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McQueen BE, Kiatthanapaiboon A, Fulcher ML, Lam M, Patton K, Powell E, Kollipara A, Madden V, Suchland RJ, Wyrick P, O'Connell CM, Reidel B, Kesimer M, Randell SH, Darville T, Nagarajan UM. Human Fallopian Tube Epithelial Cell Culture Model To Study Host Responses to Chlamydia trachomatis Infection. Infect Immun 2020; 88:e00105-20. [PMID: 32601108 PMCID: PMC7440757 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00105-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis infection of the human fallopian tubes can lead to damaging inflammation and scarring, ultimately resulting in infertility. To study the human cellular responses to chlamydial infection, researchers have frequently used transformed cell lines that can have limited translational relevance. We developed a primary human fallopian tube epithelial cell model based on a method previously established for culture of primary human bronchial epithelial cells. After protease digestion and physical dissociation of excised fallopian tubes, epithelial cell precursors were expanded in growth factor-containing medium. Expanded cells were cryopreserved to generate a biobank of cells from multiple donors and cultured at an air-liquid interface. Culture conditions stimulated cellular differentiation into polarized mucin-secreting and multiciliated cells, recapitulating the architecture of human fallopian tube epithelium. The polarized and differentiated cells were infected with a clinical isolate of C. trachomatis, and inclusions containing chlamydial developmental forms were visualized by fluorescence and electron microscopy. Apical secretions from infected cells contained increased amounts of proteins associated with chlamydial growth and replication, including transferrin receptor protein 1, the amino acid transporters SLC3A2 and SLC1A5, and the T-cell chemoattractants CXCL10, CXCL11, and RANTES. Flow cytometry revealed that chlamydial infection induced cell surface expression of T-cell homing and activation proteins, including ICAM-1, VCAM-1, HLA class I and II, and interferon gamma receptor. This human fallopian tube epithelial cell culture model is an important tool with translational potential for studying cellular responses to Chlamydia and other sexually transmitted pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan E McQueen
- Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Amy Kiatthanapaiboon
- Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - M Leslie Fulcher
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Mariam Lam
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Kate Patton
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Emily Powell
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Avinash Kollipara
- Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Victoria Madden
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Robert J Suchland
- University of Washington, Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Priscilla Wyrick
- Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Catherine M O'Connell
- Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Boris Reidel
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Mehmet Kesimer
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Scott H Randell
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Toni Darville
- Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Uma M Nagarajan
- Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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Miller CJ, Veazey RS. T Cells in the Female Reproductive Tract Can Both Block and Facilitate HIV Transmission. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 15:36-40. [PMID: 31431806 DOI: 10.2174/1573395514666180807113928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Because HIV is sexually transmitted, there is considerable interest in defining the nature of anti-HIV immunity in the female reproductive tract (FRT) and in developing ways to elicit antiviral immunity in the FRT through vaccination. Although it is assumed that the mucosal immune system of the FRT is of central importance for protection against sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV, this arm of the immune system has only recently been studied. Here we provide a brief review of the role of T cells in the FRT in blocking and facilitating HIV transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Miller
- Professor of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Center for Comparative Medicine.,California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, Ca, 95616
| | - Ronald S Veazey
- Professor of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine.,Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA 70433
