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Decker SH, Saadi AJ, Baranyi C, Hirose M, Lemer S, Sombke A, Aguilera F, Vieira LM, Smith AM, Waeschenbach A, Schwaha T. Boring systematics: A genome skimmed phylogeny of ctenostome bryozoans and their endolithic family Penetrantiidae with the description of one new species. Ecol Evol 2024; 14:e11276. [PMID: 38638369 PMCID: PMC11024686 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.11276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Revised: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Ctenostomes are a group of gymnolaemate bryozoans with an uncalcified chitinous body wall having few external, skeletal characters. Hence, species identification is challenging and their systematics remain poorly understood, even more so when they exhibit an endolithic (boring) lifestyle. Currently, there are four Recent families of endolithic bryozoans that live inside mineralized substrates like mollusk shells. In particular, Penetrantiidae Silén, 1946 has received considerable attention and its systematic affinity to either cheilostomes or ctenostomes has been debated. Species delimitation of penetrantiids remains difficult, owing to a high degree of colonial and zooidal plasticity. Consequently, an additional molecular approach is essential to unravel the systematics of penetrantiids, their phylogenetic placement and their species diversity. We therefore sequenced the mitochondrial (mt) genomes and two nuclear markers of 27 ctenostome species including nine penetrantiids. Our phylogeny supports the Penetrantiidae as a monophyletic group placed as sister taxon to the remaining ctenostomes alongside paludicellids, arachnidioids and terebriporids. The boring family Terebriporidae d'Orbigny, 1847 were previously considered to be among vesicularioids, but our results suggest an arachnidioid affinity instead. Ctenostome paraphyly is supported by our data, as the cheilostomes nest within them. A Multiporata clade is also well supported, including the former victorelloid genus Sundanella. Altogether, this study provides new insights into ctenostome systematics, assists with species delimitation and contributes to our understanding of the bryozoan tree of life.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ahmed J. Saadi
- Department of Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of ViennaViennaAustria
| | | | - Masato Hirose
- School of Marine BiosciencesKitasato UniversityMinato‐kuJapan
| | | | - Andy Sombke
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Cell and Developmental BiologyMedical University of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Felipe Aguilera
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias BiológicasUniversidad de ConcepciónConcepciónChile
| | - Leandro M. Vieira
- Laboratório de Estudos de Bryozoa—LAEBry, Departamento de Zoologia, Centro de BiociênciasUniversidade Federal de PernambucoRecifePEBrazil
- Department of Life ScienceNatural History MuseumLondonUK
| | - Abigail M. Smith
- Department of Marine ScienceUniversity of OtagoDunedinNew Zealand
| | | | - Thomas Schwaha
- Department of Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of ViennaViennaAustria
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Schwaha T, Decker SH, Baranyi C, Saadi AJ. Rediscovering the unusual, solitary bryozoan Monobryozoon ambulans Remane, 1936: first molecular and new morphological data clarify its phylogenetic position. Front Zool 2024; 21:5. [PMID: 38443908 PMCID: PMC10913646 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-024-00527-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND One of the most peculiar groups of the mostly colonial phylum Bryozoa is the taxon Monobryozoon, whose name already implies non-colonial members of the phylum. Its peculiarity and highly unusual lifestyle as a meiobenthic clade living on sand grains has fascinated many biologists. In particular its systematic relationship to other bryozoans remains a mystery. Despite numerous searches for M. ambulans in its type locality Helgoland, a locality with a long-lasting marine station and tradition of numerous courses and workshops, it has never been reencountered until today. Here we report the first observations of this almost mythical species, Monobryozoon ambulans. RESULTS For the first time since 1938, we present new modern, morphological analyses of this species as well as the first ever molecular data. Our detailed morphological analysis confirms most previous descriptions, but also ascertains the presence of special ambulatory polymorphic zooids. We consider these as bud anlagen that ultimately consecutively separate from the animal rendering it pseudo-colonial. The remaining morphological data show strong ties to alcyonidioidean ctenostome bryozoans. Our morphological data is in accordance with the phylogenomic analysis, which clusters it with species of Alcyonidium as a sister group to multiporate ctenostomes. Divergence time estimation and ancestral state reconstruction recover the solitary state of M. ambulans as a derived character that probably evolved in the Late Cretaceous. In this study, we also provide the entire mitogenome of M. ambulans, which-despite the momentary lack of comparable data-provides important data of a unique and rare species for comparative aspects in the future. CONCLUSIONS We were able to provide first sequence data and modern morphological data for the unique bryozoan, M. ambulans, which are both supporting an alcyonidioidean relationship within ctenostome bryozoans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Schwaha
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Vienna, Schlachthausgasse 43, 1030, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Sebastian H Decker
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Vienna, Schlachthausgasse 43, 1030, Vienna, Austria
| | - Christian Baranyi
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Vienna, Schlachthausgasse 43, 1030, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ahmed J Saadi
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Vienna, Schlachthausgasse 43, 1030, Vienna, Austria
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Paz-Sedano S, Moles J, Smirnoff D, Gosliner TM, Pola M. A combined phylogenetic strategy illuminates the evolution of Goniodorididae nudibranchs (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Heterobranchia). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2024; 192:107990. [PMID: 38072142 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2023.107990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/08/2024]
Abstract
Goniodorididae is a family of small dorid nudibranchs distributed worldwide that feed on entoprocts, ascidians, and bryozoans. The evolutionary relationships between its taxa have been uncertain due to the limited taxa available for phylogenetic analyses; some genera being paraphyletic. The family includes a remarkable number of synonymized genera in which the species richness is unequally distributed, while some genera have dozens of species others are monospecific. Some clades are very uniform morphologically while others are considered highly variable. To increase backbone phylogenetic resolution a target enrichment approach of ultra-conserved elements was aimed at representative Goniodorididae species for the first time. Additionally, we increase species representation by including mitochondrial markers cytochrome c oxidase subunit I and ribosomal RNA 16S as well as nuclear Histone 3 and ribosomal RNA 18S from 109 Goniodorididae species, out of approximately 160 currently valid species. Maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference analyses were performed to infer the phylogeny of the family. As a result, two subfamilies and eleven genera were elucidated. The synonymized genera Bermudella, Cargoa, and Ceratodoris are here resurrected and a new genus, Naisdoris gen. nov., is described. The clades included taxa with shared prey preference, showing that trophic behavior could have driven species evolution and morphological uniqueness within the family Goniodorididae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofía Paz-Sedano
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Juan Moles
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Ecology, and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 643, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Recerca de la Biodiversitat (IRBio), Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Dimitri Smirnoff
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Terrence M Gosliner
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Marta Pola
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain; Biodiversity and Global Change Research Center (CIBC-UAM), Campus of International Excellence UAM + CSIC, Madrid, Spain
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Schwaha T, Gordon DP. Deep-sea ctenostome bryozoans: revision of the family Pachyzoidae, with description of a new genus and three new species from Zealandia. Zoological Lett 2024; 10:4. [PMID: 38321566 DOI: 10.1186/s40851-024-00226-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/08/2024]
Abstract
Pachyzoidae is a little-known family of deep-sea ctenostome Bryozoa that until now was monospecific for Pachyzoon atlanticum. Originally described from the Atlantic Ocean, the genus was also found off southeastern New Caledonia in deep waters of the geological continent of Zealandia. Pachyzoon atlanticum forms globular to flat round colonies, living on soft, muddy to sandy bottoms with a few rhizoidal cystid appendages extending from the basal, substrate-oriented side. In this study, we investigate additional pachyzoids, collected between 1965 and 2015 from over 40 sites around New Zealand, by means of detailed morphological and histological investigations. In total, several hundred colonies were encountered in the NIWA Invertebrate Collection, comprising two new species of the genus Pachyzoon, P. grischenkoi sp. nov. and P. pulvinaris sp. nov., and the new genus and species Jeanloupia zealandica gen. et sp. nov.. The genus Jeanloupia is characterized by small disc-shaped colonies with highly elongated peristomes and a quadrangular aperture, distinct from the round apertures of the genus Pachyzoon. Pachyzoid species differ in colony structure and shape, apertural papillae and polypide features such as tentacle number or digestive-tract details. Cystid appendages are non-kenozooidal, but may originate from laterally flanking kenozooids. Based on published images, alleged P. atlanticum from New Caledonia is re-interpreted as P. pulvinaris n. sp.. Morphological characters support alcyonidioidean relationships, as previously suggested. First observations on pachyzoid reproduction show macrolecithal oocytes and brooding of embryos, which seems to be the general pattern for this family. The occurrence of three new Zealandian species in a comparatively small geographical area far from the Atlantic indicates a high possibility of more species to discovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Schwaha
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Vienna, Schlachthausgasse 43, 1030, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Dennis P Gordon
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA), Wellington, New Zealand
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Saadi AJ, de Oliveira AL, Kocot KM, Schwaha T. Genomic and transcriptomic survey of bryozoan Hox and ParaHox genes with emphasis on phylactolaemate bryozoans. BMC Genomics 2023; 24:711. [PMID: 38001438 PMCID: PMC10675955 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-023-09826-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bryozoans are mostly sessile aquatic colonial invertebrates belonging to the clade Lophotrochozoa, which unites many protostome bilaterian phyla such as molluscs, annelids and brachiopods. While Hox and ParaHox genes have been extensively studied in various lophotrochozoan lineages, investigations on Hox and ParaHox gene complements in bryozoans are scarce. RESULTS Herein, we present the most comprehensive survey of Hox and ParaHox gene complements in bryozoans using four genomes and 35 transcriptomes representing all bryozoan clades: Cheilostomata, Ctenostomata, Cyclostomata and Phylactolaemata. Using similarity searches, phylogenetic analyses and detailed manual curation, we have identified five Hox genes in bryozoans (pb, Dfd, Lox5, Lox4 and Post2) and one ParaHox gene (Cdx). Interestingly, we observed lineage-specific duplication of certain Hox and ParaHox genes (Dfd, Lox5 and Cdx) in some bryozoan lineages. CONCLUSIONS The bryozoan Hox cluster does not retain the ancestral lophotrochozoan condition but appears relatively simple (includes only five genes) and broken into two genomic regions, characterized by the loss and duplication of serval genes. Importantly, bryozoans share the lack of two Hox genes (Post1 and Scr) with their proposed sister-taxon, Phoronida, which suggests that those genes were missing in the most common ancestor of bryozoans and phoronids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed J Saadi
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Unit for Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Schlachthausgasse 43, Vienna, A-1030, Austria.
