seven fatalities. This has been the first major outbreak of JEV in mainland Australia, and geographically the largest virgin soil outbreak recorded for JEV. This outbreak provides an opportunity to discuss and document the factors involved in the virus' spread and its ecology in a novel ecological milieu in which other flaviviruses, including members of the JE serological complex, also occur. The probable vertebrate hosts and mosquito vectors are discussed with respect to virus spread and its possible endemicity in Australia, and the need to develop a One Health approach to develop improved surveillance methods to rapidly detect future outbreak activity across a large geographical area containing a sparse human population. Understanding the spread of JEV in a novel ecological environment is relevant to the possible threat that JEV may pose in the future to other receptive geographic areas, such as the west coast of the United States, southern Europe or Africa.
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11
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Williams CR, Webb CE, Higgs S, van den Hurk AF. Japanese Encephalitis Virus Emergence in Australia: Public Health Importance and Implications for Future Surveillance. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2022; 22:529-534. [DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2022.0037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Craig R. Williams
- UniSA: Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Cameron E. Webb
- Medical Entomology, NSW Health Pathology, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia
- Sydney Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Stephen Higgs
- Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Andrew F. van den Hurk
- Public Health Virology, Forensic and Scientific Services, Department of Health, Queensland Government, Archerfield, Queensland, Australia
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12
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Kain MP, Skinner EB, Athni TS, Ramirez AL, Mordecai EA, van den Hurk AF. Not all mosquitoes are created equal: A synthesis of vector competence experiments reinforces virus associations of Australian mosquitoes. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010768. [PMID: 36194577 PMCID: PMC9565724 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The globalization of mosquito-borne arboviral diseases has placed more than half of the human population at risk. Understanding arbovirus ecology, including the role individual mosquito species play in virus transmission cycles, is critical for limiting disease. Canonical virus-vector groupings, such as Aedes- or Culex-associated flaviviruses, have historically been defined using virus detection in field-collected mosquitoes, mosquito feeding patterns, and vector competence, which quantifies the intrinsic ability of a mosquito to become infected with and transmit a virus during a subsequent blood feed. Herein, we quantitatively synthesize data from 68 laboratory-based vector competence studies of 111 mosquito-virus pairings of Australian mosquito species and viruses of public health concern to further substantiate existing canonical vector-virus groupings and quantify variation within these groupings. Our synthesis reinforces current canonical vector-virus groupings but reveals substantial variation within them. While Aedes species were generally the most competent vectors of canonical “Aedes-associated flaviviruses” (such as dengue, Zika, and yellow fever viruses), there are some notable exceptions; for example, Aedes notoscriptus is an incompetent vector of dengue viruses. Culex spp. were the most competent vectors of many traditionally Culex-associated flaviviruses including West Nile, Japanese encephalitis and Murray Valley encephalitis viruses, although some Aedes spp. are also moderately competent vectors of these viruses. Conversely, many different mosquito genera were associated with the transmission of the arthritogenic alphaviruses, Ross River, Barmah Forest, and chikungunya viruses. We also confirm that vector competence is impacted by multiple barriers to infection and transmission within the mesenteron and salivary glands of the mosquito. Although these barriers represent important bottlenecks, species that were susceptible to infection with a virus were often likely to transmit it. Importantly, this synthesis provides essential information on what species need to be targeted in mosquito control programs. There are over 3,500 species of mosquitoes in the world, but only a small proportion are considered important vectors of arboviruses. Vector competence, the physiological ability of a mosquito to become infected with and transmit arboviruses, is used in combination with virus detection in field populations and analysis of vertebrate host feeding patterns to incriminate mosquito species in virus transmission cycles. Here, we quantified the vector competence of Australian mosquitoes for endemic and exotic viruses of public health concern by analyzing 68 laboratory studies of 111 mosquito-virus pairings. We found that Australia has species that could serve as efficient vectors for each virus tested and it is these species that should be targeted in control programs. We also corroborate previously identified virus-mosquito associations at the mosquito genus level but show that there is considerable variation in vector competence between species within a genus. We also confirmed that vector competence is influenced by infection barriers within the mosquito and the experimental protocols employed. The framework we developed could be used to synthesize vector competence experiments in other regions or expanded to a world-wide overview.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan P. Kain
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Natural Capital Project, Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: , (MPK); (AFvdH)
| | - Eloise B. Skinner
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Centre for Planetary Health and Food Security, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Tejas S. Athni
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Ana L. Ramirez
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of California - Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Erin A. Mordecai
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Andrew F. van den Hurk
- Public Health Virology, Forensic and Scientific Services, Department of Health, Queensland Government, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- * E-mail: , (MPK); (AFvdH)
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13
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Pham D, Howard-Jones AR, Hueston L, Jeoffreys N, Doggett S, Rockett R, Eden JS, Sintchenko V, Chen SCA, O’Sullivan MV, Maddocks S, Dwyer DE, Kok J. Emergence of Japanese encephalitis in Australia: a diagnostic perspective. Pathology 2022; 54:669-677. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pathol.2022.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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The Emergence of Japanese Encephalitis Virus in Australia in 2022: Existing Knowledge of Mosquito Vectors. Viruses 2022; 14:v14061208. [PMID: 35746679 PMCID: PMC9231386 DOI: 10.3390/v14061208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
In early 2022, the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) was identified as the cause of stillborn and mummified piglets in pig farms in southeastern Australia. Human cases and additional pig farms with infected piglets were subsequently identified across a widespread area encompassing four states. To inform surveillance and control programs, we synthesized existing information on Australian vectors of JEV, much of which was generated in response to incursions of JEV into the northern state of Queensland between 1995 and 2005. Members of the Culex sitiens subgroup, particularly Culex annulirostris, should be considered the primary vectors of JEV in Australia, as they yielded >87% of field detections of JEV, were highly efficient laboratory vectors of the virus, readily fed on pigs and birds (the key amplifying hosts of the virus) when they were available, and are widespread and often occur in large populations. Three introduced species, Culex quinquefasciatus, Culex gelidus and Culex tritaeniorhynchus may also serve as vectors, but more information on their geographical distribution, abundance and bionomics in the Australian context is required. Mosquitoes from other genera, such as Aedes and Verrallina, whilst considered relatively poor vectors, could play a regional or supplemental role in transmission, especially facilitating vertical transmission as a virus overwintering mechanism. Additional factors that could impact JEV transmission, including mosquito survival, dispersal and genetics, are also discussed. Possible directions for investigation are provided, especially in the context of the virus emerging in a region with different mosquito fauna and environmental drivers than northern Australia.
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15
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Furuya-Kanamori L, Gyawali N, Mills DJ, Hugo LE, Devine GJ, Lau CL. The Emergence of Japanese Encephalitis in Australia and the Implications for a Vaccination Strategy. Trop Med Infect Dis 2022; 7:tropicalmed7060085. [PMID: 35736964 PMCID: PMC9229418 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed7060085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is the leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia. Until 2022, only six locally transmitted human JE cases had been reported in Australia; five in northern Queensland and one in the Northern Territory. Thus, JE was mainly considered to be a disease of travellers. On 4 March 2022, JE was declared a ‘Communicable Disease Incident of National Significance’ when a locally acquired human case was confirmed in southern Queensland. By 11 May 2022, 41 human JE cases had been notified in four states in Australia, in areas where JE has never been detected before. From this perspective, we discuss the potential reasons for the recent emergence of the JE virus in Australia in areas where JE has never been previously reported as well as the implications of and options for mass immunisation programs if the outbreak escalates in a JE virus-immunologically naïve population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Furuya-Kanamori
- UQ Centre for Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston 4029, Australia
- Correspondence: (L.F.-K.); (C.L.L.)
| | - Narayan Gyawali
- Mosquito Control Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston 4006, Australia; (N.G.); (L.E.H.); (G.J.D.)
| | - Deborah J. Mills
- Dr Deb The Travel Doctor, Travel Medicine Alliance, Brisbane 4000, Australia;
| | - Leon E. Hugo
- Mosquito Control Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston 4006, Australia; (N.G.); (L.E.H.); (G.J.D.)
| | - Gregor J. Devine
- Mosquito Control Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston 4006, Australia; (N.G.); (L.E.H.); (G.J.D.)
| | - Colleen L. Lau
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston 4006, Australia
- Correspondence: (L.F.-K.); (C.L.L.)