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Santangelo PJ, Cicala C, Byrareddy SN, Ortiz KT, Little D, Lindsay KE, Gumber S, Hong JJ, Jelicic K, Rogers KA, Zurla C, Villinger F, Ansari AA, Fauci AS, Arthos J. Early treatment of SIV+ macaques with an α(4)β(7) mAb alters virus distribution and preserves CD4(+) T cells in later stages of infection. Mucosal Immunol 2018; 11:932-46. [PMID: 29346349 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2017.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Accepted: 10/29/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Integrin α4β7 mediates the trafficking of leukocytes, including CD4+ T cells, to lymphoid tissues in the gut. Virus mediated damage to the gut is implicated in HIV and SIV mediated chronic immune activation and leads to irreversible damage to the immune system. We employed an immuno-PET/CT imaging technique to evaluate the impact of an anti-integrin α4β7 mAb alone or in combination with ART, on the distribution of both SIV infected cells and CD4+ cells in rhesus macaques infected with SIV. We determined that α4β7 mAb reduced viral antigen in an array of tissues of the lung, spleen, axillary, and inguinal lymph nodes. These sites are not directly linked to α4β7 mediated homing; however, the most pronounced reduction in viral load was observed in the colon. Despite this reduction, α4β7 mAb treatment did not prevent an apparent depletion of CD4+ T cells in gut in the acute phase of infection that is characteristic of HIV/SIV infection. However, α4β7 mAb appeared to facilitate the preservation or restoration of CD4+ T cells in gut tissues at later stages of infection. Since damage to the gut is believed to play a central role in HIV pathogenesis, these results support further evaluation of α4β7 antagonists in the study and treatment of HIV disease.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Acute HIV infection is characterized by high-level viral replication throughout the body's lymphoid system, particularly in gut-associated lymphoid tissues resulting in damage to structural components of gut tissue. This damage is irreversible and believed to contribute to the development of immune deficiencies. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) does not restore gut structure and function. Studies in macaques point to an alternative treatment strategy that may ameliorate gut damage. Integrin α4β7 mediates the homing of lymphocytes to gut tissues. Vedolizumab, a monoclonal antibody (mAb) antagonist of α4β7, has demonstrated efficacy and has been approved for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease in humans. Here, we describe our current knowledge, and the gaps in our understanding, of the role of α4β7 in HIV pathogenesis and treatment. RECENT FINDINGS When administered to macaques prior to infection, a nonhuman primate analogue of vedolizumab prevents transmission of SIV. In combination with ART, this mAb facilitates durable virologic control following treatment interruption. Targeting α4β7 represents a novel therapeutic approach to prevent and treat HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Arthos
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institutes of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive Rm 6A08, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA.
| | - Claudia Cicala
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institutes of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive Rm 6A08, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
| | - Fatima Nawaz
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institutes of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive Rm 6A08, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
| | - Siddappa N Byrareddy
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
| | - Francois Villinger
- New Iberia Research Center, University of Louisiana Lafayette, Lafayette, LA, 70560, USA
| | - Philip J Santangelo
- Walter H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30680, USA
| | - Aftab A Ansari
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Anthony S Fauci
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institutes of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive Rm 6A08, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
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Palkola NV, Pakkanen SH, Heikinheimo O, Kantele JM, Kantele A. Circulating pathogen-specific plasmablasts in female patients with upper genital tract infection. J Reprod Immunol 2018. [PMID: 29525428 DOI: 10.1016/j.jri.2018.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Mucosal antibodies constitute the first line of adaptive immune defence against invaders in the female genital tract (FGT), yet the sequence of events leading to their production is surprisingly poorly characterized. We explored the induction of pathogen-specific antibody-secreting cells (ASC) as a response to an acute infection in the upper FGT. We recruited 12 patients undergoing surgery due to an upper FGT infection (7/12 blood culture positive, 5/12 negative) and six healthy controls. Pathogens were sampled during surgery and PBMC collected in the acute phase of the disease (days 7-10). We searched by ELISPOT circulating pathogen-specific ASC and explored their frequency, immunoglobulin isotype distribution, and expressions of homing receptors (α4β7, L-selectin, and CLA). All patients had circulating ASC specific to the infective bacteria; the geometric mean was 434 (95%CI 155-1234) ASC (IgA + IgG + IgM)/106 PBMC. IgA ASC predominated in 7/12, IgG ASC in 3/12, and IgM ASC in 2/12 cases. Of all the pathogen-specific ASC, 60% expressed α4β7, 67% L-selectin, and 9% CLA. This study is the first to show induction of pathogen-specific ASC in the peripheral blood in bacterial infection in the human FGT. Our findings reveal that such FGT-originating pathogen-specific ASC are predominated by IgA ASC and exhibit a homing receptor profile resembling that of ASC in acute urinary tract infection. The data thus suggest a characteristic profile shared by the urogenital tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina V Palkola
- Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Sari H Pakkanen
- Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Oskari Heikinheimo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jussi M Kantele
- Occupational Health and Environmental Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Anu Kantele
- Inflammation Center, Clinic of Infectious Diseases, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland; Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine/Solna, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Richardson SI, Gray ES, Mkhize NN, Sheward DJ, Lambson BE, Wibmer CK, Masson L, Werner L, Garrett N, Passmore JAS, Karim QA, Karim SSA, Williamson C, Moore PL, Morris L. South African HIV-1 subtype C transmitted variants with a specific V2 motif show higher dependence on α4β7 for replication. Retrovirology 2015; 12:54. [PMID: 26105197 PMCID: PMC4479312 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-015-0183-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The integrin α4β7 mediates the trafficking of immune cells to the gut associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) and is an attachment factor for the HIV gp120 envelope glycoprotein. We developed a viral replication inhibition assay to more clearly evaluate the role of α4β7 in HIV infection and the contribution of viral and host factors. Results Replication of 60 HIV-1 subtype C viruses collected over time from 11 individuals in the CAPRISA cohort were partially inhibited by antibodies targeting α4β7. However, dependence on α4β7 for replication varied substantially among viral isolates from different individuals as well as over time in some individuals. Among 8 transmitted/founder (T/F) viruses, α4β7 reactivity was highest for viruses having P/SDI/V tri-peptide binding motifs. Mutation of T/F viruses that had LDI/L motifs to P/SDI/V resulted in greater α4β7 reactivity, whereas mutating P/SDI/V to LDI/L motifs was associated with reduced α4β7 binding. P/SDI/V motifs were more common among South African HIV subtype C viruses (35%) compared to subtype C viruses from other regions of Africa (<8%) and to other subtypes, due in part to a founder effect. In addition, individuals with bacterial vaginosis (BV) and who had higher concentrations of IL-7, IL-8 and IL-1α in the genital tract had T/F viruses with higher α4β7 dependence for replication, suggesting that viruses with P/SDI/V motifs may be preferentially transmitted in the presence of BV in this population. Conclusions Collectively, these data suggest a role for α4β7 in HIV infection that is influenced by both viral and host factors including the sequence of the α4β7 binding motif, the cytokine milieu and BV in the genital tract. The higher frequency of P/SDI/V sequences among South African HIV-1 subtype C viruses may have particular significance for the role of α4β7 in this geographical region. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12977-015-0183-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone I Richardson
- Centre for HIV and STI's, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, A Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, 1 Modderfontein Road, Sandringham, Johannesburg, 2131, South Africa. .,Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - Elin S Gray
- Centre for HIV and STI's, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, A Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, 1 Modderfontein Road, Sandringham, Johannesburg, 2131, South Africa. .,ECU Melanoma Research Foundation, Edith Cowan University (ECU), Perth, WA, 6027, Australia.
| | - Nonhlanhla N Mkhize
- Centre for HIV and STI's, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, A Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, 1 Modderfontein Road, Sandringham, Johannesburg, 2131, South Africa. .,Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - Daniel J Sheward
- Divison of Medical Virology, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.
| | - Bronwen E Lambson
- Centre for HIV and STI's, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, A Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, 1 Modderfontein Road, Sandringham, Johannesburg, 2131, South Africa. .,Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - Constantinos Kurt Wibmer
- Centre for HIV and STI's, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, A Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, 1 Modderfontein Road, Sandringham, Johannesburg, 2131, South Africa. .,Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - Lindi Masson
- Divison of Medical Virology, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.
| | - Lise Werner
- Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA), University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.
| | - Nigel Garrett
- Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA), University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.