| | - André Luiz de Oliveira
- Department of Symbiosis, Max-Planck-Institute for Marine Microbiology, Celsiustraße,1, D-28359, Bremen, Germany
| | - Kevin M Kocot
- Department of Biological Sciences and Alabama Museum of Natural History, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 35487, USA
| | - Thomas Schwaha
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Unit for Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Schlachthausgasse 43, Vienna, A-1030, Austria
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Grant HE, Ostrovsky AN, Jenkins HL, Vieira LM, Gordon DP, Foster PG, Kotenko ON, Smith AM, Berning B, Porter JS, Souto J, Florence WK, Tilbrook KJ, Waeschenbach A. Multiple evolutionary transitions of reproductive strategies in a phylum of aquatic colonial invertebrates. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20231458. [PMID: 37909081 PMCID: PMC10618858 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.1458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Parental care is considered crucial for the enhanced survival of offspring and evolutionary success of many metazoan groups. Most bryozoans incubate their young in brood chambers or intracoelomically. Based on the drastic morphological differences in incubation chambers across members of the order Cheilostomatida (class Gymnolaemata), multiple origins of incubation were predicted in this group. This hypothesis was tested by constructing a molecular phylogeny based on mitogenome data and nuclear rRNA genes 18S and 28S with the most complete sampling of taxa with various incubation devices to date. Ancestral character estimation suggested that distinct types of brood chambers evolved at least 10 times in Cheilostomatida. In Eucratea loricata and Aetea spp. brooding evolved unambiguously from a zygote-spawning ancestral state, as it probably did in Tendra zostericola, Neocheilostomata, and 'Carbasea' indivisa. In two further instances, brooders with different incubation chamber types, skeletal and non-skeletal, formed clades (Scruparia spp., Leiosalpinx australis) and (Catenicula corbulifera (Steginoporella spp. (Labioporella spp., Thalamoporella californica))), each also probably evolved from a zygote-spawning ancestral state. The modular nature of bryozoans probably contributed to the evolution of such a diverse array of embryonic incubation chambers, which included complex constructions made of polymorphic heterozooids, and maternal zooidal invaginations and outgrowths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather E. Grant
- Centre for Evolution and Cancer, The Institute of Cancer Research, 15 Cotswold Road, Sutton SM2 5NG, UK
- Department of Science, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Andrew N. Ostrovsky
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Saint Petersburg State University, Universitetskaja nab. 7/9, 199034 Saint Petersburg, Russia
- Department of Palaeontology, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Geography and Astronomy, University of Vienna, Josef-Holaubek-Platz 2 (UZA II), 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Helen L. Jenkins
- Department of Science, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK
- Department of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK
| | - Leandro M. Vieira
- Department of Science, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK
- Laboratório de Estudos de Bryozoa, Departamento de Zoologia, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Av. Prof. Moraes Rego 1235, Recife, PE 50670–810, Brazil
| | - Dennis P. Gordon
- National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research, Private Bag 14901, Kilbirnie, Wellington 6241, New Zealand
| | - Peter G. Foster
- Department of Science, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Olga N. Kotenko
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Saint Petersburg State University, Universitetskaja nab. 7/9, 199034 Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Abigail M. Smith
- Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Björn Berning
- Institute for Geology, University of Hamburg, Bundesstr. 55, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Pólo dos Açores, Universidade dos Açores, Campus de Ponta Delgada Apartado 1422, 9501-801 Ponta Delgada, Açores, Portugal
| | - Joanne S. Porter
- International Centre for Island Technology, Heriot Watt University, Orkney Campus, Robert Rendall Building, Franklin Road, Stromness, Orkney KW16 3AW, UK
| | - Javier Souto
- Department of Palaeontology, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Geography and Astronomy, University of Vienna, Josef-Holaubek-Platz 2 (UZA II), 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Wayne K. Florence
- Research and Exhibitions Department, Iziko Museums of South Africa, PO Box 61, Cape Town 8000, South Africa
| | - Kevin J. Tilbrook
- Department of Science, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Andrea Waeschenbach
- Department of Science, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK
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Bibermair J, Schwaha T. The unplumatellid Plumatella fruticosa found its home: Hirosella gen. nov. morphological arguments for the systematic placement of a freshwater bryozoan. J Morphol 2023; 284:e21620. [PMID: 37585229 PMCID: PMC10952699 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/17/2023]
Abstract
Bryozoans are colonial, suspension-feeding lophotrochozoans. The phylum consists of the large group of chiefly marine Myolaemata and the exclusively limnic Phylactolaemata. Each colony consists of individual zooids that comprise the protective cystid and the retractable polypide. Phylactolaemates are a small group of approximately 90 species in 6 families. They feature a body wall, that can either be gelatinous, as in the families Stephanellidae, Lophopodidae, Cristatellidae and Pectinatellidae, or encrusted, as in Plumatellidae and Fredericellidae. Morphological investigations of the most specious plumatellids are rare and focus on few species. Plumatella fruticosa is of particular interest in this regard, as it shows a mosaic of plumatellid and fredericellids characters. The most recent phylogeny clusters P. fruticosa with cristatellids and pectinatellids as sister groups to fredericellids. Hence, there is considerable doubt, whether P. fruticosa is truly a plumatellid. Therefore, this study aims to reinvestigate the morphology of P. fruticosa with confocal microscopy and section-based three-dimensional reconstruction. The new data show that P. fruticosa has numerous conspicuous stumps from fragmented proliferation buds, which are otherwise only known from fredericellids. Like fredericellids, P. fruticosa grows erect, but in contrast, has a horseshoe-shaped lophophore and floatoblasts. Besides the proportions of the lophophore, the tentacle sheath and digestive tract resemble a fredericellid-like situation. Myoanatomical details like the pronounced longitudinal muscles of the vestibular wall and tentacle sheath differ from plumatellids and favour the recently proposed scenario, which places P. fruticosa next to Pectinatellidae and Cristatellidae. In addition, the intertentacular membrane of P. fruticosa shows structural similarity to cristatellids as it is attached to the tentacles via lamellae. Taking all aspects into account, we erect a new family: Hirosellidae fam. nov. including the new genus Hirosella gen. nov.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Bibermair
- Department of Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Thomas Schwaha
- Department of Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of ViennaViennaAustria
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Nakata NN, Emlet RB. Having cake and eating too: The benefits of an intermediate larval form in a brittle star Amphiodia sp. opaque (Ophiuroidea). Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e10298. [PMID: 37470028 PMCID: PMC10352130 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.10298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Most marine invertebrate larvae either obligately feed or depend on maternally provided reserves during planktonic development. A small number of species have the capacity to do both, in a mode of development known as facultative planktotrophy. We describe facultative feeding in a larva from the Oregon coast, and identify it as being an undescribed species in the genus Amphiodia, which we refer to as Amphiodia sp. opaque. We quantified the effects of food on larval and juvenile quality by culturing larvae, collected as embryos, with and without microalgal food at 15°C. The resulting juveniles were monitored under conditions of starvation. A cohort of juveniles of larvae caught as plankton was subjected to the same starvation treatment for comparison with our laboratory-reared larvae. We observed benefits to offspring that received food: larvae provided with microalgae developed more quickly and metamorphosed at higher rates. Furthermore, juveniles resulting from fed larvae were larger and were able to avoid starvation for longer after metamorphosis. Our results varied across two experimental years, suggesting that provisions provided by parents vary between populations and years. Juveniles from planktonic larvae exhibited sizes not statistically different from larvae cultured in the absence of food, but died from starvation more quickly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole N. Nakata
- Oregon Institute of Marine Biology, University of OregonCharlestonOregonUSA
| | - Richard B. Emlet
- Oregon Institute of Marine Biology, University of OregonCharlestonOregonUSA
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Decker SH, Hirose M, Lemer S, Kuklinski P, Spencer HG, Smith AM, Schwaha T. Boring bryozoans: an investigation into the endolithic bryozoan family Penetrantiidae. ORG DIVERS EVOL 2023; 23:743-785. [PMID: 38046835 PMCID: PMC10689564 DOI: 10.1007/s13127-023-00612-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023]
Abstract
An endolithic lifestyle in mineralized substrates has evolved multiple times in various phyla including Bryozoa. The family Penetrantiidae includes one genus with ten extant and two fossil species. They predominantly colonize the shells of molluscs and establish colonies by chemical dissolution of calcium carbonate. Based on several morphological characters, they were described to be either cheilostome or ctenostome bryozoans. For more than 40 years, neither the characters of species identity and systematics nor the problem of their phylogeny was approached. Consequently, the aim of this study is to reevaluate species identities and the systematic position of the genus Penetrantia by analyzing at least six different species from eight regions with the aid of modern methods such as confocal laser scanning microscopy and 3D-reconstruction techniques. This study demonstrates that the musculature associated with the operculum and brood chamber shows significant differences from the cheilostome counterparts and seems to have evolved independently. Together with the presence of other ctenostome-like features such as true polymorphic stolons and uncalcified body wall, this finding supports a ctenostome affinity. Operculum morphology reveals many new species-specific characters, which, together with information about gonozooid morphology, tentacle number, and zooid size ranges, will enhance species identification. It also revealed a probable new species in Japan as well as potential cryptic species in France and New Zealand. In addition, this study increases the known distribution range of the family and its substrate diversity. Altogether, the new information collated here provides the basis for future work on a neglected taxon. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13127-023-00612-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian H. Decker
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Vienna, Schlachthausgasse 43, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Masato Hirose
- School of Marine Biosciences, Kitasato University, Kitasato 1-15-1, Sagamihara-Minami, Kanagawa, 252-0373 Japan
| | - Sarah Lemer
- Marine Laboratory, UOG Station, Mangilao, Guam 96923 USA
| | - Piotr Kuklinski
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sopot, Poland
| | | | - Abigail M. Smith
- Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Thomas Schwaha
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Vienna, Schlachthausgasse 43, 1030 Vienna, Austria
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Temereva EN, Isaeva MA, Kosevich IA. Unusual lophophore innervation in ctenostome Flustrellidra hispida (Bryozoa). J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol 2023; 340:245-258. [PMID: 35662417 DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.23164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Since ctenostomes are traditionally regarded as an ancestral clade to some other bryozoan groups, the study of additional species may help to clarify questions on bryozoan evolution and phylogeny. One of these questions is the bryozoan lophophore evolution: whether it occurred through simplification or complication. The morphology and innervation of the ctenostome Flustrellidra hispida (Fabricius, 1780) lophophore have been studied with electron microscopy and immunocytochemistry with confocal laser scanning microscopy. Lophophore nervous system of F. hispida consists of several main nerve elements: cerebral ganglion, circumoral nerve ring, and the outer nerve ring. Serotonin-like immunoreactive perikarya, which connect with the circumoral nerve ring, bear the cilium that directs to the abfrontal side of the lophophore and extends between tentacle bases. The circumoral nerve ring gives rise to the intertentacular and frontal tentacle nerves. The outer nerve ring gives rise to the abfrontal neurites, which connect to the outer groups of perikarya and contribute to the formation of the abfrontal tentacle nerve. The outer nerve ring has been described before in other bryozoans, but it never contributes to the innervation of tentacles. The presence of the outer nerve ring participating in the innervation of tentacles makes the F. hispida lophophore nervous system particularly similar to the lophophore nervous system of phoronids. This similarity allows to suggest that organization of the F. hispida lophophore nervous system may reflect the ancestral state for all bryozoans. The possible scenario of evolutionary transformation of the lophophore nervous system within bryozoans is suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena N Temereva
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Biological Faculty, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Maria A Isaeva
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Biological Faculty, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Igor A Kosevich
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Biological Faculty, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
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Abstract
We present a genome assembly from an adult colony of Membranipora membranacea (the sea mat; Bryozoa; Gymnolaemata; Cheilostomatida; Membraniporidae). The genome sequence is 339 megabases in span. Most of the assembly (99.95%) is scaffolded into 11 chromosomal pseudomolecules. The mitochondrial genome has also been assembled and is 14.7 kilobases in length.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Bishop
- Marine Biological Association, Plymouth, Devon, UK
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12