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16
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Mulvey P, Duong V, Boyer S, Burgess G, Williams DT, Dussart P, Horwood PF. The Ecology and Evolution of Japanese Encephalitis Virus. Pathogens 2021; 10:1534. [PMID: 34959489 PMCID: PMC8704921 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10121534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus mainly spread by Culex mosquitoes that currently has a geographic distribution across most of Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific. Infection with JEV can cause Japanese encephalitis (JE), a severe disease with a high mortality rate, which also results in ongoing sequalae in many survivors. The natural reservoir of JEV is ardeid wading birds, such as egrets and herons, but pigs commonly play an important role as an amplifying host during outbreaks in human populations. Other domestic animals and wildlife have been detected as hosts for JEV, but their role in the ecology and epidemiology of JEV is uncertain. Safe and effective JEV vaccines are available, but unfortunately, their use remains low in most endemic countries where they are most needed. Increased surveillance and diagnosis of JE is required as climate change and social disruption are likely to facilitate further geographical expansion of Culex vectors and JE risk areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Mulvey
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Townsville 4811, Australia;
| | - Veasna Duong
- Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Institut Pasteur International Network, Phnom Penh 12201, Cambodia; (V.D.); (S.B.); (P.D.)
| | - Sebastien Boyer
- Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Institut Pasteur International Network, Phnom Penh 12201, Cambodia; (V.D.); (S.B.); (P.D.)
| | - Graham Burgess
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville 4811, Australia;
| | - David T. Williams
- Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Geelong 3220, Australia;
| | - Philippe Dussart
- Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Institut Pasteur International Network, Phnom Penh 12201, Cambodia; (V.D.); (S.B.); (P.D.)
| | - Paul F. Horwood
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Townsville 4811, Australia;
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville 4811, Australia;
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17
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Ong OTW, Skinner EB, Johnson BJ, Old JM. Mosquito-Borne Viruses and Non-Human Vertebrates in Australia: A Review. Viruses 2021; 13:265. [PMID: 33572234 PMCID: PMC7915788 DOI: 10.3390/v13020265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Mosquito-borne viruses are well recognized as a global public health burden amongst humans, but the effects on non-human vertebrates is rarely reported. Australia, houses a number of endemic mosquito-borne viruses, such as Ross River virus, Barmah Forest virus, and Murray Valley encephalitis virus. In this review, we synthesize the current state of mosquito-borne viruses impacting non-human vertebrates in Australia, including diseases that could be introduced due to local mosquito distribution. Given the unique island biogeography of Australia and the endemism of vertebrate species (including macropods and monotremes), Australia is highly susceptible to foreign mosquito species becoming established, and mosquito-borne viruses becoming endemic alongside novel reservoirs. For each virus, we summarize the known geographic distribution, mosquito vectors, vertebrate hosts, clinical signs and treatments, and highlight the importance of including non-human vertebrates in the assessment of future disease outbreaks. The mosquito-borne viruses discussed can impact wildlife, livestock, and companion animals, causing significant changes to Australian ecology and economy. The complex nature of mosquito-borne disease, and challenges in assessing the impacts to non-human vertebrate species, makes this an important topic to periodically review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oselyne T. W. Ong
- Children’s Medical Research Institute, Westmead, NSW 2145, Australia;
- Mosquito Control Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia;
| | - Eloise B. Skinner
- Environmental Futures Research Institute, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD 4222, Australia;
- Biology Department, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Brian J. Johnson
- Mosquito Control Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia;
| | - Julie M. Old
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Hawkesbury, Locked bag 1797, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia
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18
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Carro SD, Cherry S. Beyond the Surface: Endocytosis of Mosquito-Borne Flaviviruses. Viruses 2020; 13:E13. [PMID: 33374822 PMCID: PMC7824540 DOI: 10.3390/v13010013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Flaviviruses are a group of positive-sense RNA viruses that are primarily transmitted through arthropod vectors and are capable of causing a broad spectrum of diseases. Many of the flaviviruses that are pathogenic in humans are transmitted specifically through mosquito vectors. Over the past century, many mosquito-borne flavivirus infections have emerged and re-emerged, and are of global importance with hundreds of millions of infections occurring yearly. There is a need for novel, effective, and accessible vaccines and antivirals capable of inhibiting flavivirus infection and ameliorating disease. The development of therapeutics targeting viral entry has long been a goal of antiviral research, but most efforts are hindered by the lack of broad-spectrum potency or toxicities associated with on-target effects, since many host proteins necessary for viral entry are also essential for host cell biology. Mosquito-borne flaviviruses generally enter cells by clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME), and recent studies suggest that a subset of these viruses can be internalized through a specialized form of CME that has additional dependencies distinct from canonical CME pathways, and antivirals targeting this pathway have been discovered. In this review, we discuss the role and contribution of endocytosis to mosquito-borne flavivirus entry as well as consider past and future efforts to target endocytosis for therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sara Cherry
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA;
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19
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Pyke AT, Choong K, Moore F, Schlebusch S, Taylor C, Hewitson G, McMahon J, Nair N, Moore P, Finger M, Burtonclay P, Wheatley S. A Case of Japanese Encephalitis with a Fatal Outcome in an Australian Who Traveled from Bali in 2019. Trop Med Infect Dis 2020; 5:tropicalmed5030133. [PMID: 32825150 PMCID: PMC7558094 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed5030133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A severe case of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) infection, resulting in fatality, occurred in an unvaccinated Australian male traveler from Bali, Indonesia, in 2019. During hospitalisation in Australia, patient cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) yielded JEV-specific IgM antibodies and RNA, and an isolate of the virus. Ongoing transmission of JEV in Bali underscores this pathogen as a public health risk and the importance of appropriate health, vaccination and mosquito avoidance advice to prospective travelers to the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa T. Pyke
- Public Health Virology Laboratory, Forensic and Scientific Services, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia; (F.M.); (S.S.); (C.T.); (G.H.); (J.M.); (N.N.); (P.M.); (M.F.); (P.B.); (S.W.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Keat Choong
- Sunshine Coast University Hospital, Birtinya, QLD 4575, Australia;
| | - Frederick Moore
- Public Health Virology Laboratory, Forensic and Scientific Services, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia; (F.M.); (S.S.); (C.T.); (G.H.); (J.M.); (N.N.); (P.M.); (M.F.); (P.B.); (S.W.)
| | - Sanmarié Schlebusch
- Public Health Virology Laboratory, Forensic and Scientific Services, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia; (F.M.); (S.S.); (C.T.); (G.H.); (J.M.); (N.N.); (P.M.); (M.F.); (P.B.); (S.W.)
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Carmel Taylor
- Public Health Virology Laboratory, Forensic and Scientific Services, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia; (F.M.); (S.S.); (C.T.); (G.H.); (J.M.); (N.N.); (P.M.); (M.F.); (P.B.); (S.W.)
| | - Glen Hewitson
- Public Health Virology Laboratory, Forensic and Scientific Services, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia; (F.M.); (S.S.); (C.T.); (G.H.); (J.M.); (N.N.); (P.M.); (M.F.); (P.B.); (S.W.)
| | - Jamie McMahon
- Public Health Virology Laboratory, Forensic and Scientific Services, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia; (F.M.); (S.S.); (C.T.); (G.H.); (J.M.); (N.N.); (P.M.); (M.F.); (P.B.); (S.W.)
| | - Neelima Nair
- Public Health Virology Laboratory, Forensic and Scientific Services, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia; (F.M.); (S.S.); (C.T.); (G.H.); (J.M.); (N.N.); (P.M.); (M.F.); (P.B.); (S.W.)
| | - Peter Moore
- Public Health Virology Laboratory, Forensic and Scientific Services, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia; (F.M.); (S.S.); (C.T.); (G.H.); (J.M.); (N.N.); (P.M.); (M.F.); (P.B.); (S.W.)
| | - Mitchell Finger
- Public Health Virology Laboratory, Forensic and Scientific Services, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia; (F.M.); (S.S.); (C.T.); (G.H.); (J.M.); (N.N.); (P.M.); (M.F.); (P.B.); (S.W.)
| | - Peter Burtonclay
- Public Health Virology Laboratory, Forensic and Scientific Services, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia; (F.M.); (S.S.); (C.T.); (G.H.); (J.M.); (N.N.); (P.M.); (M.F.); (P.B.); (S.W.)
| | - Sarah Wheatley
- Public Health Virology Laboratory, Forensic and Scientific Services, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia; (F.M.); (S.S.); (C.T.); (G.H.); (J.M.); (N.N.); (P.M.); (M.F.); (P.B.); (S.W.)
