Large-Area Virus Coated Ultrathin Colorimetric Sensors with a Highly Lossy Resonant Promoter for Enhanced Chromaticity

Genetically engineered bacteriophages as novel nanomaterials: applications beyond antimicrobial agents

Bacteriophages, also known as phages, are viruses that replicate in bacteria and archaea. Phages were initially discovered as antimicrobial agents, and they have been used as therapeutic agents for bacterial infection in a process known as "phage therapy." Recently, phages have been investigated as functional nanomaterials in a variety of areas, as they can function not only as therapeutic agents but also as biosensors and tissue regenerative materials. Phages are nontoxic to humans, and they possess self-assembled nanostructures and functional properties. Additionally, phages can be easily genetically modified to display specific peptides or to screen for functional peptides via phage display. Here, we demonstrated the application of phage nanomaterials in the context of tissue engineering, sensing, and probing.

Sub-1-Volt Electrically Programmable Optical Modulator Based on Active Tamm Plasmon

Reconfigurable optical devices hold great promise for advancing high-density optical interconnects, photonic switching, and memory applications. While many optical modulators based on active materials have been demonstrated, it is challenging to achieve a high modulation depth with a low operation voltage in the near-infrared (NIR) range, which is a highly sought-after wavelength window for free-space communication and imaging applications. Here, electrically switchable Tamm plasmon coupled with poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) is introduced. The device allows for a high modulation depth across the entire NIR range by fully absorbing incident light even under epsilon near zero conditions. Optical modulation exceeding 88% is achieved using a CMOS-compatible voltage of ±1 V. This modulation is facilitated by precise electrical control of the charge carrier density through an electrochemical doping/dedoping process. Additionally, the potential applications of the device are extended for a non-volatile multi-memory state optical device, capable of rewritable optical memory storage and exhibiting long-term potentiation/depression properties with neuromorphic behavior.

Full-Control and Switching of Optical Fano Resonance by Continuum State Engineering

Fano resonance, known for its unique asymmetric line shape, has gained significant attention in photonics, particularly in sensing applications. However, it remains difficult to achieve controllable Fano parameters with a simple geometric structure. Here, a novel approach of using a thin-film optical Fano resonator with a porous layer to generate entire spectral shapes from quasi-Lorentzian to Lorentzian to Fano is proposed and experimentally demonstrated. The glancing angle deposition technique is utilized to create a polarization-dependent Fano resonator. By altering the linear polarization between s- and p-polarization, a switchable Fano device between quasi-Lorentz state and negative Fano state is demonstrated. This change in spectral shape is advantageous for detecting materials with a low-refractive index. A bio-particle sensing experiment is conducted that demonstrates an enhanced signal-to-noise ratio and prediction accuracy. Finally, the challenge of optimizing the film-based Fano resonator due to intricate interplay among numerous parameters, including layer thicknesses, porosity, and materials selection, is addressed. The inverse design tool is developed based on a multilayer perceptron model that allows fast computation for all ranges of Fano parameters. The method provides improved accuracy of the mean validation factor (MVF = 0.07, q-q') compared to the conventional exhaustive enumeration method (MVF = 0.37).

Artificial Neural Processing-Driven Bioelectronic Nose for the Diagnosis of Diabetes and Its Complications

Diabetes and its complications affect the younger population and are associated with a high mortality rate; however, early diagnosis can contribute to the selection of appropriate treatment regimens that can reduce mortality. Although diabetes diagnosis via exhaled breath has great potential for early diagnosis, research on such diagnosis is restricted to disease detection, requiring in-depth examination to diagnose and classify diseases and their complications. This study demonstrates the use of an artificial neural processing-based bioelectronic nose to accurately diagnose diabetes and classify diabetic types (type I and II) and their complications, such as heart disease. Specifically, an M13 phage-based electronic nose (e-nose) is used to explore the features of subjects with diabetes at various levels of cellular and organismal organization (cells, liver organoids, and mice). Exhaled breath samples are collected during culturing and exposed to the phage-based e-nose. Compared with cells, liver organoids cultured under conditions mimicking a diabetic environment display properties that closely resemble the characteristics of diabetic mice. Using neural pattern separation, the M13 phage-based e-nose achieves a classification success rate of over 86% for four conditions in mice, namely, type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, diabetic cardiomyopathy, and cardiomyopathy.