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Schwaha T, Waeschenbach A, De Blauwe H, Gordon DP. Morphology of ctenostome bryozoans: 6. Amphibiobeania epiphylla. J Morphol 2022; 283:1505-1516. [PMID: 36205214 PMCID: PMC9828531 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2022] [Revised: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Ctenostome bryozoans are unmineralized and mostly marine. Their lack of calcified skeletal features requires other characters to be considered for systematic and phylogenetic considerations. As a continuation of an ongoing series of studies, we herein investigate the morphology of Amphibiobeania epiphylla, a unique bryozoan inhabiting mangrove leaves that are highly exposed to tidal cycles and regular dry events according to the tidal cycle. Besides this interesting mode of life, the species was originally interpreted to be a weakly mineralized cheilostome bryozoan, whereas molecular data place it among ctenostome bryozoans. To elucidate the systematic and phylogenetic position of the genus and also find morphological adaptations to an extreme habitat, we investigated the morphology of A. epiphylla in detail. Zooids show a lophophore with eight tentacles and a simple gut with a prominent caecum, lophophoral anus and most notably a distinct gizzard in the cardiac region. Gizzard teeth are multiple, simple homogeneous cuticular structures. The cuticle of the zooid is rather uniform and shows no respective thickenings into opercular flaps or folds. Likewise, apertural muscles are represented by a single pair of muscles. There are no specific closing muscles in the apertural area like the operculum occlusors of cheilostomes. Most prominent within zooids is a spongiose tissue filling most of the body cavity. Although not properly understood, this tissue may aid in keeping animals moist and hydrated during prolonged dry times. In summary, all morphological characters support a ctenostome rather than a cheilostome affinity, possibly with Vesicularioidea or Victorelloidea. In addition, we provide new molecular data that clearly supports such a closer relationship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Schwaha
- Department of Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Andrea Waeschenbach
- Department of Life Sciences, Invertebrate DivisionNatural History MuseumLondonUK
| | - Hans De Blauwe
- Department of Invertebrates, Scientific CollaboratorRoyal Belgian Institute of Natural SciencesBrusselsBelgium
| | - Dennis P. Gordon
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA)WellingtonNew Zealand
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13
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Saadi AJ, Bibermair J, Kocot KM, Roberts NG, Hirose M, Calcino A, Baranyi C, Chaichana R, Wood TS, Schwaha T. Phylogenomics reveals deep relationships and diversification within phylactolaemate bryozoans. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20221504. [PMID: 36350215 PMCID: PMC9653232 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.1504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Bryozoans are mostly sessile colonial invertebrates that inhabit all kinds of aquatic ecosystems. Extant bryozoan species fall into two clades with one of them, Phylactolaemata, being the only exclusively freshwater clade. Phylogenetic relationships within the class Phylactolaemata have long been controversial owing to their limited distinguishable characteristics that reflect evolutionary relationships. Here, we present the first phylogenomic analysis of Phylactolaemata using transcriptomic data combined with dense taxon sampling of six families to better resolve the interrelationships and to estimate divergence time. Using maximum-likelihood and Bayesian inference approaches, we recovered a robust phylogeny for Phylactolaemata in which the interfamilial relationships are fully resolved. We show Stephanellidae is the sister taxon of all other phylactolaemates and confirm that Lophopodidae represents the second offshoot within the phylactolaemate tree. Plumatella fruticosa clearly falls outside Plumatellidae as previous investigations have suggested, and instead clusters with Pectinatellidae and Cristatellidae as the sister taxon of Fredericellidae. Our results demonstrate that cryptic speciation is very likely in F. sultana and in two species of Plumatella (P. repens and P. casmiana). Divergence time estimates show that Phylactolaemata appeared at the end of the Ediacaran and started to diverge in the Silurian, although confidence intervals were large for most nodes. The radiation of most extant phylactolaemate families occurred mainly in the Palaeogene and Neogene highlighting post-extinction diversification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed J. Saadi
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Unit for Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, A-1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Julian Bibermair
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Unit for Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, A-1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Kevin M. Kocot
- Department of Biological Sciences and Alabama Museum of Natural History, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA
| | - Nickellaus G. Roberts
- Department of Biological Sciences and Alabama Museum of Natural History, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA
| | - Masato Hirose
- School of Marine Biosciences, Kitasato University, Kitasato 1-15-1, Sagamihara-Minami, Kanagawa 252-0373, Japan
| | - Andrew Calcino
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Unit for Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, A-1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Christian Baranyi
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Unit for Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, A-1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Ratcha Chaichana
- Department of Environmental Technology and Management, Faculty of Environment, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Timothy S. Wood
- Department of Biological Sciences, Wright State University, Dayton, OH 45435, USA
| | - Thomas Schwaha
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Unit for Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, A-1030 Vienna, Austria
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14
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Baptista L, Berning B, Curto M, Waeschenbach A, Meimberg H, Santos AM, Ávila SP. Morphospecies and molecular diversity of ‘lace corals’: the genus Reteporella (Bryozoa: Cheilostomatida) in the central North Atlantic Azores Archipelago. BMC Ecol Evol 2022; 22:128. [PMCID: PMC9635095 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-022-02080-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Background As in most bryozoans, taxonomy and systematics of species in the genus Reteporella Busk, 1884 (family Phidoloporidae) has hitherto almost exclusively been based on morphological characters. From the central North Atlantic Azores Archipelago, nine Reteporella species have historically been reported, none of which have as yet been revised. Aiming to characterise the diversity and biogeographic distribution of Azorean Reteporella species, phylogenetic reconstructions were conducted on a dataset of 103 Azorean Reteporella specimens, based on the markers cytochrome C oxidase subunit 1, small and large ribosomal RNA subunits. Morphological identification was based on scanning electron microscopy and complemented the molecular inferences. Results Our results reveal two genetically distinct Azorean Reteporella clades, paraphyletic to eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean taxa. Moreover, an overall concordance between morphological and molecular species can be shown, and the actual bryozoan diversity in the Azores is greater than previously acknowledged as the dataset comprises three historically reported species and four putative new taxa, all of which are likely to be endemic. The inclusion of Mediterranean Reteporella specimens also revealed new species in the Adriatic and Ligurian Sea, whilst the inclusion of additional phidoloporid taxa hints at the non-monophyly of the genus Reteporella. Conclusion Being the first detailed genetic study on the genus Reteporella, the high divergence levels inferred within the genus Reteporella and family Phidoloporidae calls for the need of further revision. Nevertheless, the overall concordance between morphospecies and COI data suggest the potential adequacy of a 3% cut-off to distinguish Reteporella species. The discovery of new species in the remote Azores Archipelago as well as in the well-studied Mediterranean Sea indicates a general underestimation of bryozoan diversity. This study constitutes yet another example of the importance of integrative taxonomical approaches on understudied taxa, contributing to cataloguing genetic and morphological diversity. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12862-022-02080-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Baptista
- grid.5808.50000 0001 1503 7226Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, CIBIO, InBIO Laboratório Associado, 9501-801 Pólo dos Açores, Ponta Delgada, Açores, Portugal ,grid.5808.50000 0001 1503 7226BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal ,grid.7338.f0000 0001 2096 9474MPB-Marine Palaeontology and Biogeography Lab, Universidade dos Açores, 9501-801 Ponta Delgada, Açores, Portugal ,grid.5808.50000 0001 1503 7226Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 1021/1055, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal ,grid.5173.00000 0001 2298 5320University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Department of Integrative Biology and Biodiversity Research, Institute for Integrative Nature Conservation Research, Vienna, Austria
| | - Björn Berning
- grid.5808.50000 0001 1503 7226Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, CIBIO, InBIO Laboratório Associado, 9501-801 Pólo dos Açores, Ponta Delgada, Açores, Portugal ,grid.7338.f0000 0001 2096 9474MPB-Marine Palaeontology and Biogeography Lab, Universidade dos Açores, 9501-801 Ponta Delgada, Açores, Portugal ,Oberösterreichische Landes-Kultur GmbH, Geowissenschaftliche Sammlungen, 4060 Leonding, Austria
| | - Manuel Curto
- grid.5173.00000 0001 2298 5320University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Department of Integrative Biology and Biodiversity Research, Institute for Integrative Nature Conservation Research, Vienna, Austria ,grid.9983.b0000 0001 2181 4263MARE, Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
| | | | - Harald Meimberg
- grid.5173.00000 0001 2298 5320University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Department of Integrative Biology and Biodiversity Research, Institute for Integrative Nature Conservation Research, Vienna, Austria
| | - António M. Santos
- grid.5808.50000 0001 1503 7226Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 1021/1055, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal ,grid.5808.50000 0001 1503 7226Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, CIBIO, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Campus de Vairão, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal
| | - Sérgio P. Ávila
- grid.5808.50000 0001 1503 7226Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, CIBIO, InBIO Laboratório Associado, 9501-801 Pólo dos Açores, Ponta Delgada, Açores, Portugal ,grid.5808.50000 0001 1503 7226BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal ,grid.7338.f0000 0001 2096 9474MPB-Marine Palaeontology and Biogeography Lab, Universidade dos Açores, 9501-801 Ponta Delgada, Açores, Portugal ,grid.5808.50000 0001 1503 7226Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 1021/1055, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal ,grid.7338.f0000 0001 2096 9474Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade dos Açores, 9501-801 Ponta Delgada, Açores, Portugal
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15
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Bibermair J, Wood TS, Chaichana R, Schwaha T. Reconstructing the neuromuscular ground pattern of phylactolaemate bryozoans: new data from the Lophopodidae. BMC Ecol Evol 2022; 22:118. [PMID: 36261803 PMCID: PMC9580149 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-022-02076-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The solely freshwater inhabiting Phylactolaemata is a sister taxon to all other bryozoans. Among phylactolaemates, Lophopodidae represents an early branching clade that is therefore crucial for ground pattern reconstruction. While more recent morphological data of most phylactolaemate families are present, data of lophopodids are scarce. The genus Asajirella especially, which was previously assigned to the family Pectinatellidae, lacks any detailed analysis with more recent morphological methods. RESULTS This study provides the first morphological analyses of three lophopodid species using serial-sectioning histology and 3D reconstruction, but also immunocytochemical stainings and confocal laserscanning microscopy. There are several lophopodid-specific traits in the nervous system such as the large ganglion with extensive lumen and two prominent protrusions referred to as epistomial horns. The epistome in all lophopodids is rather small and dome-shaped. Contrary to previous reports, we can confirm that duplicature bands insert at the tentacle sheath rather than the diaphragmatic sphincter in all phylactolaemates. The morphology of the digestive tract of lophopodids is identical to other phylactolaemates and possesses exclusively circular muscles. CONCLUSIONS Altogether, this study fills significant gaps in our knowledge on phylactolaemate neuromuscular systems and general morphology. It shows that the insertion of the duplicature bands at the tentacle sheath and the circular musculature of the digestive tract to be the ground pattern in phylactolaemates. In addition, we found apomorphic characters for lophopodids such as the dome-shaped epistome with its musculature and the voluminous ganglion with its epistomial horns, which aid in defining and delineating the family.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Bibermair
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| | - T S Wood
- Department of Biological Sciences, Wright State University, Ohio, USA
| | - R Chaichana
- Department of Environmental Technology and Management, Faculty of Environment, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - T Schwaha
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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16
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Jenkins HL, Graham R, Porter JS, Vieira LM, de Almeida ACS, Hall A, O'Dea A, Coppard SE, Waeschenbach A. Unprecedented frequency of mitochondrial introns in colonial bilaterians. Sci Rep 2022; 12:10889. [PMID: 35764672 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-14477-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal mitogenomes are typically devoid of introns. Here, we report the largest number of mitochondrial introns ever recorded from bilaterian animals. Mitochondrial introns were identified for the first time from the phylum Bryozoa. They were found in four species from three families (Order Cheilostomatida). A total of eight introns were found in the complete mitogenome of Exechonella vieirai, and five, 17 and 18 introns were found in the partial mitogenomes of Parantropora penelope, Discoporella cookae and Cupuladria biporosa, respectively. Intron-encoded protein domains reverse transcriptase and intron maturase (RVT-IM) were identified in all species. Introns in E. vieirai and P. penelope had conserved Group II intron ribozyme domains V and VI. Conserved domains were lacking from introns in D. cookae and C. biporosa, preventing their further categorization. Putative origins of metazoan introns were explored in a phylogenetic context, using an up-to-date alignment of mitochondrial RVT-IM domains. Results confirmed previous findings of multiple origins of annelid, placozoan and sponge RVT-IM domains and provided evidence for common intron donor sources across metazoan phyla. Our results corroborate growing evidence that some metazoans with regenerative abilities (i.e. placozoans, sponges, annelids and bryozoans) are susceptible to intron integration, most likely via horizontal gene transfer.