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20
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Oliveira ARS, Cohnstaedt LW, Noronha LE, Mitzel D, McVey DS, Cernicchiaro N. Perspectives Regarding the Risk of Introduction of the Japanese Encephalitis Virus (JEV) in the United States. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:48. [PMID: 32118069 PMCID: PMC7019853 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a zoonotic, emerging disease transmitted by mosquito vectors infected with the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). Its potential for emergence into susceptible regions is high, including in the United States (US), and is a reason of economic concern among the agricultural community, and to public health due to high morbidity and mortality rates in humans. While exploring the complexities of interactions involved with viral transmission, we proposed a new outlook on the role of vectors, hosts and the environment under changing conditions. For instance, the role of feral pigs may have been underappreciated in our previous work, given research keeps pointing to the importance of susceptible populations of wild swine in naïve regions as key elements for the introduction of emergent vector-borne diseases. High risk of JEV introduction has been associated with the transportation of infected mosquitoes via aircraft. Nonetheless, no JEV outbreaks have been reported in the US to date and results from a qualitative risk assessment considered the risk of establishment to be negligible under the current conditions (environmental, vector, pathogen, and host). In this work, we discuss virus-vector-host interactions and ecological factors important for virus transmission and spread, review research on the risk of JEV introduction to the US considering the implications of risk dismissal as it relates to past experiences with similar arboviruses, and reflect on future directions, challenges, and implications of a JEV incursion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana R S Oliveira
- Center for Outcomes Research and Epidemiology, Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
| | - Lee W Cohnstaedt
- Arthropod-Borne Animal Diseases Research, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Manhattan, KS, United States
| | - Leela E Noronha
- Arthropod-Borne Animal Diseases Research, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Manhattan, KS, United States
| | - Dana Mitzel
- Arthropod-Borne Animal Diseases Research, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Manhattan, KS, United States
| | - D Scott McVey
- Arthropod-Borne Animal Diseases Research, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Manhattan, KS, United States
| | - Natalia Cernicchiaro
- Center for Outcomes Research and Epidemiology, Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
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21
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Young CL, Lyons AC, Hsu WW, Vanlandingham DL, Park SL, Bilyeu AN, Ayers VB, Hettenbach SM, Zelenka AM, Cool KR, Peterson GJ, Higgs S, Huang YJS. Protection of swine by potent neutralizing anti-Japanese encephalitis virus monoclonal antibodies derived from vaccination. Antiviral Res 2019; 174:104675. [PMID: 31825852 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2019.104675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Revised: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus endemic in the Asia Pacific region. Despite use of several highly effective vaccines, it is estimated that up to 44,000 new cases of Japanese encephalitis (JE) occur every year including 14,000 deaths and 24,000 survivors with permanent sequelae. Humoral immunity induced by vaccination is critical for effective protection. Potently neutralizing antibodies reactive with the JEV envelope (E) protein are important since protective immune responses induced by both live-attenuated and inactivated JE vaccines target the E protein. Our understanding of how vaccine-induced humoral immunity protects vaccinees from morbidity and mortality is, however, limited and largely obtained from in vitro studies. With the exception of neurovirulence mouse models, very few platforms are available for evaluating the protective efficacy of neutralizing antibodies against JEV in vivo. Swine are a major amplifying host in the natural JEV transmission cycle and develop multiple pathological outcomes similar to humans infected with JEV. In this study, prophylactic passive immunization was performed in a miniature swine model, using two vaccination-induced monoclonal antibodies (mAb), JEV-31 and JEV-169. These were selected as representatives for antibodies reactive with the major antigenic structures in the E protein of JEV and related flaviviruses. JEV-31 recognizes the lateral ridge of E protein domain III (EDIII) whilst JEV-169 has a broad footprint of binding involving residues throughout domains I (EDI) and II (EDII) of the E protein. Detection of neutralizing antibodies in the serum of immunized animals mimics the presence of neutralizing antibodies in vaccinated individuals. Passive immunization with both mAbs significantly reduced the severity of diseases that resemble the symptoms of human JE including fever, viremia, viral shedding, systemic infection, and neuroinvasion. In contrast to the uniformed decrease of viral loads in lymphoid and central nervous systems, distinct kinetics in the onset of fever and viremia between animals receiving JEV-31 and JEV-169 suggest potential differences in immune protection mechanisms between anti-EDI and anti-EDIII neutralizing antibodies elicited by vaccination. Our data demonstrate the feasibility of using swine models in characterizing the protective humoral immunity against JEV and increase our understanding of how clonal populations of anti-E mAbs derived from JE vaccination protect against infection in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian L Young
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA; Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA; National Bio- and Agro-Defense Facility Scientist Training Program, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, USA
| | - Amy C Lyons
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA; Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Wei-Wen Hsu
- Department of Statistics, College of Arts and Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Dana L Vanlandingham
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA; Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - So Lee Park
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA; Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Ashley N Bilyeu
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA; Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Victoria B Ayers
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA; Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA; National Bio- and Agro-Defense Facility Scientist Training Program, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, USA
| | - Susan M Hettenbach
- Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Ashley M Zelenka
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA; Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Konner R Cool
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA; Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Gregory J Peterson
- University Research Compliance Office, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Stephen Higgs
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA; Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Yan-Jang S Huang
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA; Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA.
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22
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Chakraborty S, Barman A, Deb B. Japanese encephalitis virus: A multi-epitope loaded peptide vaccine formulation using reverse vaccinology approach. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2019; 78:104106. [PMID: 31706079 PMCID: PMC7106040 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2019.104106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a serious leading health complication emerging expansively that has severely affected the survival rate of human beings. This fatal disease is caused by JE Virus (JEV). The current study was carried out for designing a multi-epitope loaded peptide vaccine to prevent JEV. Based on reverse vaccinology and in silico approaches, octapeptide B-cell and hexapeptide T-cell epitopes belonging to five proteins, viz. E, prM, NS1, NS3 and NS5 of JEV were determined. Hydrophilicity, antigenicity, immunogenicity and aliphatic amino acids of the epitopes were estimated. Further, the epitopes were analyzed for different physicochemical parameters, e.g. total net charges, amino acid composition and Boman index. Out of all the epitopes, a total of four T-cell epitopes namely KRADSS, KRSRRS, SKRSRR and KECPDE and one B-cell epitope i.e. PKPCSKGD were found to have potential for raising immunity in human against the pathogen. Taking into account the outcome of this study, the pharmaceutical industries could initiate efforts to combine the identified epitopes together with adjuvant or carrier protein to develop a multi-epitope-loaded peptide vaccine against JEV. The peptide vaccine, being cost effective, could be administered as a prophylactic measure and in JEV infected individuals to combat the spread of this virus in human population. However, prior to administration into human beings, the vaccine must pass through several clinical trials. Potential T and B-cell epitopes of 5 proteins in Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) were determined using bioinformatics. All epitopes were analyzed for hydrophilicity, immunogenicity, antigenicity and other physicochemical parameters. Identified epitopes could be used for developing a multi-epitope-loaded peptide vaccine to combat JEV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Supriyo Chakraborty
- Department of Biotechnology, Assam University, Silchar 788011, Assam, India.
| | - Antara Barman
- Department of Biotechnology, Assam University, Silchar 788011, Assam, India
| | - Bornali Deb
- Department of Biotechnology, Assam University, Silchar 788011, Assam, India
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Japanese encephalitis virus: Associated immune response and recent progress in vaccine development. Microb Pathog 2019; 136:103678. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2019.103678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Revised: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Ladreyt H, Durand B, Dussart P, Chevalier V. How Central Is the Domestic Pig in the Epidemiological Cycle of Japanese Encephalitis Virus? A Review of Scientific Evidence and Implications for Disease Control. Viruses 2019; 11:E949. [PMID: 31618959 PMCID: PMC6832429 DOI: 10.3390/v11100949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the existence of human vaccines, Japanese encephalitis (JE) remains the leading cause of human encephalitis in Asia. Pigs are described as the main amplifying host, but their role in JE epidemiology needs to be reassessed in order to identify and implement efficient control strategies, for both human and animal health. We aimed to provide a systematic review of publications linked to JE in swine, in terms of both individual and population characteristics of JE virus (JEV) infection and circulation, as well as observed epidemiological patterns. We used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement to select and analyze relevant articles from the Scopus database, 127 of which were included in the review. Pigs are central, but the implication of secondary hosts cannot be ruled out and should be further investigated. Although human vaccination cannot eradicate the virus, it is clearly the most important means of preventing human disease. However, a better understanding of the actual involvement of domestic pigs as well as other potential JEV hosts in different JEV epidemiological cycles and patterns could help to identify additional/complementary control measures, either by targeting pigs or not, and in some specific epidemiological contexts, contribute to reduce virus circulation and protect humans from JEV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Héléna Ladreyt
- Epidemiology Unit, Laboratory for Animal Health, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), University Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France.