| | - Jo-Ann S Passmore
- Divison of Medical Virology, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa. .,Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA), University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa. .,National Health Laboratory Service, Groote Schuur Hospital, Observatory, Cape Town, South Africa.
| | - Quarraisha Abdool Karim
- Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA), University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.
| | - Salim S Abdool Karim
- Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA), University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa. .,Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Carolyn Williamson
- Divison of Medical Virology, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa. .,Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA), University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa. .,National Health Laboratory Service, Groote Schuur Hospital, Observatory, Cape Town, South Africa.
| | - Penny L Moore
- Centre for HIV and STI's, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, A Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, 1 Modderfontein Road, Sandringham, Johannesburg, 2131, South Africa. .,Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. .,Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA), University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.
| | - Lynn Morris
- Centre for HIV and STI's, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, A Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, 1 Modderfontein Road, Sandringham, Johannesburg, 2131, South Africa. .,Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. .,Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA), University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.
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Goode D, Truong R, Villegas G, Calenda G, Guerra-Perez N, Piatak M, Lifson JD, Blanchard J, Gettie A, Robbiani M, Martinelli E. HSV-2-driven increase in the expression of α4β7 correlates with increased susceptibility to vaginal SHIV(SF162P3) infection. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004567. [PMID: 25521298 PMCID: PMC4270786 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2014] [Accepted: 11/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The availability of highly susceptible HIV target cells that can rapidly reach the mucosal lymphoid tissues may increase the chances of an otherwise rare transmission event to occur. Expression of α4β7 is required for trafficking of immune cells to gut inductive sites where HIV can expand and it is expressed at high level on cells particularly susceptible to HIV infection. We hypothesized that HSV-2 modulates the expression of α4β7 and other homing receptors in the vaginal tissue and that this correlates with the increased risk of HIV acquisition in HSV-2 positive individuals. To test this hypothesis we used an in vivo rhesus macaque (RM) model of HSV-2 vaginal infection and a new ex vivo model of macaque vaginal explants. In vivo we found that HSV-2 latently infected RMs appeared to be more susceptible to vaginal SHIVSF162P3 infection, had higher frequency of α4β7high CD4+ T cells in the vaginal tissue and higher expression of α4β7 and CD11c on vaginal DCs. Similarly, ex vivo HSV-2 infection increased the susceptibility of the vaginal tissue to SHIVSF162P3. HSV-2 infection increased the frequencies of α4β7high CD4+ T cells and this directly correlated with HSV-2 replication. A higher amount of inflammatory cytokines in vaginal fluids of the HSV-2 infected animals was similar to those found in the supernatants of the infected explants. Remarkably, the HSV-2-driven increase in the frequency of α4β7high CD4+ T cells directly correlated with SHIV replication in the HSV-2 infected tissues. Our results suggest that the HSV-2-driven increase in availability of CD4+ T cells and DCs that express high levels of α4β7 is associated with the increase in susceptibility to SHIV due to HSV-2. This may persists in absence of HSV-2 shedding. Hence, higher availability of α4β7 positive HIV target cells in the vaginal tissue may constitute a risk factor for HIV transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Goode
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Rosaline Truong
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Guillermo Villegas
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Giulia Calenda
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Natalia Guerra-Perez
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Michael Piatak
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey D. Lifson
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - James Blanchard
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University Sciences Center, Covington, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Agegnehu Gettie
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University Sciences Center, Covington, Louisiana, United States of America
- Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center, Rockefeller University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Melissa Robbiani
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Elena Martinelli
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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8