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17
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Batson PB, Tamberg Y, Taylor PD. Composite branch construction by dual autozooidal budding modes in hornerids (Bryozoa: Cyclostomatida). J Morphol 2022; 283:783-804. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- P. B. Batson
- Department of Marine ScienceUniversity of OtagoDunedin9054New Zealand
| | - Y. Tamberg
- Department of Marine ScienceUniversity of OtagoDunedin9054New Zealand
| | - P. D. Taylor
- Department of Earth SciencesNatural History MuseumLondonSW7 5BD
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18
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Orr RJS, Di Martino E, Ramsfjell MH, Gordon DP, Berning B, Chowdhury I, Craig S, Cumming RL, Figuerola B, Florence W, Harmelin JG, Hirose M, Huang D, Jain SS, Jenkins HL, Kotenko ON, Kuklinski P, Lee HE, Madurell T, McCann L, Mello HL, Obst M, Ostrovsky AN, Paulay G, Porter JS, Shunatova NN, Smith AM, Souto-Derungs J, Vieira LM, Voje KL, Waeschenbach A, Zágoršek K, Warnock RCM, Liow LH. Paleozoic origins of cheilostome bryozoans and their parental care inferred by a new genome-skimmed phylogeny. Sci Adv 2022; 8:eabm7452. [PMID: 35353568 PMCID: PMC8967238 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abm7452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Phylogenetic relationships and the timing of evolutionary events are essential for understanding evolution on longer time scales. Cheilostome bryozoans are a group of ubiquitous, species-rich, marine colonial organisms with an excellent fossil record but lack phylogenetic relationships inferred from molecular data. We present genome-skimmed data for 395 cheilostomes and combine these with 315 published sequences to infer relationships and the timing of key events among c. 500 cheilostome species. We find that named cheilostome genera and species are phylogenetically coherent, rendering fossil or contemporary specimens readily delimited using only skeletal morphology. Our phylogeny shows that parental care in the form of brooding evolved several times independently but was never lost in cheilostomes. Our fossil calibration, robust to varied assumptions, indicates that the cheilostome lineage and parental care therein could have Paleozoic origins, much older than the first known fossil record of cheilostomes in the Late Jurassic.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Dennis P. Gordon
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Björn Berning
- Geoscience Collections, Oberösterreichische Landes-Kultur GmbH, Linz, Austria
| | - Ismael Chowdhury
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, USA
| | - Sean Craig
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, USA
| | | | | | - Wayne Florence
- Department of Research and Exhibitions, Iziko Museums of South Africa, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Jean-Georges Harmelin
- Station marine d’Endoume, OSU Pytheas, MIO, GIS Posidonie, Université Aix-Marseille, Marseille, France
| | - Masato Hirose
- School of Marine Biosciences, Kitasato University, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Danwei Huang
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Sudhanshi S. Jain
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Helen L. Jenkins
- Marine Biological Association of the UK, Plymouth, UK
- Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | - Olga N. Kotenko
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Piotr Kuklinski
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sopot, Poland
| | - Hannah E. Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, USA
| | | | - Linda McCann
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, TIburon, CA, USA
| | | | - Matthias Obst
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Andrew N. Ostrovsky
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg, Russia
- Department of Palaeontology, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Geography and Astronomy, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gustav Paulay
- Florida Museum of Natural History, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Joanne S. Porter
- International Centre for Island Technology, Heriot-Watt University, Stromness, UK
| | - Natalia N. Shunatova
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | | | - Javier Souto-Derungs
- Department of Palaeontology, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Geography and Astronomy, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Leandro M. Vieira
- Natural History Museum, London, UK
- Department of Zoology, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
| | - Kjetil L. Voje
- Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Kamil Zágoršek
- Department of Geography, Technical University of Liberec, Liberec, Czech Republic
| | - Rachel C. M. Warnock
- GeoZentrum Nordbayern, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Lee Hsiang Liow
- Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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19
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Hirose M. New Species of Lower-Shelf to Upper-Slope Ctenostome Bryozoans from Pacific Japan, with a Family Range Extension. Zoolog Sci 2022; 39:87-98. [DOI: 10.2108/zs210106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Masato Hirose
- School of Marine Biosciences, Kitasato University, Kitasato 1-15-1, Sagamihara-Minami, Kanagawa 252-0373, Japan
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20
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Tamberg Y, Batson PB, Napper R. Polypide anatomy of hornerid bryozoans (Stenolaemata: Cyclostomatida). J Morphol 2021; 282:1708-1725. [PMID: 34570383 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Bryozoans are small colonial coelomates whose colonies are made of individual modules (zooids). Like most coelomate animals, bryozoans have a characteristic body wall composition, including an epidermis, an extracellular matrix (ECM) and a coelothelium, all pressed together. The order Cyclostomatida, however, presents the most striking deviation, in which the ECM and the corresponding coelothelium underlying major parts of the skeletal wall epidermis are detached to form an independent membranous sac. It forms a separate, much smaller compartment, suspended in the zooid body cavity and working as an important element of the cyclostome lophophore protrusion mechanism. The polypide anatomy and ultrastructure of this group is best known from studies of one family, the Crisiidae (Articulata). Here, we examined four species from the phylogenetically and ecologically contrasting family Horneridae (Cancellata) from New Zealand, and provide the first detailed ultrastructural description of the hornerid polypide, including tentacles, mouth region, digestive system and the funiculus. We were able to trace continuity and transitions of cell and ECM layers throughout the whole polypide. In addition, we identified that the funiculus is a lumen-free ECM cord with two associated muscles, disconnected from interzooidal pores. Except for funicular core composition, the polypide anatomy of hornerids agrees well with the general cyclostomate body plan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Tamberg
- Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Peter B Batson
- Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Ruth Napper
- Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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21
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Prömer J, Sombke A, Schwaha T. A comparative analysis of the nervous system of cheilostome bryozoans. BMC ZOOL 2021; 6:20. [PMID: 37170134 PMCID: PMC10127044 DOI: 10.1186/s40850-021-00084-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
Bryozoans are sessile aquatic suspension feeders in mainly marine, but also freshwater habitats. Most species belong to the marine and calcified Cheilostomata. Since this taxon remains mostly unstudied regarding its neuroanatomy, the focus of this study is on the characterization and ground pattern reconstruction of the autozooidal nervous system based on six representatives.
Results
A common neuronal innervation pattern is present in the investigated species: a cerebral ganglion is located at the base of the lophophore, from where neurite bundles embrace the mouth opening to form a circumoral nerve ring. Four neurite bundles project from the cerebral ganglion to innervate peripheral areas, such as the body wall and parietal muscles via the tentacle sheath. Five neurite bundles comprise the main innervation of the visceral tract. Four neurite bundles innervate each tentacle via the circumoral nerve ring. Mediofrontal tentacle neurite bundles emerge directly from the nerve ring. Two laterofrontal- and one abfrontal tentacle neurite bundles emanate from radial neurite bundles, which originate from the cerebral ganglion and circumoral nerve ring in between two adjacent tentacles. The radial neurite bundles terminate in intertentacular pits and give rise to one abfrontal neurite bundle at the oral side and two abfrontal neurite bundles at the anal side. Similar patterns are described in ctenostome bryozoans.
Conclusions
The present results thus represent the gymnolaemate situation. Innervation of the tentacle sheath and visceral tract by fewer neurite bundles and tentacular innervation by four to six tentacle neurite bundles support cyclostomes as sister taxon to gymnolaemates. Phylactolaemates feature fewer distinct neurite bundles in visceral- and tentacle sheath innervation, which always split in nervous plexus, and their tentacles have six neurite bundles. Thus, this study supports phylactolaemates as sistergroup to myolaemates.
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22
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Bibermair J, Ostrovsky AN, Wanninger A, Schwaha T. Reproductive biology, embryonic development and matrotrophy in the phylactolaemate bryozoan Plumatella casmiana. ORG DIVERS EVOL 2021; 21:467-490. [DOI: 10.1007/s13127-021-00497-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
AbstractBryozoa is a phylum of aquatic, colonial suspension-feeders within the Lophotrochozoa. In the Phylactolaemata embryonic development occurs in an internal brood sac on the body wall accompanied by extraembryonic nutrition. Owing to previous contradictive descriptions, many aspects of their sexual reproduction require restudy. Consequently, this study analyses embryogenesis of the freshwater bryozoan Plumatella casmiana by serial sections, 3D reconstruction and transmission electron microscopy. Early embryos cleave and soon develop into blastulae with a small central cavity. The mesoderm forms by delamination starting from the distal side towards the proximal end. In later embryos two polypides form on the posterior side that ultimately will be covered by a ciliated mantle in the larva. Embryos increase in size during development and form temporary cell contacts to the embryo sac. Mesodermal cells of the embryo sac show signs of transcellular transport indicating that embryos are nourished by transferring nutrients from the maternal coelom towards the brood cavity. This study clarifies several details such as mesoderm formation and the onset of bud development. Embryos are connected to their respective embryo sacs by a variety of temporary cytoplasmic processes formed by both tissues during embryogenesis, including a ‘placental’ ring zone. Although ultrastructural data of these cell contacts are not entirely conclusive about their function, we suggest that embryos absorb nutrients via the entire surface. The close opposition of embryos to the embryo sac implies placentation as matrotrophic mode in phylactolaemate bryozoans, with embryo sacs acting as placental analogues.