Transfer-Printing Hydrogel-Based Platform for Moisture-Driven Dynamic Display and Optical Anti-Counterfeiting

Humidity-responsive materials offer a promising approach to achieving tunable metasurface systems due to their fast and reversible swelling responses to moisture, which enables many important applications, such as real-time humidity sensing, optical switches, dynamic displays, and optical information encryption. However, the humidity-responsive structural coloration generally cannot provide a high spatial resolution and requires a complex patterning process. Here, we present a scalable moisture-driven color-changing Fabry-Pérot (FP)-like cavity composed of a polyvinyl alcohol layer sandwiched between an upper gold nanoparticles assembly and a bottom gold mirror. Through nanoparticle contact printing, we pixelated these cavities with sub-micrometer sizes without crosstalk and achieved an ultrahigh display resolution of ∼400 nm. Meanwhile, these nanoparticle-based FP (NBFP) cavities exhibit more vibrant colors than those of conventional film-based ones due to broadband absorption of the disordered nanoparticle assembly. Moreover, the NBFP cavities exhibit a rapid response (<300 ms), benefiting from the membrane pores formed in the gaps between the adjacent nanoparticles. Finally, we demonstrated the applications of the NBFP cavities in optical anti-counterfeiting and dynamic multi-color printing. These results suggest that our approach will help to realize a colorful, fast, and ultrahigh-resolution dynamic display device in optical security and colorimetric sensing.

Multiarray Biosensor for Diagnosing Lung Cancer Based on Gap Plasmonic Color Films

Adaptable and sensitive materials are essential for the development of advanced sensor systems such as bio and chemical sensors. Biomaterials can be used to develop multifunctional biosensor applications using genetic engineering. In particular, a plasmonic sensor system using a coupled film nanostructure with tunable gap sizes is a potential candidate in optical sensors because of its simple fabrication, stability, extensive tuning range, and sensitivity to small changes. Although this system has shown a good ability to eliminate humidity as an interferant, its performance in real-world environments is limited by low selectivity. To overcome these issues, we demonstrated the rapid response of gap plasmonic color sensors by utilizing metal nanostructures combined with genetically engineered M13 bacteriophages to detect volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and diagnose lung cancer from breath samples. The M13 bacteriophage was chosen as a recognition element because the structural protein capsid can readily be modified to target the desired analyte. Consequently, the VOCs from various functional groups were distinguished by using a multiarray biosensor based on a gap plasmonic color film observed by hierarchical cluster analysis. Furthermore, the lung cancer breath samples collected from 70 healthy participants and 50 lung cancer patients were successfully classified with a high rate of over 89% through supporting machine learning analysis.

Polarization-driven thermal emission regulator based on self-aligned GST nanocolumns

The increasing advances in thermal radiation regulators have attracted growing interest, particularly in infrared sources, thermal management, and camouflage. Despite many advances in dynamic thermal emitters with great controllability, sustained external energy is required to maintain the desired emission. In this study, we present a polarization-driven thermal emission regulator based on a two-way control: i) phase change and ii) polarization tuning. Based on a conventional, non-volatile phase change material, i.e., Ge₂Sb₂Te₅ (GST), we newly introduce an anisotropic medium for facile emissivity regulation without heat energy consumption. A rigorous coupled-wave analysis method provides design guidelines for finding optimal structural parameters. We utilized a simple glancing angle deposition process which induces tilted self-aligned nanocolumns with anisotropic properties. The fabricated sample shows polarization-sensitive thermal regulation through thermal imaging spectroscopic measurement. Additionally, we manufactured a multispectral visibly/thermally camouflaged patch that identifies encrypted information at a specific polarization state for a proof-of-concept demonstration.

A review of tunable photonics: Optically active materials and applications from visible to terahertz

The next frontier of photonics is evolving into reconfigurable platforms with tunable functions to realize the ubiquitous application. The dynamic control of optical properties of photonics is highly desirable for a plethora of applications, including optical communication, dynamic display, self-adaptive photonics, and multi-spectral camouflage. Recently, to meet the dynamic response over broad optical bands, optically active materials have been integrated with the diverse photonic platforms, typically in the dimension of micro/nanometer scales. Here, we review recent advances in tunable photonics with controlling optical properties from visible to terahertz (THz) spectral range. We propose guidelines for designing tunable photonics in conjunction with optically active materials, inherent in wavelength characteristics. In particular, we devote our review to their potential uses for five different applications: structural coloration, metasurface for flat optics, photonic memory, thermal radiation, and terahertz plasmonics. Finally, we conclude with an outlook on the challenges and prospects of tunable photonics.