- Agricultural Research for Development (CIRAD), UMR ASTRE, F-34090 Montpellier, France.
| | - Benoit Durand
- Epidemiology Unit, Laboratory for Animal Health, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), University Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France.
| | - Philippe Dussart
- Virology Unit, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Institut Pasteur International Network, PO Box 983, Phnom Penh 12201, Cambodia.
| | - Véronique Chevalier
- Agricultural Research for Development (CIRAD), UMR ASTRE, F-34090 Montpellier, France.
- Epidemiology and Public Health Unit, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Institut Pasteur International Network, PO Box 983, Phnom Penh 12201, Cambodia.
- Agricultural Research for Development (CIRAD), UMR ASTRE, Phnom Penh 12201, Cambodia.
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Nguyen-Tien T, Lundkvist Å, Lindahl J. Urban transmission of mosquito-borne flaviviruses - a review of the risk for humans in Vietnam. Infect Ecol Epidemiol 2019; 9:1660129. [PMID: 31528273 PMCID: PMC6735309 DOI: 10.1080/20008686.2019.1660129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Vietnam is a tropical country where mosquito-borne diseases are common. This review explores the transmission of mosquito-borne flaviviruses in urban areas of Vietnam. It concludes that urban transmission has mainly been studied for Dengue virus, and so far, much less for Japanese encephalitis virus. Dengue is the most common flavivirus in Vietnam. Due to fast urbanization and favorable climatic conditions, the viral transmission concentrates mainly to large cities with high population density including Ha Noi, Nha Trang and Ho Chi Minh. Human cases of Japanese encephalitis have been controlled by an expanded immunization program. However, this virus is still circulating throughout the country, also in cities due to the pig rearing practices in urban and peri-urban areas. Zika virus is an additional major concern because it has long circulated in the Northern area and is now increasingly diagnosed in urban areas of the Central, Central Highlands and Southern regions using the same mosquito vectors as Dengue virus. There was alarge outbreak of Zika disease from 2016 to early 2017, with most infections observed in Ho Chi Minh city, the largest town in Vietnam. Other flaviviruses circulate in Vietnam but have not been investigated in terms of urban transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thang Nguyen-Tien
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- International Livestock Research Institute, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Åke Lundkvist
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Johanna Lindahl
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- International Livestock Research Institute, Hanoi, Vietnam
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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Abstract
Japanese encephalitis is a mosquito-borne disease that occurs in Asia and is caused by Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), a member of the genus Flavivirus. Although many flaviviruses can cause encephalitis, JEV causes particularly severe neurological manifestations. The virus causes loss of more disability-adjusted life years than any other arthropod-borne virus owing to the frequent neurological sequelae of the condition. Despite substantial advances in our understanding of Japanese encephalitis from in vitro studies and animal models, studies of pathogenesis and treatment in humans are lagging behind. Few mechanistic studies have been conducted in humans, and only four clinical trials of therapies for Japanese encephalitis have taken place in the past 10 years despite an estimated incidence of 69,000 cases per year. Previous trials for Japanese encephalitis might have been too small to detect important benefits of potential treatments. Many potential treatment targets exist for Japanese encephalitis, and pathogenesis and virological studies have uncovered mechanisms by which these drugs could work. In this Review, we summarize the epidemiology, clinical features, prevention and treatment of Japanese encephalitis and focus on potential new therapeutic strategies, based on repurposing existing compounds that are already suitable for human use and could be trialled without delay. We use our newly improved understanding of Japanese encephalitis pathogenesis to posit potential treatments and outline some of the many challenges that remain in tackling the disease in humans.
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Hills SL, Walter EB, Atmar RL, Fischer M. Japanese Encephalitis Vaccine: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Recomm Rep 2019; 68:1-33. [PMID: 31518342 PMCID: PMC6659993 DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.rr6802a1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This report updates the 2010 recommendations from the CDC Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) regarding prevention of Japanese encephalitis (JE) among U.S. travelers and laboratory workers (Fischer M, Lindsey N, Staples JE, Hills S. Japanese encephalitis vaccines: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 2010;59[No. RR-1]). The report summarizes the epidemiology of JE, describes the JE vaccine that is licensed and available in the United States, and provides recommendations for its use among travelers and laboratory workers.JE virus, a mosquitoborne flavivirus, is the most common vaccine-preventable cause of encephalitis in Asia. JE occurs throughout most of Asia and parts of the western Pacific. Approximately 20%-30% of patients die, and 30%-50% of survivors have neurologic, cognitive, or behavioral sequelae. No antiviral treatment is available.Inactivated Vero cell culture-derived JE vaccine (Ixiaro [JE-VC]) is the only JE vaccine that is licensed and available in the United States. In 2009, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) licensed JE-VC for use in persons aged ≥17 years; in 2013, licensure was extended to include children aged ≥2 months.Most travelers to countries where the disease is endemic are at very low risk for JE. However, some travelers are at increased risk for infection on the basis of their travel plans. Factors that increase the risk for JE virus exposure include 1) traveling for a longer period; 2) travel during the JE virus transmission season; 3) spending time in rural areas; 4) participating in extensive outdoor activities; and 5) staying in accommodations without air conditioning, screens, or bed nets. All travelers to countries where JE is endemic should be advised to take precautions to avoid mosquito bites to reduce the risk for JE and other vectorborne diseases. For some persons who might be at increased risk for JE, the vaccine can further reduce the risk for infection. The decision about whether to vaccinate should be individualized and consider the 1) risks related to the specific travel itinerary, 2) likelihood of future travel to countries where JE is endemic, 3) high morbidity and mortality of JE, 4) availability of an effective vaccine, 5) possibility (but low probability) of serious adverse events after vaccination, and 6) the traveler's personal perception and tolerance of risk.JE vaccine is recommended for persons moving to a JE-endemic country to take up residence, longer-term (e.g., ≥1 month) travelers to JE-endemic areas, and frequent travelers to JE-endemic areas. JE vaccine also should be considered for shorter-term (e.g., <1 month) travelers with an increased risk for JE on the basis of planned travel duration, season, location, activities, and accommodations and for travelers to JE-endemic areas who are uncertain about their specific travel duration, destinations, or activities. JE vaccine is not recommended for travelers with very low-risk itineraries, such as shorter-term travel limited to urban areas or outside of a well-defined JE virus transmission season.
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Japanese Encephalitis Virus in Australia: From Known Known to Known Unknown. Trop Med Infect Dis 2019; 4:tropicalmed4010038. [PMID: 30791674 PMCID: PMC6473502 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed4010038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2019] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a major cause of neurological disease in Asia. It is a zoonotic flavivirus transmitted between water birds and/or pigs by Culex mosquitoes; humans are dead-end hosts. In 1995, JEV emerged for the first time in northern Australia causing an unprecedented outbreak in the Torres Strait. In this article, we revisit the history of JEV in Australia and describe investigations of JEV transmission cycles in the Australian context. Public health responses to the incipient outbreak included vaccination and sentinel pig surveillance programs. Virus isolation and vector competence experiments incriminated Culex annulirostris as the likely regional vector. The role this species plays in transmission cycles depends on the availability of domestic pigs as a blood source. Experimental evidence suggests that native animals are relatively poor amplifying hosts of JEV. The persistence and predominantly annual virus activity between 1995 and 2005 suggested that JEV had become endemic in the Torres Strait. However, active surveillance was discontinued at the end of 2005, so the status of JEV in northern Australia is unknown. Novel mosquito-based surveillance systems provide a means to investigate whether JEV still occurs in the Torres Strait or is no longer a risk to Australia.