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Orr RJS, Di Martino E, Gordon DP, Ramsfjell MH, Mello HL, Smith AM, Liow LH. A broadly resolved molecular phylogeny of New Zealand cheilostome bryozoans as a framework for hypotheses of morphological evolution. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2021; 161:107172. [PMID: 33813020 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2021.107172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Larger molecular phylogenies based on ever more genes are becoming commonplace with the advent of cheaper and more streamlined sequencing and bioinformatics pipelines. However, many groups of inconspicuous but no less evolutionarily or ecologically important marine invertebrates are still neglected in the quest for understanding species- and higher-level phylogenetic relationships. Here, we alleviate this issue by presenting the molecular sequences of 165 cheilostome bryozoan species from New Zealand waters. New Zealand is our geographic region of choice as its cheilostome fauna is taxonomically, functionally and ecologically diverse, and better characterized than many other such faunas in the world. Using this most taxonomically broadly-sampled and statistically-supported cheilostome phylogeny comprising 214 species, when including previously published sequences, and 17 genes (2 nuclear and 15 mitochondrial) we tested several existing systematic hypotheses based solely on morphological observations. We find that lower taxonomic level hypotheses (species and genera) are robust while our inferred trees did not reflect current higher-level systematics (family and above), illustrating a general need for the rethinking of current hypotheses. To illustrate the utility of our new phylogeny, we reconstruct the evolutionary history of frontal shields (i.e., a calcified body-wall layer in ascus-bearing cheilostomes) and ask if its presence has any bearing on the diversification rates of cheilostomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J S Orr
- Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
| | - E Di Martino
- Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - D P Gordon
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - M H Ramsfjell
- Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - H L Mello
- Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - A M Smith
- Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - L H Liow
- Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
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Decker SH, Gordon DP, Spencer Jones ME, Schwaha T. A revision of the ctenostome bryozoan family Pherusellidae, with description of two new species. J ZOOL SYST EVOL RES 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/jzs.12466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian H. Decker
- Department of Evolutionary Biology Integrative Zoology University of Vienna Vienna Austria
| | - Dennis P. Gordon
- National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research Ltd (NIWA) Kilbirnie, Wellington New Zealand
| | | | - Thomas Schwaha
- Department of Evolutionary Biology Integrative Zoology University of Vienna Vienna Austria
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Kutyumov VA, Predeus AV, Starunov VV, Maltseva AL, Ostrovsky AN. Mitochondrial gene order of the freshwater bryozoan Cristatella mucedo retains ancestral lophotrochozoan features. Mitochondrion 2021; 59:96-104. [PMID: 33631347 DOI: 10.1016/j.mito.2021.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Bryozoans are aquatic colonial suspension-feeders abundant in many marine and freshwater benthic communities. At the same time, the phylum is under studied on both morphological and molecular levels, and its position on the metazoan tree of life is still disputed. Bryozoa include the exclusively marine Stenolaemata, predominantly marine Gymnolaemata and exclusively freshwater Phylactolaemata. Here we report the mitochondrial genome of the phylactolaemate bryozoan Cristatella mucedo. This species has the largest (21,008 bp) of all currently known bryozoan mitogenomes, containing a typical metazoan gene compendium as well as a number of non-coding regions, three of which are longer than 1500 bp. The trnS1/trnG/nad3 region is presumably duplicated in this species. Comparative analysis of the gene order in C. mucedo and another phylactolaemate bryozoan, Pectinatella magnifica, confirmed their close relationships, and revealed a stronger similarity to mitogenomes of phoronids and other lophotrochozoan species than to marine bryozoans, indicating the ancestral nature of their gene arrangement. We suggest that the ancestral gene order underwent substantial changes in different bryozoan cladesshowing mosaic distribution of conservative gene blocks regardless of their phylogenetic position. Altogether, our results support the early divergence of Phylactolaemata from the rest of Bryozoa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir A Kutyumov
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Saint Petersburg State University, Universitetskaya nab. 7/9, 199034 Saint Petersburg, Russia.
| | - Alexander V Predeus
- Bioinformatics Institute, Kantemirovskaya 2A, 197342 Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Viktor V Starunov
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Saint Petersburg State University, Universitetskaya nab. 7/9, 199034 Saint Petersburg, Russia; Zoological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Universitetskaya nab. 1, 199034 Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Arina L Maltseva
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Saint Petersburg State University, Universitetskaya nab. 7/9, 199034 Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Andrew N Ostrovsky
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Saint Petersburg State University, Universitetskaya nab. 7/9, 199034 Saint Petersburg, Russia; Department of Palaeontology, Faculty of Geography, Geology and Astronomy, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
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Orr RJS, Sannum MM, Boessenkool S, Di Martino E, Gordon DP, Mello HL, Obst M, Ramsfjell MH, Smith AM, Liow LH. A molecular phylogeny of historical and contemporary specimens of an under-studied micro-invertebrate group. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:309-320. [PMID: 33437431 PMCID: PMC7790615 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Resolution of relationships at lower taxonomic levels is crucial for answering many evolutionary questions, and as such, sufficiently varied species representation is vital. This latter goal is not always achievable with relatively fresh samples. To alleviate the difficulties in procuring rarer taxa, we have seen increasing utilization of historical specimens in building molecular phylogenies using high throughput sequencing. This effort, however, has mainly focused on large-bodied or well-studied groups, with small-bodied and under-studied taxa under-prioritized. Here, we utilize both historical and contemporary specimens, to increase the resolution of phylogenetic relationships among a group of under-studied and small-bodied metazoans, namely, cheilostome bryozoans. In this study, we pioneer the sequencing of air-dried cheilostomes, utilizing a recently developed library preparation method for low DNA input. We evaluate a de novo mitogenome assembly and two iterative methods, using the sequenced target specimen as a reference for mapping, for our sequences. In doing so, we present mitochondrial and ribosomal RNA sequences of 43 cheilostomes representing 37 species, including 14 from historical samples ranging from 50 to 149 years old. The inferred phylogenetic relationships of these samples, analyzed together with publicly available sequence data, are shown in a statistically well-supported 65 taxa and 17 genes cheilostome tree, which is also the most broadly sampled and largest to date. The robust phylogenetic placement of historical samples whose contemporary conspecifics and/or congenerics have been sequenced verifies the appropriateness of our workflow and gives confidence in the phylogenetic placement of those historical samples for which there are no close relatives sequenced. The success of our workflow is highlighted by the circularization of a total of 27 mitogenomes, seven from historical cheilostome samples. Our study highlights the potential of utilizing DNA from micro-invertebrate specimens stored in natural history collections for resolving phylogenetic relationships among species.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sanne Boessenkool
- Department of BiosciencesCentre for Ecological and Evolutionary SynthesisUniversity of OsloOsloNorway
| | | | - Dennis P. Gordon
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric ResearchWellingtonNew Zealand
| | - Hannah L. Mello
- Department of Marine ScienceUniversity of OtagoDunedinNew Zealand
| | - Matthias Obst
- Department of Marine SciencesUniversity of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
| | | | - Abigail M. Smith
- Department of Marine ScienceUniversity of OtagoDunedinNew Zealand
| | - Lee Hsiang Liow
- Natural History MuseumUniversity of OsloOsloNorway
- Department of BiosciencesCentre for Ecological and Evolutionary SynthesisUniversity of OsloOsloNorway
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Schwaha T, Grischenko AV, Melnik VP. Morphology of ctenostome bryozoans: 2. Haywardozoon pacificum, with implications of the phylogenetic position of the genus. J Morphol 2020; 281:1607-1616. [PMID: 32955145 PMCID: PMC7756298 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The genus Haywardozoon represent a little known genus of ctenostome bryozoans that has only been found in the deep-sea. It forms small, mostly uniserial colonies lacking polymorphs. Zooids have a conspicuous apertural closure mechanism consisting of a cuticular lower lip that closes the aperture. The systematic placement of the genus remains uncertain, detailed morphological studies that include soft-body morphological traits are missing. Consequently, this is the first study analyzing H. pacificum by means of histological serial sections and 3d-reconstruction. Zooids are ovoid and in some cases solitary, that is, showing no interconnected zooids. Most prominent is the large vestibular wall that can be more than half of the total length of the zooid. Its vestibular wall is particularly lined by a complex, multilayered and branched cuticle. A single pair of lateral parieto-diaphragmatic muscles is present. The polypide is small and comprises about 17 tentacles. The digestive tract is short, has an elongated cardia, a vestigial caecum and a vestibular anus. An ovipositor/intertentacular organ and several oligolecithal oocytes were detected. Several aspects of zooidal morphology, including the structure of the bilateral aperture, parieto-diaphragmatic muscles, general structure of the gut and the thick cuticle, clearly indicate an association to the ctenostome superfamily Alcyonidioidea. Therefore, we reject the previous placement into Hislopioidea and suggest a possible association to pherusellid ctenostomes. New reproductive characters show that H. pacificum is a broadcaster contrary to some other deep-sea forms that are brooding. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHT: Morphology of ctenostome bryozoans remain little investigated. This contribution is the second of a series of detailed morphological analyses of this understudied clade of bryozoans. The morphological investigation of Haywardozoon pacificum revealed numerous characters that show a closer relationship to Flustrellididrae rather than Hislopiidae as previously assumed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Schwaha
- University of ViennaDepartment of Evolutionary BiologyViennaAustria
| | - Andrei V. Grischenko
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology and Aquatic Ecology, Biological FacultyPerm State National Research UniversityPermRussia
- A.V. Zhirmunsky National Scientific Center of Marine BiologyFar East Branch, Russian Academy of SciencesVladivostokRussia
| | - Viacheslav P. Melnik
- Joint Stock Company YuzhmorgeologiyaMinistry of Nature Resources and Environment of the Russian FederationGelendzhikRussia
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28
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Schwaha TF, Hirose M. Morphology of Stephanella hina (Bryozoa, Phylactolaemata): common phylactolaemate and unexpected, unique characters. Zoological Lett 2020; 6:11. [PMID: 33292824 PMCID: PMC7654017 DOI: 10.1186/s40851-020-00165-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/31/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Stephanella hina is a little studied freshwater bryozoan belonging to Phylactolaemata. It is currently the only representative of the family Stephanellidae, which in most reconstructions is early branching, sometimes even sister group to the remaining phylactolaemate families. The morphological and histological details of this species are entirely unknown. Consequently, the main aim of this study was to conduct a detailed morphological analysis of S. hina using histological serial sections, 3D reconstruction, immunocytochemical staining and confocal laser scanning microscopy techniques. The general morphology is reminiscent of other phylactolaemates; however, there are several, probably apomorphic, details characteristic of S. hina. The most evident difference lies in the lophophoral base, where the ganglionic horns/extensions do not follow the traverse of the lophophoral arms but bend medially inwards towards the mouth opening. Likewise, the paired forked canal does not fuse medially in the lophophoral concavity as found in all other phylactolaemates. Additional smaller differences are also found in the neuro-muscular system: the rooting of the tentacle muscle is less complex than in other phylactolaemates, the funiculus lacks longitudinal muscles, the caecum has smooth muscle fibres, latero-abfrontal tentacle nerves are not detected and the medio-frontal nerves mostly emerge directly from the circum-oral nerve ring. In the apertural area, several neurite bundles extend into the vestibular wall and probably innervate neurosecretory cells surrounding the orifice. These morphological characteristics support the distinct placement of this species in a separate family. Whether these characteristics are apomorphic or possibly shared with other phylactolaemates will require the study of the early branching Lophopodidae, which remains one of the least studied taxa to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas F Schwaha
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Masato Hirose
- Kitasato University, School of Marine Biosciences, Kitasato 1-15-1, Sagamihara-Minami, Kanagawa, 252-0373, Japan
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Treibergs KA, Giribet G. Differential Gene Expression Between Polymorphic Zooids of the Marine Bryozoan Bugulina stolonifera. G3 (Bethesda) 2020; 10:3843-57. [PMID: 32859685 DOI: 10.1534/g3.120.401348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Bryozoans are a diverse phylum of marine and freshwater colonial invertebrates containing approximately 6,300 described living species. Bryozoans grow by budding new physiologically connected colony members (zooids) from a founding individual that forms from a metamorphosed larva. In some species these zooids come in different shapes and sizes and are specialized to serve different tasks within the colony. A complex interaction of genotype, environment, and developmental pathway shapes zooid fate, however, the specific mechanisms underlying the establishment of this division of labor remain unknown. Here, the first characterization of differential gene expression between polymorphic zooids of a bryozoan colony is presented. The development of different zooid types of lab-cultured Bugulina stolonifera colonies including feeding autozooids, avicularia (derived non-feeding zooids that are homologous to feeding autozooids but shaped like a bird’s beak), and rhizoids (a branching network of non-feeding anchoring zooids) was explored using RNA sequencing, de novo transcriptome assembly, and differential gene expression analyses. High throughput sequencing of cDNA libraries yielded an average of 14.9 ± 1.3 (SE) million high-quality paired-end reads per sample. Data for the first de novo transcriptome assemblies of B. stolonifera and the first characterization of genes involved in the formation and maintenance of zooid types within a bryozoan colony are presented. In a comparison between autozooid and avicularium tissues, 1,097 significant differentially expressed genes were uncovered. This work provides a much-needed foundation for understanding the mechanisms involved in the development of polymorphic zooids and the establishment of division of labor in bryozoans.