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Goode D, Aravantinou M, Jarl S, Truong R, Derby N, Guerra-Perez N, Kenney J, Blanchard J, Gettie A, Robbiani M, Martinelli E. Sex hormones selectively impact the endocervical mucosal microenvironment: implications for HIV transmission. PLoS One 2014; 9:e97767. [PMID: 24830732 PMCID: PMC4022654 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0097767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2014] [Accepted: 04/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Several studies suggest that progesterone and estrogens may affect HIV transmission in different, possibly opposing ways. Nonetheless, a direct comparison of their effects on the mucosal immune system has never been done. We hypothesize that sex hormones might impact the availability of cells and immune factors important in early stages of mucosal transmission, and, in doing so influence the risk of HIV acquisition. To test this hypothesis, we employed 15 ovarectomized rhesus macaques: 5 were treated with Depot Medroxy Progesterone Acetate (DMPA), 6 with 17-β estradiol (E2) and 4 were left untreated. All animals were euthanized 5 weeks after the initiation of hormone treatment, a time post-DMPA injection associated with high susceptibility to SIV infection. We found that DMPA-treated macaques exhibited higher expression of integrin α4β7 (α4β7) on CD4+ T cells, the gut homing receptor and a marker of cells highly susceptible to HIV, in the endocervix than did the E2-treated animals. In contrast, the frequency of CCR5+ CD4+ T cells in DMPA-treated macaques was higher than in the E2-treated group in vaginal tissue, but lower in endocervix. α4β7 expression on dendritic cells (DCs) was higher in the DMPA-treated group in the endocervical tissue, but lower in vaginal tissue and on blood DCs compared with the E2-treated animals. Soluble MAdCAM-1, the α4β7 ligand, was present in the vaginal fluids of the control and E2-treated groups, but absent in the fluids from DMPA-treated animals. Both hormones modulated the expression and release of inflammatory factors and modified the distribution of sialomucins in the endocervix. In summary, we found that sex hormones profoundly impact mucosal immune factors that are directly implicated in HIV transmission. The effect is particularly significant in the endocervix. This may increase our understanding of the potential hormone-driven modulation of HIV susceptibility and potentially guide contraceptive policies in high-risk settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Goode
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Meropi Aravantinou
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Sebastian Jarl
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Rosaline Truong
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Nina Derby
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Natalia Guerra-Perez
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Jessica Kenney
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - James Blanchard
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University Sciences Center, Covington, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Agegnehu Gettie
- Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center, Rockefeller University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Melissa Robbiani
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Elena Martinelli
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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9
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Martinelli E, Veglia F, Goode D, Guerra-Perez N, Aravantinou M, Arthos J, Piatak M Jr, Lifson JD, Blanchard J, Gettie A, Robbiani M. The frequency of α₄β₇(high) memory CD4⁺ T cells correlates with susceptibility to rectal simian immunodeficiency virus infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2013; 64:325-31. [PMID: 23797688 DOI: 10.1097/QAI.0b013e31829f6e1a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Integrin α₄β₇(high) (α₄β₇(high)) mediates the homing of CD4⁺ T cells to gut-associated lymphoid tissues, which constitute a highly favorable environment for HIV expansion and dissemination. HIV and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) envelope proteins bind to and signal through α₄β₇(high) and during acute infection SIV preferentially infects α₄β₇(high) CD4⁺ T cells. We postulated that the availability of these cells at the time of challenge could influence mucosal SIV transmission and acute viral load (VL). METHODS We challenged 17 rhesus macaques with 3000 TCID50 of SIVmac239 rectally and followed the subsets of α₄β₇(high) T cells and dendritic cells (DCs) by flow cytometry in blood and tissues, before and after challenge. RESULTS We found that the frequency of memory CD4⁺ T cells that expressed high levels of α₄β₇(high) (α₄β₇(high) memory CD4⁺ T cells) in blood before challenge correlated strongly with susceptibility to infection and acute VL. Notably, not only at the time of challenge but also their frequency 3 weeks before challenge correlated with infection. This association extended to the rectal tissue as we observed a strong direct correlation between the frequency of α₄β₇(high) memory CD4⁺ T cells in blood and rectum before and after challenge. The frequency of α4β7 myeloid DCs and α₄β₇(high) CD80⁺ DCs also correlated with infection and acute VL, whereas blood CCR5⁺ and CD69⁺ CD4⁺ T cells could not be associated with infection. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that animals with higher frequency of α₄β₇(high) CD4⁺ T cells in circulation and in rectal tissue could be more susceptible to SIV rectal transmission.