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Samy AM, Alkishe AA, Thomas SM, Wang L, Zhang W. Mapping the potential distributions of etiological agent, vectors, and reservoirs of Japanese Encephalitis in Asia and Australia. Acta Trop 2018; 188:108-117. [PMID: 30118701 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2018.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Revised: 08/11/2018] [Accepted: 08/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a substantial cause of viral encephalitis, morbidity, and mortality in South-East Asia and the Western Pacific. World Health Organization recognized Japanese Encephalitis (JE) as a public health priority in demands to initiate active vaccination programs. Recently, the geographic distribution of JEV has apparently expanded into other areas in the Pacific islands and northern Australia; however, major gaps exist in knowledge in regard to its current distribution. Here, we mapped the potential distribution of mosquito vectors of JEV (Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Cx. pseudovishnui, Cx. vishnui, Cx. fuscocephala, Cx. gelidus), and reservoirs (Egretta garzetta, E. intermedia, Nycticorax nycticorax) based on ecological niche modeling approach. Ecological niche models predicted all species to occur across Central, South and South East Asia; however, Cx. tritaeniorhynchus, E. garzetta, E. intermedia, and N. nycticorax had broader potential distributions extending west to parts of the Arabian Peninsula. All predictions were robust and significantly better than random (P < 0.001). We also tested the JEV prediction based on 4335 additional independent human case records collected by the Chinese Information System for Disease Control and Prevention (CISDCP); 4075 cases were successfully predicted by the model (P < 0.001). Finally, we tested the ecological niche similarity among JEV, vector, and reservoir species and could not reject any of the null hypotheses of niche similarity in all combination pairs.
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Gao X, Liu H, Li X, Fu S, Cao L, Shao N, Zhang W, Wang Q, Lu Z, Lei W, He Y, Cao Y, Wang H, Liang G. Changing Geographic Distribution of Japanese Encephalitis Virus Genotypes, 1935-2017. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2018; 19:35-44. [PMID: 30207876 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2018.2291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a representative virus of the JEV serogroup in genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae. JEV is a mosquito-borne virus that causes Japanese encephalitis (JE), one of the most severe viral encephalitis diseases in the world. JEV is divided into five genotypes (G1-G5), and each genotype has its own distribution pattern. However, the distribution of different JEV genotypes has changed markedly in recent years. JEV G1 has replaced G3 as the dominant genotype in the traditional epidemic areas in Asia, while G3 has spread from Asia to Europe and Africa and caused domestic JE cases in Africa. G2 and G5, which were endemic in Malaysia, exhibited great geographical changes as well. G2 migrated southward and led to prevalence of JE in Australia, while G5 emerged in China and South Korea after decades of silence. Along with these changes, JE occurred in some non-traditional epidemic regions as an emerging infectious disease. The regional changes in JEV pose a great threat to human health, leading to huge disease burdens. Therefore, it is of great importance to strengthen the monitoring of JEV as well as virus genotypes, especially in non-traditional epidemic areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyan Gao
- 1 Department of Science and Technology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,2 State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Department of Viral Encephalitis and Arbovirus, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China.,3 Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hong Liu
- 4 Shandong Provincial Research Center for Bioinformatic Engineering and Technique, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China
| | - Xiaolong Li
- 2 State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Department of Viral Encephalitis and Arbovirus, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China.,3 Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shihong Fu
- 2 State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Department of Viral Encephalitis and Arbovirus, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China.,3 Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Lei Cao
- 2 State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Department of Viral Encephalitis and Arbovirus, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China.,3 Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Nan Shao
- 2 State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Department of Viral Encephalitis and Arbovirus, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China.,3 Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Weijia Zhang
- 2 State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Department of Viral Encephalitis and Arbovirus, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China.,3 Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qianying Wang
- 2 State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Department of Viral Encephalitis and Arbovirus, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China.,3 Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhi Lu
- 2 State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Department of Viral Encephalitis and Arbovirus, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China.,3 Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Wenwen Lei
- 2 State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Department of Viral Encephalitis and Arbovirus, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China.,3 Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ying He
- 2 State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Department of Viral Encephalitis and Arbovirus, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China.,3 Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yuxi Cao
- 1 Department of Science and Technology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,2 State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Department of Viral Encephalitis and Arbovirus, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Huanyu Wang
- 2 State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Department of Viral Encephalitis and Arbovirus, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China.,3 Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Guodong Liang
- 2 State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Department of Viral Encephalitis and Arbovirus, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China.,3 Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Hangzhou, China
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Kumar B, Manuja A, Gulati BR, Virmani N, Tripathi B. Zoonotic Viral Diseases of Equines and Their Impact on Human and Animal Health. Open Virol J 2018; 12:80-98. [PMID: 30288197 PMCID: PMC6142672 DOI: 10.2174/1874357901812010080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2017] [Revised: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Zoonotic diseases are the infectious diseases that can be transmitted to human beings and vice versa from animals either directly or indirectly. These diseases can be caused by a range of organisms including bacteria, parasites, viruses and fungi. Viral diseases are highly infectious and capable of causing pandemics as evidenced by outbreaks of diseases like Ebola, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome, West Nile, SARS-Corona, Nipah, Hendra, Avian influenza and Swine influenza. EXPALANTION Many viruses affecting equines are also important human pathogens. Diseases like Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE), Western equine encephalitis (WEE), and Venezuelan-equine encephalitis (VEE) are highly infectious and can be disseminated as aerosols. A large number of horses and human cases of VEE with fatal encephalitis have continuously occurred in Venezuela and Colombia. Vesicular stomatitis (VS) is prevalent in horses in North America and has zoonotic potential causing encephalitis in children. Hendra virus (HeV) causes respiratory and neurological disease and death in man and horses. Since its first outbreak in 1994, 53 disease incidents have been reported in Australia. West Nile fever has spread to many newer territories across continents during recent years.It has been described in Africa, Europe, South Asia, Oceania and North America. Japanese encephalitis has expanded horizons from Asia to western Pacific region including the eastern Indonesian archipelago, Papua New Guinea and Australia. Rabies is rare in horses but still a public health concern being a fatal disease. Equine influenza is historically not known to affect humans but many scientists have mixed opinions. Equine viral diseases of zoonotic importance and their impact on animal and human health have been elaborated in this article. CONCLUSION Equine viral diseases though restricted to certain geographical areas have huge impact on equine and human health. Diseases like West Nile fever, Hendra, VS, VEE, EEE, JE, Rabies have the potential for spread and ability to cause disease in human. Equine influenza is historically not known to affect humans but some experimental and observational evidence show that H3N8 influenza virus has infected man. Despite our pursuit of understanding the complexity of the vector-host-pathogen mediating disease transmission, it is not possible to make generalized predictions concerning the degree of impact of disease emergence. A targeted, multidisciplinary effort is required to understand the risk factors for zoonosis and apply the interventions necessary to control it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balvinder Kumar
- ICAR-National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar-125001, India
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Early Events in Japanese Encephalitis Virus Infection: Viral Entry. Pathogens 2018; 7:pathogens7030068. [PMID: 30104482 PMCID: PMC6161159 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens7030068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2018] [Revised: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), a mosquito-borne zoonotic flavivirus, is an enveloped positive-strand RNA virus that can cause a spectrum of clinical manifestations, ranging from mild febrile illness to severe neuroinvasive disease. Today, several killed and live vaccines are available in different parts of the globe for use in humans to prevent JEV-induced diseases, yet no antivirals are available to treat JEV-associated diseases. Despite the progress made in vaccine research and development, JEV is still a major public health problem in southern, eastern, and southeastern Asia, as well as northern Oceania, with the potential to become an emerging global pathogen. In viral replication, the entry of JEV into the cell is the first step in a cascade of complex interactions between the virus and target cells that is required for the initiation, dissemination, and maintenance of infection. Because this step determines cell/tissue tropism and pathogenesis, it is a promising target for antiviral therapy. JEV entry is mediated by the viral glycoprotein E, which binds virions to the cell surface (attachment), delivers them to endosomes (endocytosis), and catalyzes the fusion between the viral and endosomal membranes (membrane fusion), followed by the release of the viral genome into the cytoplasm (uncoating). In this multistep process, a collection of host factors are involved. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the viral and cellular components involved in JEV entry into host cells, with an emphasis on the initial virus-host cell interactions on the cell surface.