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Gordon DP, Sutherland JE, Perez BA, Waeschenbach A, Taylor PD, Di Martino E. The bryozoan genus Conopeum (Electridae) in New Zealand, with description of a new species and discussion of the morphological and genetic characters of Conopeum seurati (Canu, 1928). J NAT HIST 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2020.1771452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dennis P. Gordon
- Coasts and Oceans, National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Judy E. Sutherland
- Coasts and Oceans, National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Brenda A. Perez
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, VA, USA
| | | | - Paul D. Taylor
- Departments of Earth Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, UK
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Santagata S. Genes with evidence of positive selection as potentially related to coloniality and the evolution of morphological features among the lophophorates and entoprocts. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol 2020; 336:267-280. [PMID: 32638536 DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.22975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Evolutionary mechanisms that underlie the origins of coloniality among organisms are diverse. Some animal colonies may be comprised strictly of clonal individuals formed from asexual budding or comprised of a chimera of clonal and sexually produced individuals that fuse secondarily. This investigation focuses on select members of the lophophorates and entoprocts whose evolutionary relationships remain enigmatic even in the age of genomics. Using transcriptomic data sets, two coloniality-based hypotheses are tested in a phylogenetic context to find candidate genes showing evidence of positive selection and potentially convergent molecular signatures among solitary species and taxa-forming colonies from aggregate groups or clonal budding. Approximately 22% of the 387 orthogroups tested showed evidence of positive selection in at least one of the three branch-site tests (CODEML, BUSTED, and aBSREL). Only 12 genes could be reliably associated with a developmental function related to traits linked with coloniality, neuroanatomy, or ciliary fields. Genes testing for both positive selection and convergent molecular characters include orthologues of Radial spoke head, Elongation translation initiation factors, SEC13, and Immediate early response gene5. Maximum likelihood analyses included here resulted in tree topologies typical of other phylogenetic investigations based on wider genomic information. Further genomic and experimental evidence will be needed to resolve whether a solitary ancestor with multiciliated cells that formed aggregate groups gave rise to colonial forms in bryozoans (and perhaps the entoprocts) or that the morphological differences exhibited by phoronids and brachiopods represent trait modifications from a colonial ancestor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Santagata
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Long Island University, Greenvale, New York
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Schack CR, Gordon DP, Ryan KG. Community assembly in a modular organism: the impact of environmental filtering on bryozoan colony form and polymorphism. Ecology 2020; 101:e03106. [DOI: 10.1002/ecy.3106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Revised: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carolann R. Schack
- School of Biological Sciences Victoria University of Wellington Kelburn Wellington 6012 New Zealand
- New Zealand Institute of Marine and Atmospheric Science 301 Evans Bay Parade Hataitai Wellington 6021 New Zealand
| | - Dennis P. Gordon
- New Zealand Institute of Marine and Atmospheric Science 301 Evans Bay Parade Hataitai Wellington 6021 New Zealand
| | - Ken G. Ryan
- School of Biological Sciences Victoria University of Wellington Kelburn Wellington 6012 New Zealand
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Dick MH, Waeschenbach A, Trott TJ, Onishi T, Beveridge C, Bishop JD, Ito M, Ostrovsky AN. Global Distribution and Variation of the Invasive Cheilostome Bryozoan Cribrilina mutabilis. Zoolog Sci 2020; 37:217-231. [PMID: 32549536 DOI: 10.2108/zs190142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Viable populations of the cheilostome bryozoan Cribrilina mutabilis Ito, Onishi & Dick exist in the NW Pacific (Russian Far East and northern Japan), NE Atlantic (Scandinavia and Scotland), and NW Atlantic (Maine, USA). The first NE and NW Atlantic records are from Norway (2008) and Casco Bay, Maine, USA (2018), respectively, indicating a relatively recent introduction to the region. Mitochondrial COI gene sequences from North Atlantic populations (Sweden, Norway, and Maine) showed two haplotypes differing by one substitution, but differed from two haplotypes from Akkeshi, northern Japan, by 6-8 substitutions. North Atlantic populations differed morphologically from the Akkeshi population in that some zooids formed a suboral projection, and frontal zooids were more common. While C. mutabilis in northern Japan has been found only on natural or artificial eelgrass (Zostera marina), across its range it has been found on several species of algae, plastic panels and strips, several species of Zostera, and mollusc shells. Similar frequencies of heteromorphic zooids with differing degree of frontal wall calcification, i.e., R (rib)-, I (intermediate)-, and S (shield)-type zooids, in colonies on eelgrass at comparable times of the season and across populations suggest an innate response to seasonal environmental fluctuations, although zooid frequencies were different on non-eelgrass substrates. The increase in trans-Arctic shipping along the Northern Sea Route in recent decades, and previous documentation of C. mutabilis on ship hulls in the Sea of Japan, indicate a clear mechanism for anthropogenic introduction from the Far East to Europe in recent decades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew H Dick
- Department of Biological Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan,
| | | | - Thomas J Trott
- Maine Coastal Program, Department of Marine Resources, West Boothbay Harbor, Maine 04575, USA
| | - Takumi Onishi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan
| | - Chris Beveridge
- Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, Argyll PA37 1QA, Scotland
| | - John D Bishop
- Marine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth PL1 2PB, UK
| | - Minako Ito
- Graduate School of Environmental Science, Hokkaido University, Aikappu 1, Akkeshi, Hokkaido 088-1113, Japan
| | - Andrew N Ostrovsky
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Saint Petersburg State University, Universitetskaja nab. 7/9, Saint Petersburg 199034, Russia.,Department of Palaeontology, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Geography and Astronomy, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, Vienna 1090, Austria
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Decker S, Wanninger A, Schwaha T. Morphology and life cycle of an epiphytic pherusellid ctenostome bryozoan from the Mediterranean Sea. ORG DIVERS EVOL 2020; 20:417-37. [DOI: 10.1007/s13127-020-00443-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThe epiphytic community on the endemic seagrass Posidonia oceanica from the Mediterranean Sea is well studied, but still harbors some little investigated epiphytic bryozoans. Numerous, yet always small colonies of Pherusella sp. were recently encountered in the Northern Adriatic Sea. The aim of this study was to generate data on the life history, colonial development, and reproduction of the Mediterranean population of this Pherusella species in order to gain a better understanding of the biology of this understudied species. The morphology of adult zooids was also studied due to the lack of recent data on the family with state-of-the-art techniques. Long-term observation shows that this species is highly adapted to an epiphytic life cycle with short generation time throughout the year. First laboratory cultures appear promising in establishing a reliable model system for developmental and ecological studies. Larvae are easily obtainable, and metamorphosis and colonial growth patterns are documented here for the first time. The morphology of adults shows distinct similarities with other pheruselllids and, along with the neuromuscular system, is similar to other alcyonidioideans supporting the close relationship of these taxa. This study constitutes one of the first long-time observations of the life cycle and colonial growth of a pherusellid bryozoan, including morphological data about the neuromuscular system of an otherwise incompletely known group of bryozoans. Pherusella sp. appears to be a promising candidate for future studies since it is easy to collect and maintain under laboratory conditions as well as to obtain different developmental stages.
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Schwaha TF, Ostrovsky AN, Wanninger A. Key novelties in the evolution of the aquatic colonial phylum Bryozoa: evidence from soft body morphology. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2020; 95:696-729. [PMID: 32032476 PMCID: PMC7317743 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Revised: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Molecular techniques are currently the leading tools for reconstructing phylogenetic relationships, but our understanding of ancestral, plesiomorphic and apomorphic characters requires the study of the morphology of extant forms for testing these phylogenies and for reconstructing character evolution. This review highlights the potential of soft body morphology for inferring the evolution and phylogeny of the lophotrochozoan phylum Bryozoa. This colonial taxon comprises aquatic coelomate filter-feeders that dominate many benthic communities, both marine and freshwater. Despite having a similar bauplan, bryozoans are morphologically highly diverse and are represented by three major taxa: Phylactolaemata, Stenolaemata and Gymnolaemata. Recent molecular studies resulted in a comprehensive phylogenetic tree with the Phylactolaemata sister to the remaining two taxa, and Stenolaemata (Cyclostomata) sister to Gymnolaemata. We plotted data of soft tissue morphology onto this phylogeny in order to gain further insights into the origin of morphological novelties and character evolution in the phylum. All three larger clades have morphological apomorphies assignable to the latest molecular phylogeny. Stenolaemata (Cyclostomata) and Gymnolaemata were united as monophyletic Myolaemata because of the apomorphic myoepithelial and triradiate pharynx. One of the main evolutionary changes in bryozoans is a change from a body wall with two well-developed muscular layers and numerous retractor muscles in Phylactolaemata to a body wall with few specialized muscles and few retractors in the remaining bryozoans. Such a shift probably pre-dated a body wall calcification that evolved independently at least twice in Bryozoa and resulted in the evolution of various hydrostatic mechanisms for polypide protrusion. In Cyclostomata, body wall calcification was accompanied by a unique detachment of the peritoneum from the epidermis to form the hydrostatic membraneous sac. The digestive tract of the Myolaemata differs from the phylactolaemate condition by a distinct ciliated pylorus not present in phylactolaemates. All bryozoans have a mesodermal funiculus, which is duplicated in Gymnolaemata. A colonial system of integration (CSI) of additional, sometimes branching, funicular cords connecting neighbouring zooids via pores with pore-cell complexes evolved at least twice in Gymnolaemata. The nervous system in all bryozoans is subepithelial and concentrated at the lophophoral base and the tentacles. Tentacular nerves emerge intertentacularly in Phylactolaemata whereas they partially emanate directly from the cerebral ganglion or the circum-oral nerve ring in myolaemates. Overall, morphological evidence shows that ancestral forms were small, colonial coelomates with a muscular body wall and a U-shaped gut with ciliary tentacle crown, and were capable of asexual budding. Coloniality resulted in many novelties including the origin of zooidal polymorphism, an apomorphic landmark trait of the Myolaemata.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas F. Schwaha
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Integrative Zoology, Faculty of Life SciencesUniversity of ViennaVienna1090Austria
| | - Andrew N. Ostrovsky
- Department of Palaeontology, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Geography and AstronomyUniversity of ViennaVienna1090Austria
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of BiologySaint Petersburg State UniversitySaint Petersburg199034Russia
| | - Andreas Wanninger
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Integrative Zoology, Faculty of Life SciencesUniversity of ViennaVienna1090Austria
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36
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Abstract
Bryozoans are small benthic colonial animals; their colonies consist of zooids which are composed of a cystid and polypide. According to morphological and molecular data, three classes of bryozoans are recognized: Phylactolaemata, Gymnolaemata and Stenolaemata. Bryozoans are active suspension feeders and their feeding apparatus, the lophophore, is fringed with a single row of ciliated tentacles. In gymnolaemates, the lophophore is bell-shaped and its tentacles may be equal in length (equitentacled lophophores) or some tentacles may be longer than others (obliquely truncated lophophores). In encrusting colonies, polypides with obliquely truncated lophophores usually border specific sites of excurrent water outlets (colony periphery and chimneys) where depleted water has to be removed. It is known that during colony astogeny, colony-wide water currents rearrange: new chimneys are formed and/or location of the chimneys within a given colony changes with time. Such rearrangement requires remodeling of the lophophore shape and lengthening of some tentacles in polypides surrounding water outlets. However, proliferating activity has not been described for bryozoans. Here, we compared the distribution of S-phase and mitotic cells in young and adult polypides in three species of Gymnolaemata. We tested the hypothesis that tentacle growth/elongation is intercalary and cell proliferation takes place somewhere at the lophophore base because such pattern does not interfere with the feeding process. We also present a detailed description of ultrastructure of two parts of the lophophore base: the oral region and ciliated pits, and uncover the possible function of the latter. The presence of stem cells within the ciliated pits and the oral region of polypides provide evidence that both sites participate in tentacle elongation. This confirms the suggested hypothesis about intercalary tentacle growth which provides a potential to alter a lophophore shape in adult polypides according to rearrangement of colony wide water currents during colony astogeny. For the first time deuterosome-like structures were revealed during kinetosome biogenesis in the prospective multiciliated epithelial cells in invertebrates. Tentacle regeneration experiments in Electra pilosa demonstrated that among all epidermal cell types, only non-ciliated cells at the abfrontal tentacle surface are responsible for wound healing. Ciliated cells on the frontal and lateral tentacle surfaces are specialized and unable to proliferate, not even under wound healing. Tentacle regeneration in E. pilosa is very slow and similar to the morphallaxis type. We suggest that damaged tentacles recover their length by a mechanism similar to normal growth, powered by proliferation of cells both within ciliated pits and the oral region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Shunatova
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Biological Faculty, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Ilya Borisenko
- Department of Embryology, Biological Faculty, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia
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37
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Ciavatta ML, Lefranc F, Vieira LM, Kiss R, Carbone M, van Otterlo WAL, Lopanik NB, Waeschenbach A. The Phylum Bryozoa: From Biology to Biomedical Potential. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:E200. [PMID: 32283669 PMCID: PMC7230173 DOI: 10.3390/md18040200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Less than one percent of marine natural products characterized since 1963 have been obtained from the phylum Bryozoa which, therefore, still represents a huge reservoir for the discovery of bioactive metabolites with its ~6000 described species. The current review is designed to highlight how bryozoans use sophisticated chemical defenses against their numerous predators and competitors, and which can be harbored for medicinal uses. This review collates all currently available chemoecological data about bryozoans and lists potential applications/benefits for human health. The core of the current review relates to the potential of bryozoan metabolites in human diseases with particular attention to viral, brain, and parasitic diseases. It additionally weighs the pros and cons of total syntheses of some bryozoan metabolites versus the synthesis of non-natural analogues, and explores the hopes put into the development of biotechnological approaches to provide sustainable amounts of bryozoan metabolites without harming the natural environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Letizia Ciavatta
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Istituto di Chimica Biomolecolare (ICB), Via Campi Flegrei 34, 80078 Pozzuoli, Italy; (M.L.C.); (M.C.)