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Martinelli E, Tharinger H, Frank I, Arthos J, Piatak M, Lifson JD, Blanchard J, Gettie A, Robbiani M. HSV-2 infection of dendritic cells amplifies a highly susceptible HIV-1 cell target. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1002109. [PMID: 21738472 PMCID: PMC3128120 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2010] [Accepted: 04/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) increases the risk of HIV-1 infection and, although several reports describe the interaction between these two viruses, the exact mechanism for this increased susceptibility remains unclear. Dendritic cells (DCs) at the site of entry of HSV-2 and HIV-1 contribute to viral spread in the mucosa. Specialized DCs present in the gut-associated lymphoid tissues produce retinoic acid (RA), an important immunomodulator, able to influence HIV-1 replication and a key mediator of integrin α4β7 on lymphocytes. α4β7 can be engaged by HIV-1 on the cell-surface and CD4+ T cells expressing high levels of this integrin (α4β7high) are particularly susceptible to HIV-1 infection. Herein we provide in-vivo data in macaques showing an increased percentage of α4β7high CD4+ T cells in rectal mucosa, iliac lymph nodes and blood within 6 days of rectal exposure to live (n = 11), but not UV-treated (n = 8), HSV-2. We found that CD11c+ DCs are a major target of HSV-2 infection in in-vitro exposed PBMCs. We determined that immature monocyte-derived DCs (moDCs) express aldehyde dehydrogenase ALDH1A1, an enzyme essential for RA production, which increases upon HSV-2 infection. Moreover, HSV-2-infected moDCs significantly increase α4β7 expression on CD4+ T lymphocytes and HIV-1 infection in DC-T cell mixtures in a RA-dependent manner. Thus, we propose that HSV-2 modulates its microenviroment, influencing DC function, increasing RA production capability and amplifying a α4β7highCD4+ T cells. These factors may play a role in increasing the susceptibility to HIV-1. The vast majority of HIV-1 infections occur through genital and rectal mucosa. A better understanding of the characteristics of the mucosal microenvironment that help HIV-1 replication is critical to developing strategies for prevention of HIV-1 transmission. HSV-2 infects genital and rectal mucosa and infected individuals carry an increased risk for HIV-1 infection. Clarifying the mechanisms involved in the increased susceptibility of HSV-2 positive individuals to HIV-1 infection may help understating the characteristics of mucosal microenvironment that facilitate HIV-1 transmission. We previously described a specific interaction between HIV-1 and integrin α4β7, a signature molecule that allows lymphocytes to gain access to the gut tissue, a major site of HIV-1 replication. Vitamin A and its metabolite, retinoic acid, have an important role in balancing the immune response in the gut and in the expression of integrin α4β7. Here we describe that HSV-2 rectal infection in monkeys increases the frequency of α4β7+ CD4+ T cells in blood and rectal tissue and that this could be at least partially explained by the ability of HSV-2 infected DCs to secrete retinoic acid and up-regulate α4β7 on CD4+ T cells. These phenomena could be responsible for increasing HIV-1 replication in DC-T cell co-cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Martinelli
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail: (EM); (MR)
| | - Hugo Tharinger
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Ines Frank
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - James Arthos
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Michael Piatak
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, SAIC-Frederick, Inc., National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, Unites States of America
| | - Jeffrey D. Lifson
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, SAIC-Frederick, Inc., National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, Unites States of America
| | - James Blanchard
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, Covington, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Agegnehu Gettie
- Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center, Rockefeller University, New York, New York, Unites States of America
| | - Melissa Robbiani
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail: (EM); (MR)
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11