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Horwood PF, McBryde ES, Peniyamina D, Ritchie SA. The Indo-Papuan conduit: a biosecurity challenge for Northern Australia. Aust N Z J Public Health 2018; 42:434-436. [PMID: 30088687 DOI: 10.1111/1753-6405.12808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Paul F Horwood
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Queensland
| | - Emma S McBryde
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Queensland
| | - Dunstan Peniyamina
- Tropical Public Health Services, Cairns and Hinterland Hospital and Health Service, Queensland Health
| | - Scott A Ritchie
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Queensland.,College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Queensland
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34
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Barzon L, Palù G. Recent developments in vaccines and biological therapies against Japanese encephalitis virus. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2018; 18:851-864. [DOI: 10.1080/14712598.2018.1499721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Barzon
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Giorgio Palù
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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35
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Oliveira AR, Strathe E, Etcheverry L, Cohnstaedt LW, McVey DS, Piaggio J, Cernicchiaro N. Assessment of data on vector and host competence for Japanese encephalitis virus: A systematic review of the literature. Prev Vet Med 2018; 154:71-89. [DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2018.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Revised: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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36
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Abstract
Equine populations worldwide are at increasing risk of infection by viruses transmitted by biting arthropods, including mosquitoes, biting midges (Culicoides), sandflies and ticks. These include the flaviviruses (Japanese encephalitis, West Nile and Murray Valley encephalitis), alphaviruses (eastern, western and Venezuelan encephalitis) and the orbiviruses (African horse sickness and equine encephalosis). This review provides an overview of the challenges faced in the surveillance, prevention and control of the major equine arboviruses, particularly in the context of these viruses emerging in new regions of the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- G E Chapman
- Epidemiology and Population Health, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - M Baylis
- Epidemiology and Population Health, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - D Archer
- Epidemiology and Population Health, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - J M Daly
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Leicestershire, UK
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Abstract
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is the most commonly diagnosed viral encephalitis in Asia. JE is caused by a virus called JE virus (JEV), a member of the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae, and is transmitted by Culex mosquitoes. Neutralising antibody to JEV protects against JE, and can be induced by vaccination. JE is a potential threat to travellers to endemic areas, which are most of South and Southeast Asia and some Pacific Islands. The risk of JE can be expected to increase with increasing mosquito exposure and time spent in regions and seasons of active transmission. JE is very rare in travellers, but mortality is high, around 1 in 3, and there is a high rate of lasting neurological damage. JE can therefore be a profoundly life changing event for a traveller. Travellers and their healthcare providers need to balance the low risk of disease against the very high severity of disease if it does occur. In order to make an informed decision, the severity of JE disease should be carefully explained to travellers to Asia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lance Turtle
- a Centre for Global Vaccine Research, Institute of Infection and Global Health , University of Liverpool , Liverpool , UK.,b NIHR Health Protection Research Unit for Emerging and Zoonotic Infections , University of Liverpool , Liverpool , UK.,c Tropical & Infectious Disease Unit , Royal Liverpool University Hospital , Liverpool , UK
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Wang C, Zhang N, Qi L, Yuan J, Wang K, Wang K, Ma S, Wang H, Lou W, Hu P, Awais M, Cao S, Fu ZF, Cui M. Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells Inhibit T Follicular Helper Cell Immune Response in Japanese Encephalitis Virus Infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 199:3094-3105. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1700671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Lannes N, Summerfield A, Filgueira L. Regulation of inflammation in Japanese encephalitis. J Neuroinflammation 2017; 14:158. [PMID: 28807053 PMCID: PMC5557552 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-017-0931-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 08/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Uncontrolled inflammatory response of the central nervous system is a hallmark of severe Japanese encephalitis (JE). Although inflammation is necessary to mount an efficient immune response against virus infections, exacerbated inflammatory response is often detrimental. In this context, cells of the monocytic lineage appear to be important forces driving JE pathogenesis. Main body Brain-infiltrating monocytes, macrophages and microglia play a major role in central nervous system (CNS) inflammation during JE. Moreover, the role of inflammatory monocytes in viral neuroinvasion during JE and mechanisms of cell entry into the CNS remains unclear. The identification of cellular and molecular actors in JE inflammatory responses may help to understand the mechanisms behind excessive inflammation and to develop therapeutics to treat JE patients. This review addresses the current knowledge about mechanisms of virus neuroinvasion, neuroinflammation and therapeutics critical for JE outcome. Conclusion Understanding the regulation of inflammation in JE is challenging. Elucidation of the remaining open questions will help to the development of therapeutic approaches avoiding detrimental inflammatory responses in JE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils Lannes
- Unit of Anatomy, Department of Medicine, University of Fribourg, Route Albert-Gockel 1, Fribourg, Switzerland.
| | - Artur Summerfield
- Institute of Virology and Immunology, Sensemattstrasse 293, Mittelhäusern, Switzerland.,Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Langassstrasse 122, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Luis Filgueira
- Unit of Anatomy, Department of Medicine, University of Fribourg, Route Albert-Gockel 1, Fribourg, Switzerland
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Longbottom J, Browne AJ, Pigott DM, Sinka ME, Golding N, Hay SI, Moyes CL, Shearer FM. Mapping the spatial distribution of the Japanese encephalitis vector, Culex tritaeniorhynchus Giles, 1901 (Diptera: Culicidae) within areas of Japanese encephalitis risk. Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:148. [PMID: 28302156 PMCID: PMC5356256 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2086-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 03/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Japanese encephalitis (JE) is one of the most significant aetiological agents of viral encephalitis in Asia. This medically important arbovirus is primarily spread from vertebrate hosts to humans by the mosquito vector Culex tritaeniorhynchus. Knowledge of the contemporary distribution of this vector species is lacking, and efforts to define areas of disease risk greatly depend on a thorough understanding of the variation in this mosquito's geographical distribution. RESULTS We assembled a contemporary database of Cx. tritaeniorhynchus presence records within Japanese encephalitis risk areas from formal literature and other relevant resources, resulting in 1,045 geo-referenced, spatially and temporally unique presence records spanning from 1928 to 2014 (71.9% of records obtained between 2001 and 2014). These presence data were combined with a background dataset capturing sample bias in our presence dataset, along with environmental and socio-economic covariates, to inform a boosted regression tree model predicting environmental suitability for Cx. tritaeniorhynchus at each 5 × 5 km gridded cell within areas of JE risk. The resulting fine-scale map highlights areas of high environmental suitability for this species across India, Nepal and China that coincide with areas of high JE incidence, emphasising the role of this vector in disease transmission and the utility of the map generated. CONCLUSIONS Our map contributes towards efforts determining the spatial heterogeneity in Cx. tritaeniorhynchus distribution within the limits of JE transmission. Specifically, this map can be used to inform vector control programs and can be used to identify key areas where the prevention of Cx. tritaeniorhynchus establishment should be a priority.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Longbottom
- Spatial Ecology & Epidemiology Group, Oxford Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Annie J. Browne
- Spatial Ecology & Epidemiology Group, Oxford Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - David M. Pigott
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
| | - Marianne E. Sinka
- Oxford Long Term Ecology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Nick Golding
- Quantitative & Applied Ecology Group, School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC Australia
| | - Simon I. Hay
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
- Oxford Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Catherine L. Moyes
- Spatial Ecology & Epidemiology Group, Oxford Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Freya M. Shearer
- Spatial Ecology & Epidemiology Group, Oxford Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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Briese T, Williams DT, Kapoor V, Diviney SM, Certoma A, Wang J, Johansen CA, Chowdhary R, Mackenzie JS, Lipkin WI. Analysis of Arbovirus Isolates from Australia Identifies Novel Bunyaviruses Including a Mapputta Group Virus from Western Australia That Links Gan Gan and Maprik Viruses. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0164868. [PMID: 27764175 PMCID: PMC5072647 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0164868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 10/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The Mapputta group comprises antigenically related viruses indigenous to Australia and Papua New Guinea that are included in the family Bunyaviridae but not currently assigned to a specific genus. We determined and analyzed the genome sequences of five Australian viruses isolated from mosquitoes collected during routine arbovirus surveillance in Western Australia (K10441, SW27571, K13190, and K42904) and New South Wales (12005). Based on matching sequences of all three genome segments to prototype MRM3630 of Trubanaman virus (TRUV), NB6057 of Gan Gan virus (GGV), and MK7532 of Maprik virus (MPKV), isolates K13190 and SW27571 were identified as TRUV, 12005 as GGV, and K42904 as a Mapputta group virus from Western Australia linking GGV and MPKV. The results confirmed serum neutralization data that had linked SW27571 to TRUV. The fifth virus, K10441 from Willare, was most closely related to Batai orthobunyavirus, presumably representing an Australian variant of the virus. Phylogenetic analysis also confirmed the close relationship of our TRUV and GGV isolates to two other recently described Australian viruses, Murrumbidgee virus and Salt Ash virus, respectively. Our findings indicate that TRUV has a wide circulation throughout the Australian continent, demonstrating for the first time its presence in Western Australia. Similarly, the presence of a virus related to GGV, which had been linked to human disease and previously known only from the Australian southeast, was demonstrated in Western Australia. Finally, a Batai virus isolate was identified in Western Australia. The expanding availability of genomic sequence for novel Australian bunyavirus variants supports the identification of suitably conserved or diverse primer-binding target regions to establish group-wide as well as virus-specific nucleic acid tests in support of specific diagnostic and surveillance efforts throughout Australasia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Briese