| | - Florence Lefranc
- Service de Neurochirurgie, Hôpital Erasme, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 1070 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Leandro M. Vieira
- Departamento de Zoologia, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE 50670-901, Brazil;
| | - Robert Kiss
- Retired – formerly at the Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique (FRS-FNRS), 1000 Brussels, Belgium;
| | - Marianna Carbone
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Istituto di Chimica Biomolecolare (ICB), Via Campi Flegrei 34, 80078 Pozzuoli, Italy; (M.L.C.); (M.C.)
| | - Willem A. L. van Otterlo
- Department of Chemistry and Polymer Science, University of Stellenbosch, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa;
| | - Nicole B. Lopanik
- School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA;
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38
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Wang E, Sorolla MA, Krishnan PDG, Sorolla A. From Seabed to Bedside: A Review on Promising Marine Anticancer Compounds. Biomolecules 2020; 10:E248. [PMID: 32041255 DOI: 10.3390/biom10020248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The marine environment represents an outstanding source of antitumoral compounds and, at the same time, remains highly unexplored. Organisms living in the sea synthesize a wide variety of chemicals used as defense mechanisms. Interestingly, a large number of these compounds exert excellent antitumoral properties and have been developed as promising anticancer drugs that have later been approved or are currently under validation in clinical trials. However, due to the high need for these compounds, new methodologies ensuring its sustainable supply are required. Also, optimization of marine bioactives is an important step for their success in the clinical setting. Such optimization involves chemical modifications to improve their half-life in circulation, potency and tumor selectivity. In this review, we outline the most promising marine bioactives that have been investigated in cancer models and/or tested in patients as anticancer agents. Moreover, we describe the current state of development of anticancer marine compounds and discuss their therapeutic limitations as well as different strategies used to overcome these limitations. The search for new marine antitumoral agents together with novel identification and chemical engineering approaches open the door for novel, more specific and efficient therapeutic agents for cancer treatment.
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39
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Orr RJS, Haugen MN, Berning B, Bock P, Cumming RL, Florence WK, Hirose M, Di Martino E, Ramsfjell MH, Sannum MM, Smith AM, Vieira LM, Waeschenbach A, Liow LH. A genome-skimmed phylogeny of a widespread bryozoan family, Adeonidae. BMC Evol Biol 2019; 19:235. [PMID: 31881939 PMCID: PMC6935126 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-019-1563-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 12/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Understanding the phylogenetic relationships among species is one of the main goals of systematic biology. Simultaneously, credible phylogenetic hypotheses are often the first requirement for unveiling the evolutionary history of traits and for modelling macroevolutionary processes. However, many non-model taxa have not yet been sequenced to an extent such that statistically well-supported molecular phylogenies can be constructed for these purposes. Here, we use a genome-skimming approach to extract sequence information for 15 mitochondrial and 2 ribosomal operon genes from the cheilostome bryozoan family, Adeonidae, Busk, 1884, whose current systematics is based purely on morphological traits. The members of the Adeonidae are, like all cheilostome bryozoans, benthic, colonial, marine organisms. Adeonids are also geographically widely-distributed, often locally common, and are sometimes important habitat-builders. RESULTS We successfully genome-skimmed 35 adeonid colonies representing 6 genera (Adeona, Adeonellopsis, Bracebridgia, Adeonella, Laminopora and Cucullipora). We also contributed 16 new, circularised mitochondrial genomes to the eight previously published for cheilostome bryozoans. Using the aforementioned mitochondrial and ribosomal genes, we inferred the relationships among these 35 samples. Contrary to some previous suggestions, the Adeonidae is a robustly supported monophyletic clade. However, the genera Adeonella and Laminopora are in need of revision: Adeonella is polyphyletic and Laminopora paraphyletically forms a clade with some Adeonella species. Additionally, we assign a sequence clustering identity using cox1 barcoding region of 99% at the species and 83% at the genus level. CONCLUSIONS We provide sequence data, obtained via genome-skimming, that greatly increases the resolution of the phylogenetic relationships within the adeonids. We present a highly-supported topology based on 17 genes and substantially increase availability of circularised cheilostome mitochondrial genomes, and highlight how we can extend our pipeline to other bryozoans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marianne N Haugen
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Björn Berning
- Geoscience Collections, Upper Austrian State Museum, Linz, Austria
| | - Philip Bock
- Museum Victoria, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | | | - Wayne K Florence
- Department of Research and Exhibitions, Iziko Museums of South Africa, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Masato Hirose
- School of Marine Biosciences, Kitasato University, Kanagawa, Japan
| | | | | | - Maja M Sannum
- Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Abigail M Smith
- Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Leandro M Vieira
- Department of Zoology, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
| | | | - Lee Hsiang Liow
- Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
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40
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Abstract
Recent advances in sampling and novel techniques in drug synthesis and isolation have promoted the discovery of anticancer agents from marine organisms to combat this major threat to public health worldwide. Bryozoans, which are filter-feeding, aquatic invertebrates often characterized by a calcified skeleton, are an excellent source of pharmacologically interesting compounds including well-known chemical classes such as alkaloids and polyketides. This review covers the literature for secondary metabolites isolated from marine cheilostome and ctenostome bryozoans that have shown potential as cancer drugs. Moreover, we highlight examples such as bryostatins, the most known class of marine-derived compounds from this animal phylum, which are advancing through anticancer clinical trials due to their low toxicity and antineoplastic activity. The bryozoan antitumor compounds discovered until now show a wide range of chemical diversity and biological activities. Therefore, more research focusing on the isolation of secondary metabolites with potential anticancer properties from bryozoans and other overlooked taxa covering wider geographic areas is needed for an efficient bioprospecting of natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blanca Figuerola
- Institute of Marine Sciences (ICM-CSIC), Pg. Marítim de la Barceloneta 37-49, Barcelona 08003, Catalonia, Spain.