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Nawaz F, Cicala C, Van Ryk D, Block KE, Jelicic K, McNally JP, Ogundare O, Pascuccio M, Patel N, Wei D, Fauci AS, Arthos J. The genotype of early-transmitting HIV gp120s promotes α (4) β(7)-reactivity, revealing α (4) β(7) +/CD4+ T cells as key targets in mucosal transmission. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1001301. [PMID: 21383973 PMCID: PMC3044691 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1001301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2010] [Accepted: 01/19/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Mucosal transmission of HIV is inefficient. The virus must breach physical barriers before it infects mucosal CD4+ T cells. Low-level viral replication occurs initially in mucosal CD4+ T cells, but within days high-level replication occurs in Peyer's patches, the gut lamina propria and mesenteric lymph nodes. Understanding the early events in HIV transmission may provide valuable information relevant to the development of an HIV vaccine. The viral quasispecies in a donor contracts through a genetic bottleneck in the recipient, such that, in low-risk settings, infection is frequently established by a single founder virus. Early-transmitting viruses in subtypes A and C mucosal transmission tend to encode gp120s with reduced numbers of N-linked glycosylation sites at specific positions throughout the V1-V4 domains, relative to typical chronically replicating isolates in the donor quasispecies. The transmission advantage gained by the absence of these N-linked glycosylation sites is unknown. Using primary α4β7+/CD4+ T cells and a flow-cytometry based steady-state binding assay we show that the removal of transmission-associated N-linked glycosylation sites results in large increases in the specific reactivity of gp120 for integrin- α4β7. High-affinity for integrin α4β7, although not found in many gp120s, was observed in early-transmitting gp120s that we analyzed. Increased α4β7 affinity is mediated by sequences encoded in gp120 V1/V2. α4β7-reactivity was also influenced by N-linked glycosylation sites located in C3/V4. These results suggest that the genetic bottleneck that occurs after transmission may frequently involve a relative requirement for the productive infection of α4β7+/CD4+ T cells. Early-transmitting gp120s were further distinguished by their dependence on avidity-effects to interact with CD4, suggesting that these gp120s bear unusual structural features not present in many well-characterized gp120s derived from chronically replicating viruses. Understanding the structural features that characterize early-transmitting gp120s may aid in the design of an effective gp120-based subunit vaccine. In the first days following sexual transmission, HIV replication occurs initially at relatively low levels in mucosal tissues because of a paucity of CD4+ T cell targets for the virus to infect. After a period of days, virus accesses specific gut tissues that are enriched in activated CD4+ T cells, where near-exponential replication ensues. The period of time before HIV accesses gut tissues represents a window of opportunity where a microbicide, pre-exposure and/or post-exposure antiretroviral prophylaxis or a vaccine-induced immune response could block infection. We previously reported that the HIV envelope protein gp120 binds to integrin α4β7 on the surface of CD4+ T cells. α4β7 mediates the homing of CD4+ T cells into the gut tissues where HIV can replicate exponentially. Here we report that the genotypic features that distinguish viruses isolated within the first month after infection, termed early-transmitting isolates, promote increased steady-state reactivity with α4β7. This property likely provides these viruses with enhanced transmission-fitness. These results suggest that the infection of α4β7+/CD4+ T cells can play an important role early in HIV transmission. These findings have potentially important implications in the design of interventions to block the mucosal transmission of HIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatima Nawaz
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- New York University School of Medicine Sackler Institute of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Claudia Cicala
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Donald Van Ryk
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Katharine E. Block
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Katija Jelicic
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jonathan P. McNally
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Olajumoke Ogundare
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Massimiliano Pascuccio
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Nikita Patel
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Danlan Wei
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Anthony S. Fauci
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - James Arthos
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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12
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Abstract