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail: (TB); (DTW)
| | - David T. Williams
- CSIRO, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
- * E-mail: (TB); (DTW)
| | - Vishal Kapoor
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Sinead M. Diviney
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Andrea Certoma
- CSIRO, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jianning Wang
- CSIRO, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Cheryl A. Johansen
- The Arbovirus Surveillance and Research Laboratory, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Rashmi Chowdhary
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - John S. Mackenzie
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - W. Ian Lipkin
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
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Pyke AT, Warrilow D. Archival Collections are Important in the Study of the Biology, Diversity, and Evolution of Arboviruses. Evol Bioinform Online 2016; 12:27-30. [PMID: 27688704 PMCID: PMC5024791 DOI: 10.4137/ebo.s40569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Revised: 08/16/2016] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Historically, classifications of arboviruses were based on serological techniques. Hence, collections of arbovirus isolates have been central to this process by providing the antigenic reagents for these methods. However, with increasing concern about biosafety and security, the introduction of molecular biology techniques has led to greater emphasis on the storage of nucleic acid sequence data over the maintenance of archival material. In this commentary, we provide examples of where archival collections provide an important source of genetic material to assist in confirming the authenticity of reference strains and vaccine stocks, to clarify taxonomic relationships particularly when isolates of the same virus species have been collected across a wide expanse of time and space, for future phenotypic analysis, to determine the historical diversity of strains, and to understand the mechanisms leading to changes in genome structure and virus evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa T Pyke
- Public Health Virology Laboratory, Forensic and Scientific Services, Queensland Health, Archerfield, Queensland, Australia
| | - David Warrilow
- Public Health Virology Laboratory, Forensic and Scientific Services, Queensland Health, Archerfield, Queensland, Australia
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Pham TT, Meng S, Sun Y, Lv W, Bahl J. Inference of Japanese encephalitis virus ecological and evolutionary dynamics from passive and active virus surveillance. Virus Evol 2016; 2:vew009. [PMID: 27774302 PMCID: PMC4989885 DOI: 10.1093/ve/vew009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
A comprehensive monitoring strategy is vital for tracking the spread of mosquito-borne Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), the leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia. Virus detection consists of passive surveillance of primarily humans and swine, and/or active surveillance in mosquitoes, which may be a valuable proxy in providing insights into ecological processes underlying the spread and persistence of JEV. However, it has not been well characterized whether passive surveillance alone can capture the circulating genetic diversity to make reasonable inferences. Here, we develop phylogenetic models to infer JEV host changes, spatial diffusion patterns, and evolutionary dynamics from data collected through active and passive surveillance. We evaluate the feasibility of using JEV sequence data collected from mosquitoes to estimate the migration histories of genotypes GI and GIII. We show that divergence times estimated from this dataset were comparable to estimates from all available data. Increasing the amount of data collected from active surveillance improved time of most recent common ancestor estimates and reduced uncertainty. Phylogenetic estimates using all available data and only mosquito data from active surveillance produced similar results, showing that GI epidemics were widespread and diffused significantly faster between regions than GIII. In contrast, GIII outbreaks were highly structured and unlinked suggesting localized, unsampled infectious sources. Our results show that active surveillance of mosquitoes can sufficiently capture circulating genetic diversity of JEV to confidently estimate spatial and evolutionary patterns. While surveillance of other hosts could contribute to more detailed disease tracking and evaluation, comprehensive JEV surveillance programs should include systematic surveillance in mosquitoes to infer the most complete patterns for epidemiology, and risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Truc T Pham
- Center for Infectious Diseases, The University of Texas School of Public Health, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Shengli Meng
- Wuhan Institute of Biological Products, Wuhan, China
| | - Yan Sun
- Wuhan Institute for Neuroscience and Neuroengineering, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan, China and
| | - Wenli Lv
- Wuhan Institute of Biological Products, Wuhan, China
| | - Justin Bahl
- Center for Infectious Diseases, The University of Texas School of Public Health, Houston, TX, USA,; Laboratory of Virus Evolution, Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
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Apoptosis, autophagy and unfolded protein response pathways in Arbovirus replication and pathogenesis. Expert Rev Mol Med 2016; 18:e1. [PMID: 26781343 PMCID: PMC4836210 DOI: 10.1017/erm.2015.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Arboviruses are pathogens that widely affect the health of people in different communities around the world. Recently, a few successful approaches toward production of effective vaccines against some of these pathogens have been developed, but treatment and prevention of the resulting diseases remain a major health and research concern. The arbovirus infection and replication processes are complex, and many factors are involved in their regulation. Apoptosis, autophagy and the unfolded protein response (UPR) are three mechanisms that are involved in pathogenesis of many viruses. In this review, we focus on the importance of these pathways in the arbovirus replication and infection processes. We provide a brief introduction on how apoptosis, autophagy and the UPR are initiated and regulated, and then discuss the involvement of these pathways in regulation of arbovirus pathogenesis.
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Hobson-Peters J, Warrilow D, McLean BJ, Watterson D, Colmant AMG, van den Hurk AF, Hall-Mendelin S, Hastie ML, Gorman JJ, Harrison JJ, Prow NA, Barnard RT, Allcock R, Johansen CA, Hall RA. Discovery and characterisation of a new insect-specific bunyavirus from Culex mosquitoes captured in northern Australia. Virology 2016; 489:269-81. [PMID: 26773387 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2015.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2015] [Revised: 09/21/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Insect-specific viruses belonging to significant arboviral families have recently been discovered. These viruses appear to be maintained within the insect population without the requirement for replication in a vertebrate host. Mosquitoes collected from Badu Island in the Torres Strait in 2003 were analysed for insect-specific viruses. A novel bunyavirus was isolated in high prevalence from Culex spp. The new virus, provisionally called Badu virus (BADUV), replicated in mosquito cells of both Culex and Aedes origin, but failed to replicate in vertebrate cells. Genomic sequencing revealed that the virus was distinct from sequenced bunyavirus isolates reported to date, but phylogenetically clustered most closely with recently discovered mosquito-borne, insect-specific bunyaviruses in the newly proposed Goukovirus genus. The detection of a functional furin cleavage motif upstream of the two glycoproteins in the M segment-encoded polyprotein suggests that BADUV may employ a unique strategy to process the virion glycoproteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jody Hobson-Peters
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia 4072, Queensland, Australia.
| | - David Warrilow
- Public Health Virology Forensic and Scientific Services, Department of Health, Queensland Government, PO Box 594, Archerfield, Queensland 4108, Australia
| | - Breeanna J McLean
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia 4072, Queensland, Australia
| | - Daniel Watterson
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia 4072, Queensland, Australia
| | - Agathe M G Colmant
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia 4072, Queensland, Australia
| | - Andrew F van den Hurk
- Public Health Virology Forensic and Scientific Services, Department of Health, Queensland Government, PO Box 594, Archerfield, Queensland 4108, Australia
| | - Sonja Hall-Mendelin
- Public Health Virology Forensic and Scientific Services, Department of Health, Queensland Government, PO Box 594, Archerfield, Queensland 4108, Australia
| | - Marcus L Hastie
- Protein Discovery Centre, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, 300 Herston Road, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia
| | - Jeffrey J Gorman
- Protein Discovery Centre, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, 300 Herston Road, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia
| | - Jessica J Harrison
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia 4072, Queensland, Australia
| | - Natalie A Prow
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia 4072, Queensland, Australia
| | - Ross T Barnard
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia 4072, Queensland, Australia
| | - Richard Allcock
- Lottery West State Biomedical Facility - Genomics, School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia; Department of Clinical Immunology, Pathwest Laboratory Medicine Western Australia, Royal Perth Hospital, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Cheryl A Johansen
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia 4072, Queensland, Australia
| | - Roy A Hall
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia 4072, Queensland, Australia.