| | - Conxita Avila
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Ecology, and Environmental Sciences, and Biodiversity Research Institute (IrBIO), Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 643, Barcelona 08028, Catalonia, Spain
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Pröts P, Wanninger A, Schwaha T. Life in a tube: morphology of the ctenostome bryozoan Hypophorella expansa. Zoological Lett 2019; 5:28. [PMID: 31410295 PMCID: PMC6686267 DOI: 10.1186/s40851-019-0142-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Bryozoa is a large phylum of colonial aquatic suspension feeders. The boring ctenostome Hypophorella expansa is unique and inhabits parchment-like polychaete tubes. Morphological studies date back to the nineteenth century, but distinct adaptations to this specific habitat have not been properly analysed, which prompted us to reexamine the morphology of this recently encountered species. The colony of H. expansa is composed of elongated stolonal kenozooids with a distal capsule-like expansion. A median transversal muscle is present in the latter, and one autozooid is laterally attached to the capsule. Unique stolonal wrinkles are embedded in the thin parts of the stolons. Single autozooids are attached in an alternating right-left succession on subsequent stolons. Polypide morphology including digestive tract, muscular system and most parts of the nervous system are similar to other ctenostomes. The most obvious apomorphic features of Hypophorella are space balloons and the gnawing apparatus. The former are two fronto-lateral spherical structures on autozooids, which provide space inside the tube. The latter perforates layers of the polychaete tube wall and consists of two rows of cuticular teeth that, together with the entire vestibular wall, are introvertable during the protrusion-retraction process. The apertural muscles are in association with this gnawing apparatus heavily modified and show bilateral symmetry. Adaptations to the unique lifestyle of this species are thus evident in stolonal wrinkles, autozooidal space balloons and the gnawing apparatus. The growth pattern of the colony of H. expansa may aid in rapid colonization of the polychaete tube layers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Pröts
- Department of Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Andreas Wanninger
- Department of Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Schwaha
- Department of Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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42
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Shunatova N, Tamberg Y. Body cavities in bryozoans: Functional and phylogenetic implications. J Morphol 2019; 280:1332-1358. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2018] [Revised: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Shunatova
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology; St. Petersburg State University; St. Petersburg Russia
| | - Yuta Tamberg
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology; St. Petersburg State University; St. Petersburg Russia
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43
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Holzer AS, Bartošová-Sojková P, Born-Torrijos A, Lövy A, Hartigan A, Fiala I. The joint evolution of the Myxozoa and their alternate hosts: A cnidarian recipe for success and vast biodiversity. Mol Ecol 2019; 27:1651-1666. [PMID: 29575260 DOI: 10.1111/mec.14558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2017] [Revised: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 03/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The relationships between parasites and their hosts are intimate, dynamic and complex; the evolution of one is inevitably linked to the other. Despite multiple origins of parasitism in the Cnidaria, only parasites belonging to the Myxozoa are characterized by a complex life cycle, alternating between fish and invertebrate hosts, as well as by high species diversity. This inspired us to examine the history of adaptive radiations in myxozoans and their hosts by determining the degree of congruence between their phylogenies and by timing the emergence of myxozoan lineages in relation to their hosts. Recent genomic analyses suggested a common origin of Polypodium hydriforme, a cnidarian parasite of acipenseriform fishes, and the Myxozoa, and proposed fish as original hosts for both sister lineages. We demonstrate that the Myxozoa emerged long before fish populated Earth and that phylogenetic congruence with their invertebrate hosts is evident down to the most basal branches of the tree, indicating bryozoans and annelids as original hosts and challenging previous evolutionary hypotheses. We provide evidence that, following invertebrate invasion, fish hosts were acquired multiple times, leading to parallel cospeciation patterns in all major phylogenetic lineages. We identify the acquisition of vertebrate hosts that facilitate alternative transmission and dispersion strategies as reason for the distinct success of the Myxozoa, and identify massive host specification-linked parasite diversification events. The results of this study transform our understanding of the origins and evolution of parasitism in the most basal metazoan parasites known.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid S Holzer
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Parasitology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Pavla Bartošová-Sojková
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Parasitology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Ana Born-Torrijos
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Parasitology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.,Cavanilles Institute of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Alena Lövy
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Parasitology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.,Marine Biology Department, The Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Ashlie Hartigan
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Parasitology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Ivan Fiala
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Parasitology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
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Nekliudova UA, Schwaha TF, Kotenko ON, Gruber D, Cyran N, Ostrovsky AN. Sexual reproduction of the placental brooder Celleporella hyalina (Bryozoa, Cheilostomata) in the White Sea. J Morphol 2019; 280:278-299. [PMID: 30653716 PMCID: PMC6949948 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2018] [Revised: 12/06/2018] [Accepted: 12/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The evolution of parental care is a central field in many ecological and evolutionary studies, but integral approaches encompassing various life-history traits are not common. Else, the structure, development and functioning of the placental analogues in invertebrates are poorly understood. Here, we describe the life-history, sexual colony dynamics, oogenesis, fertilization and brooding in the boreal-Arctic cheilostome bryozoan Celleporella hyalina. This placental brooder incubates its progeny in calcified protective chambers (ovicells) formed by polymorphic sexual zooids. We conducted a detailed ultrastructural study of the ovary and oogenesis, and provide evidence of both auto- and heterosynthetic mechanisms of vitellogenesis. We detected sperm inside the early oocyte and within funicular strands, and discuss possible variants of fertilization. We also detail the development and functioning of the placental analogue (embryophore) in the various stages of embryonic incubation as well as embryonic histotrophic nourishment. In contrast to all known cheilostome placentas, the main part of embryophore of C. hyalina is not a single cell layer. Rather, it is a massive "nutritive tissue" whose basal part is associated with funicular strands presumably providing transport function. C. hyalina shows a mixture of reproductive traits with macrolecithal oogenesis and well-developed placenta. These features give it an intermediate position in the continuum of variation of matrotrophic provisioning between lecithotrophic and placentotrophic cheilostome brooders. The structural and developmental differences revealed in the placental analogue of C. hyalina, together with its position on the bryozoan molecular tree, point to the independent origin of placentation in the family Hippothoidae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uliana A. Nekliudova
- Department of Integrative Zoology, Faculty of Life SciencesUniversity of ViennaViennaAustria
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of BiologySaint Petersburg State UniversitySaint PetersburgRussia
| | - Thomas F. Schwaha
- Department of Integrative Zoology, Faculty of Life SciencesUniversity of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Olga N. Kotenko
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of BiologySaint Petersburg State UniversitySaint PetersburgRussia
| | - Daniela Gruber
- Core Facility Cell Imaging and Ultrastructure ResearchFaculty of Life Sciences, University of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Norbert Cyran
- Core Facility Cell Imaging and Ultrastructure ResearchFaculty of Life Sciences, University of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Andrew N. Ostrovsky
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of BiologySaint Petersburg State UniversitySaint PetersburgRussia
- Department of Palaeontology, Faculty of Earth SciencesGeography and Astronomy, University of ViennaViennaAustria
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45
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Temereva EN, Kosevich IA. The nervous system in the cyclostome bryozoan Crisia eburnea as revealed by transmission electron and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Front Zool 2018; 15:48. [PMID: 30524485 PMCID: PMC6276173 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-018-0295-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Among bryozoans, cyclostome anatomy is the least studied by modern methods. New data on the nervous system fill the gap in our knowledge and make morphological analysis much more fruitful to resolve some questions of bryozoan evolution and phylogeny. RESULTS The nervous system of cyclostome Crisia eburnea was studied by transmission electron microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy. The cerebral ganglion has an upper concavity and a small inner cavity filled with cilia and microvilli, thus exhibiting features of neuroepithelium. The cerebral ganglion is associated with the circumoral nerve ring, the circumpharyngeal nerve ring, and the outer nerve ring. Each tentacle has six longitudinal neurite bundles. The body wall is innervated by thick paired longitudinal nerves. Circular nerves are associated with atrial sphincter. A membranous sac, cardia, and caecum all have nervous plexus. CONCLUSION The nervous system of the cyclostome C. eburnea combines phylactolaemate and gymnolaemate features. Innervation of tentacles by six neurite bundles is similar of that in Phylactolaemata. The presence of circumpharyngeal nerve ring and outer nerve ring is characteristic of both, Cyclostomata and Gymnolaemata. The structure of the cerebral ganglion may be regarded as a result of transformation of hypothetical ancestral neuroepithelium. Primitive cerebral ganglion and combination of nerve plexus and cords in the nervous system of C. eburnea allows to suggest that the nerve system topography of C. eburnea may represent an ancestral state of nervous system organization in Bryozoa. Several scenarios describing evolution of the cerebral ganglion in different bryozoan groups are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena N. Temereva
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Moscow State University, Biological Faculty, Leninskie Gory, 1-12, Moscow, 119991 Russia
| | - Igor A. Kosevich
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Moscow State University, Biological Faculty, Leninskie Gory, 1-12, Moscow, 119991 Russia
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46
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrine Worsaae
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Tobias Frykman
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Claus Nielsen
- BioSystematics, The Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark
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47
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Orr RJS, Waeschenbach A, Enevoldsen ELG, Boeve JP, Haugen MN, Voje KL, Porter J, Zágoršek K, Smith AM, Gordon DP, Liow LH. Bryozoan genera Fenestrulina and Microporella no longer confamilial; multi-gene phylogeny supports separation. Zool J Linn Soc 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zly055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Emily L G Enevoldsen
- Centre for Ecological & Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jeroen P Boeve
- Centre for Ecological & Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Marianne N Haugen
- Centre for Ecological & Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kjetil L Voje
- Centre for Ecological & Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Joanne Porter
- Centre for Marine Biodiversity and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Heriot Watt University, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Kamil Zágoršek
- Department of Geography, Technical University of Liberec, Czech Republic
| | - Abigail M Smith
- Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Dennis P Gordon
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Lee Hsiang Liow
- Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Centre for Ecological & Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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Santagata S, Ade V, Mahon AR, Wisocki PA, Halanych KM. Compositional Differences in the Habitat-Forming Bryozoan Communities of the Antarctic Shelf. Front Ecol Evol 2018. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2018.00116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Schwaha TF, Handschuh S, Ostrovsky AN, Wanninger A. Morphology of the bryozoan Cinctipora elegans (Cyclostomata, Cinctiporidae) with first data on its sexual reproduction and the cyclostome neuro-muscular system. BMC Evol Biol 2018; 18:92. [PMID: 29898669 PMCID: PMC6000935 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-018-1206-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2018] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cyclostome bryozoans are an ancient group of marine colonial suspension-feeders comprising approximately 700 extant species. Previous morphological studies are mainly restricted to skeletal characters whereas data on soft tissues obtained by state-of-the-art methods are still lacking. In order to contribute to issues related to cyclostome ground pattern reconstruction, we analyzed the morphology of the neuromuscular system Cinctipora elegans by means of immunocytochemical staining, confocal laser scanning microscopy, histological sections and microCT imaging. RESULTS Polypides of C. elegans are located in elongated tubular skeletal cystids. Distally, the orifice leads into a prominent vestibulum which is lined by an epithelium that joins an almost complete perimetrical attachment organ, both containing radially arranged neurite bundles and muscles. Centrally, the prominent atrial sphincter separates the vestibulum from the atrium. The latter is enclosed by the tentacle sheath which contains few longitudinal muscle fibers and two principal neurite bundles. These emerge from the cerebral ganglion, which is located at the lophophoral base. Lateral ganglia are located next to the cerebral ganglion from which the visceral neurite bundles emerge that extend proximally towards the foregut. There are four tentacle neurite bundles that emerge from the ganglia and the circum-oral nerve ring, which encompasses the pharynx. The tentacles possess two striated longitudinal muscles. Short buccal dilatators are situated at the lophophoral base and short muscular sets are present at the abfrontal and frontal side of the tentacle base. The pharynx is myoepithelial and triradiate in cross-section. Oocytes are found inside the pharyngeal myoepithelium. The digestive tract contains dense circular musculature and few longitudinal muscles. The membranous sac contains regular, thin, circular and diagonal muscles and neurites in its epithelial lining. CONCLUSIONS The general structure of the neuro-muscular system is more reminiscent of the condition found in Gymnolaemata rather than Phylactolaemata, which supports a close relationship between Cyclostomata and Gymnolaemata. Several characters of C. elegans such as the lateral ganglia or loss of the cardia are probably apomorphic for this species. For the first time, oocytes that surprisingly develop in the pharyngeal wall are reported for this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas F. Schwaha
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Department of Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Stephan Handschuh
- VetCore Facility for Research, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Andrew N. Ostrovsky
- Faculty of Earth Sciences, Geography and Astronomy, Department of Palaeontology, University of Vienna, Geozentrum, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
- Faculty of Biology, Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Saint Petersburg State University, Universitetskaja nab. 7/9, 199034 Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Andreas Wanninger
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Department of Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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Abstract
This paper describes the skeletal carbonate mineralogy of 156 bryozoan species collected from Scotland (sourced both from museum collections and from waters around Scotland) and collated from literature. This collection represents 79% of the species which inhabit Scottish waters and is a greater number and proportion of extant species than any previous regional study. The study is also of significance globally where the data augment the growing database of mineralogical analyses and offers first analyses for 26 genera and four families. Specimens were collated through a combination of field sampling and existing collections and were analysed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and micro-XRD to determine wt% MgCO3 in calcite and wt% aragonite. Species distribution data and phylogenetic organisation were applied to understand distributional, taxonomic and phylo-mineralogical patterns. Analysis of the skeletal composition of Scottish bryozoans shows that the group is statistically different from neighbouring Arctic fauna but features a range of mineralogy comparable to other temperate regions. As has been previously reported, cyclostomes feature low Mg in calcite and very little aragonite, whereas cheilostomes show much more variability, including bimineralic species. Scotland is a highly variable region, open to biological and environmental influx from all directions, and bryozoans exhibit this in the wide range of within-species mineralogical variability they present. This plasticity in skeletal composition may be driven by a combination of environmentally-induced phenotypic variation, or physiological factors. A flexible response to environment, as manifested in a wide range of skeletal mineralogy within a species, may be one characteristic of successful invasive bryozoans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Loxton
- Centre for Marine Biodiversity and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton, Edinburgh, Uinted Kingdom
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, Uinted Kingdom
- University Marine Biological Station, Millport, Isle of Cumbrae, Uinted Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Mary Spencer Jones
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, Uinted Kingdom
| | - Jens Najorka
- Core Research Laboratories, Natural History Museum, London, Uinted Kingdom
| | - Abigail M. Smith
- Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Joanne S. Porter
- Centre for Marine Biodiversity and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton, Edinburgh, Uinted Kingdom
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, Uinted Kingdom
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