Disordered-nanoparticle-based etalon for ultrafast humidity-responsive colorimetric sensors and anti-counterfeiting displays

The development of real-time and sensitive humidity sensors is in great demand from smart home automation and modern public health. We hereby proposed an ultrafast and full-color colorimetric humidity sensor that consists of chitosan hydrogel sandwiched by a disordered metal nanoparticle layer and reflecting substrate. This hydrogel-based resonator changes its resonant frequency to external humidity conditions because the chitosan hydrogels are swollen under wet state and contracted under dry state. The response time of the sensor is ~10⁴ faster than that of the conventional Fabry-Pérot design. The origins of fast gas permeation are membrane pores created by gaps between the metal nanoparticles. Such instantaneous and tunable response of a new hydrogel resonator is then exploited for colorimetric sensors, anti-counterfeiting applications, and high-resolution displays.

A DNA-derived phage nose using machine learning and artificial neural processing for diagnosing lung cancer

There is a growing interest in electronic nose-based diagnostic systems that are fast and portable. However, existing technologies are suitable only for operation in the laboratory, making them difficult to apply in a rapid, non-face-to-face, and field-suitable manner. Here, we demonstrate a DNA-derived phage nose (D²pNose) as a portable respiratory disease diagnosis system requiring no pretreatment. D²pNose was produced based on phage colour films implanted with DNA sequences from mammalian olfactory receptor cells, and as a result, it possesses the comprehensive reactivity of these cells. The manipulated surface chemistry of the genetically engineered phages was verified through a correlation analysis between the calculated and the experimentally measured reactivity. Breaths from 31 healthy subjects and 31 lung cancer patients were collected and exposed to D²pNose without pretreatment. With the help of deep learning and neural pattern separation, D²pNose has achieved a diagnostic success rate of over 75% and a classification success rate of over 86% for lung cancer based on raw human breath. Based on these results, D²pNose can be expected to be directly applicable to other respiratory diseases.

Neural mechanism mimetic selective electronic nose based on programmed M13 bacteriophage

The electronic nose is a reliable practical sensor device that mimics olfactory organs. Although numerous studies have demonstrated excellence in detecting various target substances with the help of ideal models, biomimetic approaches still suffer in practical realization because of the inability to mimic the signal processing performed by olfactory neural systems. Herein, we propose an electronic nose based on the programable surface chemistry of M13 bacteriophage, inspired by the neural mechanism of the mammalian olfactory system. The neural pattern separation (NPS) was devised to apply the pattern separation that operates in the memory and learning process of the brain to the electronic nose. We demonstrate an electronic nose in a portable device form, distinguishing polycyclic aromatic compounds (harmful in living environment) in an atomic-level resolution (97.5% selectivity rate) for the first time. Our results provide practical methodology and inspiration for the second-generation electronic nose development toward the performance of detection dogs (K9).

Programmable self-assembly of M13 bacteriophage for micro-color pattern with a tunable colorization

Over the last decade, the M13 bacteriophage has been used widely in various applications, such as sensors, bio-templating, and solar cells. The M13 colorimetric sensor was developed to detect toxic gases to protect the environment, human health, and national security. Recent developments in phage-based colorimetric sensor technologies have focused on improving the sensing characteristics, such as the sensitivity and selectivity on a large scale. On the other hand, few studies have examined precisely controllable micro-patterning techniques in phage-based self-assembly. This paper developed a color patterning technique through self-assembly of the M13 bacteriophages. The phage was self-assembled into a nanostructure through precise temperature control at the meniscus interface. Furthermore, barcode color patterns could be fabricated using self-assembled M13 bacteriophage on micrometer scale areas by manipulating the grooves on the SiO₂ surface. The color patterns exhibited color tunability based on the phage nano-bundles reactivity. Overall, the proposed color patterning technique is expected to be useful for preparing new color sensors and security patterns.

Experiment designs have been developed for tunable colorization film by temperature control during self-assembly processing based on the M13 bacteriophage. The micro-color pattern was fabricated and demonstrated for humidity detection.

Mesoporous Solid and Yolk-Shell Titania Microspheres as Touchless Colorimetric Sensors with High Responsivity and Ultrashort Response Times

Touchless user interfaces offer an attractive pathway toward hygienic, remote, and interactive control over devices. Exploiting the humidity generated from fingers or human speech is a viable avenue for realizing such technology. Herein, titania microspheres including solid and yolk-shell structures with varying microstructural characteristics were demonstrated as high-performance, ultrafast, and stable optical humidity sensors aimed for touchless control. When water molecules enter the microporous network of the microspheres, the effective refractive index of the microsphere increases, causing a detectable change in the light scattering behavior. The microstructural properties of the microspheres, namely, the pore characteristics, crystallinity, and particle size, were examined in relation to the humidity-sensing performance, establishing optimum structural conditions for realizing humidity-responsive wavelength shifts above 100 nm, near full-scale relative humidity (RH) responsivity, ultrashort response times below 30 ms, and prolonged lifetimes. These optimized microspheres were used to demonstrate a colorimetric touchless sensor that responds to humidity from a finger and a microcontroller-based detector that translates the moisture pattern from human speech to electrical signals in real time. These results provide practical strategies for enabling humidity-based touchless user interfaces.