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Steiger DBM, Ritchie SA, Laurance SGW. Land Use Influences Mosquito Communities and Disease Risk on Remote Tropical Islands: A Case Study Using a Novel Sampling Technique. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2015; 94:314-21. [PMID: 26711512 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.15-0161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2015] [Accepted: 11/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Land use changes, such as deforestation and urbanization, can influence interactions between vectors, hosts, and pathogens. The consequences may result in the appearance and rise of mosquito-borne diseases, especially in remote tropical regions. Tropical regions can be the hotspots for the emergence of diseases due to high biological diversity and complex species interactions. Furthermore, frontier areas are often haphazardly surveyed as a result of inadequate or expensive sampling techniques, which limit early detection and medical intervention. We trialed a novel sampling technique of nonpowered traps and a carbon dioxide attractant derived from yeast and sugar to explore how land use influences mosquito communities on four remote, tropical islands in the Australian Torres Strait. Using this technique, we collected > 11,000 mosquitoes from urban and sylvan habitats. We found that human land use significantly affected mosquito communities. Mosquito abundances and diversity were higher in sylvan habitats compared with urban areas, resulting in significantly different community compositions between the two habitats. An important outcome of our study was determining that there were greater numbers of disease-vectoring species associated with human habitations. On the basis of these findings, we believe that our novel sampling technique is a realistic tool for assessing mosquito communities in remote regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dagmar B Meyer Steiger
- Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Studies, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia; College of Marine and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia; School of Public Health, Tropical Medicine and Rehabilitative Sciences, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia
| | - Scott Alex Ritchie
- Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Studies, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia; College of Marine and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia; School of Public Health, Tropical Medicine and Rehabilitative Sciences, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia
| | - Susan G W Laurance
- Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Studies, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia; College of Marine and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia; School of Public Health, Tropical Medicine and Rehabilitative Sciences, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia
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Nain M, Abdin MZ, Kalia M, Vrati S. Japanese encephalitis virus invasion of cell: allies and alleys. Rev Med Virol 2015; 26:129-41. [PMID: 26695690 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.1868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Revised: 11/18/2015] [Accepted: 12/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The mosquito-borne flavivirus, Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), is the leading cause of virus-induced encephalitis globally and a major public health concern of several countries in Southeast Asia, with the potential to become a global pathogen. The virus is neurotropic, and the disease ranges from mild fever to severe hemorrhagic and encephalitic manifestations and death. The early steps of the virus life cycle, binding, and entry into the cell are crucial determinants of infection and are potential targets for the development of antiviral therapies. JEV can infect multiple cell types; however, the key receptor molecule(s) still remains elusive. JEV also has the capacity to utilize multiple endocytic pathways for entry into cells of different lineages. This review not only gives a comprehensive update on what is known about the virus attachment and receptor system (allies) and the endocytic pathways (alleys) exploited by the virus to gain entry into the cell and establish infection but also discusses crucial unresolved issues. We also highlight common themes and key differences between JEV and other flaviviruses in these contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minu Nain
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Research Center, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, India.,Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
| | - Malik Z Abdin
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
| | - Manjula Kalia
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Research Center, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, India
| | - Sudhanshu Vrati
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Research Center, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, India
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Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus, as the most important vaccine-preventable cause of viral encephalitis in Asia, is estimated to cause over 68,000 clinical cases yearly. In endemic areas, most Japanese encephalitis infections occur in children younger than 10 y and clinical manifestation of this disease is critical, because there is no effective treatment available. As JEV infections are regarded as one of the most serious viral causes of encephalitis and mass immunization programmes are generally recommended for residents in endemic areas, a safe and effective JEV vaccine was needed to protect them as well as others at risk. Due to the safety concerns with the mouse brain derived vaccine, second generation vaccines against JE produced in cell culture like Vero cells were developed. IXIARO® is a purified, inactivated aluminum-adjuvanted JE vaccine, based on the SA14-14-2 virus strain, and is available in North America, Europe, Canada, Switzerland, Singapore, Hong Kong and Israel as well as in Australia & New Zealand (as JESPECT®).The safety, tolerability and immunogenicity profile of IXIARO® is well established through a number of clinical studies comparing IXIARO® with placebo as well as mouse brain derived vaccine. Recent data show that the global incidence of JE remains substantial, especially young children in endemic areas are most susceptible. As vaccination is the most feasible, reliable and cost effective tool for JE control, IXIARO® with confirmed excellent safety profile is highly recommendable, in particular for vaccination of children at risk. The European Commission as well as the FDA approved the extension of indication of IXIARO® to the pediatric segment (2 months of age and older) based on these data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christa Firbas
- a Department of Clinical Pharmacology; Medical University of Vienna ; Vienna , Austria
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Ishikawa T, Konishi E. Potential chemotherapeutic targets for Japanese encephalitis: current status of antiviral drug development and future challenges. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2015; 19:1379-95. [PMID: 26156208 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.2015.1065817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Japanese encephalitis (JE) remains a public health threat in Asia. Although several vaccines have been licensed, ∼ 67,900 cases of the disease are estimated to occur annually, probably because the vaccine coverage is low. Therefore, effective antiviral drugs are required to control JE. However, no licensed anti-JE drugs are available, despite extensive efforts to develop them. AREAS COVERED We provide a general overview of JE and JE virus, including its transmission cycle, distribution, structure, replication machinery, immune evasion mechanisms and vaccines. The current situation in antiviral drug development is then reviewed and future perspectives are discussed. EXPERT OPINION Although the development of effective anti-JE drugs is an urgent issue, only supportive care is currently available. Recent progress in our understanding of the viral replication machinery and immune evasion strategies has identified new targets for anti-JE drug development. To date, most candidate drugs have only been evaluated in single-drug formulations, and efficient drug delivery to the CNS has virtually not been considered. However, an effective anti-JE treatment is expected to be achieved with multiple-drug formulations and a targeted drug delivery system in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiro Ishikawa
- a 1 Dokkyo Medical University, School of Medicine, Department of Microbiology , 880 Kitakobayashi, Mibu-machi, Shimotsuga-gun, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan
| | - Eiji Konishi
- b 2 Mahidol University, BIKEN Endowed Department of Dengue Vaccine Development, Faculty of Tropical Medicine , 420/6 Ratchawithi Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.,c 3 Osaka University, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, BIKEN Endowed Department of Dengue Vaccine Development , 3-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan +66 2 354 5981 ;
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50
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Jeffries CL, Walker T. The Potential Use of Wolbachia-Based Mosquito Biocontrol Strategies for Japanese Encephalitis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0003576. [PMID: 26086337 PMCID: PMC4472807 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a zoonotic pathogen transmitted by the infectious bite of Culex mosquitoes. The virus causes the development of the disease Japanese encephalitis (JE) in a small proportion of those infected, predominantly affecting children in eastern and southern Asia. Annual JE incidence estimates range from 50,000–175,000, with 25%–30% of cases resulting in mortality. It is estimated that 3 billion people live in countries in which JEV is endemic. The virus exists in an enzootic transmission cycle, with mosquitoes transmitting JEV between birds as reservoir hosts and pigs as amplifying hosts. Zoonotic infection occurs as a result of spillover events from the main transmission cycle. The reservoir avian hosts include cattle egrets, pond herons, and other species of water birds belonging to the family Ardeidae. Irrigated rice fields provide an ideal breeding ground for mosquitoes and attract migratory birds, maintaining the transmission of JEV. Although multiple vaccines have been developed for JEV, they are expensive and require multiple doses to maintain efficacy and immunity. As humans are a “dead-end” host for the virus, vaccination of the human population is unlikely to result in eradication. Therefore, vector control of the principal mosquito vector, Culex tritaeniorhynchus, represents a more promising strategy for reducing transmission. Current vector control strategies include intermittent irrigation of rice fields and space spraying of insecticides during outbreaks. However, Cx. Tritaeniorhynchus is subject to heavy exposure to pesticides in rice fields, and as a result, insecticide resistance has developed. In recent years, significant advancements have been made in the potential use of the bacterial endosymbiont Wolbachia for mosquito biocontrol. The successful transinfection of Wolbachia strains from Drosophila flies to Aedes (Stegomyia) mosquitoes has resulted in the generation of “dengue-refractory” mosquito lines. The successful establishment of Wolbachia in wild Aedes aegypti populations has recently been demonstrated, and open releases in dengue-endemic countries are ongoing. This review outlines the current control methods for JEV in addition to highlighting the potential use of Wolbachia-based biocontrol strategies to impact transmission. JEV and dengue virus are both members of the Flavivirus genus, and the successful establishment of Drosophila Wolbachia strains in Cx. Tritaeniorhynchus, as the principal vector of JEV, is predicted to significantly impact JEV transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire L. Jeffries
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Walker
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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