Multimodal Digital X-ray Scanners with Synchronous Mapping of Tactile Pressure Distributions using Perovskites

Visual and tactile information are the key intuitive perceptions in sensory systems, and the synchronized detection of these two sensory modalities can enhance accuracy of object recognition by providing complementary information between them. Herein, multimodal integration of flexible, high-resolution X-ray detectors with a synchronous mapping of tactile pressure distributions for visualizing internal structures and morphologies of an object simultaneously is reported. As a visual-inspection method, perovskite materials that convert X-rays into charge carriers directly are synthesized. By incorporating pressure-sensitive air-dielectric transistors in the perovskite components, X-ray detectors with dual modalities (i.e., vision and touch) are attained as an active-matrix platform for digital visuotactile examinations. Also, in vivo X-ray imaging and pressure sensing are demonstrated using a live rat. This multiplexed platform has high spatial resolution and good flexibility, thereby providing highly accurate inspection and diagnoses even for the distorted images of nonplanar objects.

Investigation of colorimetric biosensor array based on programable surface chemistry of M13 bacteriophage towards artificial nose for volatile organic compound detection: From basic properties of the biosensor to practical application

Various threats such as explosives, drugs, environmental hormones, and spoiled food manifest themselves with the presence of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in our environment. In order to recognize and respond to these threats early, the demand for highly sensitive and selective electronic noses is increasing. The M13 bacteriophage-based optoelectronic nose is an excellent candidate to meet all these requirements. However, the phage-based electronic nose is still in its infancy, and strategies that include a systematic approach and development are still essential. Here, we have integrated theoretical and experimental approaches to analyze the correlation between the surface chemistry of genetically engineered phage and the phage-based optoelectronic nose properties. The reactivity of the genetically engineered phage color film to some VOCs were quantitatively analyzed, and the correlation with the binding affinity value calculated by Density-functional theory (DFT) was compared. This demonstrates that phage color films have controllable reactivity through a genetic engineering. We have selected phages that are advantageous in distinguishing each VOCs in this work through hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA). The reason for this difference was verified through the optimized geometry calculated by DFT. Through this, it was confirmed that the tryptophan-based and the Histidine-based of genetically engineered phage film are important in distinguishing the VOCs (Y-hexanolactone, 2-isopropyl-4-methylthiazole, ethanol, acetone, ethyl acetate, and acetaldehyde) used in this work to evaluate the peach freshness quality. This was applied to the design of a field-applied phage-based optoelectronic nose and verified by measuring the freshness of the actual fruit.

Smart contact lens and transparent heat patch for remote monitoring and therapy of chronic ocular surface inflammation using mobiles

Wearable electronic devices that can monitor physiological signals of the human body to provide biomedical information have been drawing extensive interests for sustainable personal health management. Here, we report a human pilot trial of a soft, smart contact lens and a skin-attachable therapeutic device for wireless monitoring and therapy of chronic ocular surface inflammation (OSI). As a diagnostic device, this smart contact lens enables real-time measurement of the concentration of matrix metalloproteinase-9, a biomarker for OSI, in tears using a graphene field-effect transistor. As a therapeutic device, we also fabricated a stretchable and transparent heat patch attachable on the human eyelid conformably. Both diagnostic and therapeutic devices can be incorporated using a smartphone for their wireless communications, thereby achieving instantaneous diagnosis of OSI and automated hyperthermia treatments. Furthermore, in vivo tests using live animals and human subjects confirm their good biocompatibility and reliability as a noninvasive, mobile health care solution.

Application of Bacteriophages in Nanotechnology

Bacteriophages (phages for short) are viruses, which have bacteria as hosts. The single phage body virion, is a colloidal particle, often possessing a dipole moment. As such, phages were used as perfectly monodisperse systems to study various physicochemical phenomena (e.g., transport or sedimentation in complex fluids), or in the material science (e.g., as scaffolds). Nevertheless, phages also execute the life cycle to multiply and produce progeny virions. Upon completion of the life cycle of phages, the host cells are usually destroyed. Natural abilities to bind to and kill bacteria were a starting point for utilizing phages in phage therapies (i.e., medical treatments that use phages to fight bacterial infections) and for bacteria detection. Numerous applications of phages became possible thanks to phage display-a method connecting the phenotype and genotype, which allows for selecting specific peptides or proteins with affinity to a given target. Here, we review the application of bacteriophages in nanoscience, emphasizing bio-related applications, material science, soft matter research, and physical chemistry.