Although the pathologic consequences of C. trachomatis genital infection are well-established, the mechanism(s)that result in chlamydia-induced tissue damage are not fully understood. We reviewed in vitro, animal, and human data related to the pathogenesis of chlamydial disease to better understand how reproductive sequelae result from C. trachomatis infection. Abundant in vitro data suggest that the inflammatory response to chlamydiae is initiated and sustained by actively infected nonimmune host epithelial cells. The mouse model indicates a critical role for chlamydia activation of the innate immune receptor, Toll-like receptor 2, and subsequent inflammatory cell influx and activation, which contributes to the development of chronic genital tract tissue damage. Data from recent vaccine studies in the murine model and from human immunoepidemiologic studies support a role for chlamydia-specific CD4 Th1-interferon-g-producing cells in protection from infection and disease. However, limited evidence obtained using animal models of repeated infection indicates that, although the adaptive T cell response is a key mechanism involved in controlling or eliminating infection, it may have a double-edged nature and contribute to tissue damage. Important immunologic questions include whether anamnestic CD4 T cell responses drive disease rather than protect against disease and the role of specific immune cells and inflammatory mediators in the induction of tissue damage with primary and repeated infections. Continued study of the complex molecular and cellular interactions between chlamydiae and their host and large-scale prospective immunoepidemiologic and immunopathologic studies are needed to address gaps in our understanding of pathogenesis that thwart development of optimally effective control programs, including vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toni Darville
- Departments of Pediatrics and Immunology, University of Pittsburgh Medical Cente, USA
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13
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Gupta R, Vardhan H, Srivastava P, Salhan S, Mittal A. Modulation of cytokines and transcription factors (T-Bet and GATA3) in CD4 enriched cervical cells of Chlamydia trachomatis infected fertile and infertile women upon stimulation with chlamydial inclusion membrane proteins B and C. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2009; 7:84. [PMID: 19698128 PMCID: PMC2736965 DOI: 10.1186/1477-7827-7-84] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2009] [Accepted: 08/22/2009] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chlamydial Inclusion membrane proteins (Incs), are involved in biochemical interactions with host cells and infecting Chlamydiae. We have previously reported the role of two Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) Incs, namely IncB and IncC in generating host immunity in CT infected women. Emerging data shows involvement of Inc stimulated CD4 positive T cells in aiding host immunity in infected fertile and infertile women through the secretion of interferon gamma. However the lack of data on the intra-cytokine interplay to these Incs in infected cell milieu prompted us to investigate further. METHODS A total of 14 CT-positive fertile, 18 CT-positive infertile women and 25 uninfected controls were enrolled in this study. CD8 depleted, CD4 enriched cervical cells were isolated and upon stimulation with IncB and IncC, modulation of cytokines (Interleukin (IL)-1 Beta, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, Interferon-gamma, IL-12, IL-23, Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha and Granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and T cell lineage regulating transcription factors T-Bet and GATA3 was determined by real-time reverse-transcriptase (RT)-PCR and ELISA. RESULTS Significant higher expression (P < 0.05) of Interferon-gamma, IL-12, IL-23 and GM-CSF were found in Inc-stimulated CD4 enriched cervical cells of CT-positive fertile women and contrastingly high IL-1 Beta, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6 and IL-10 levels were found in CT-positive infertile women. Positive correlation (P < 0.05) was found between Interferon-gamma and T-Bet levels in CT-positive fertile women and IL-4 mRNA and GATA3 levels in CT-positive infertile patients upon IncB and IncC stimulation. CONCLUSION Overall our data shows that CT IncB and IncC are able to upregulate expression of cytokines, namely interferon-gamma, IL-12, IL-23 and GM-CSF in CT-positive fertile women while expression of IL-1 Beta, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6 and IL-10 were upregulated in CT-positive infertile women. Our study also suggests that Incs are able to modulate expression of T cell lineage determinants indicating their involvement in regulation of immune cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rishein Gupta
- Institute of Pathology-ICMR, Safdarjang Hospital Campus, Post Box no. 4909, New Delhi-110 029, India
| | - Harsh Vardhan
- Institute of Pathology-ICMR, Safdarjang Hospital Campus, Post Box no. 4909, New Delhi-110 029, India
| | - Pragya Srivastava
- Institute of Pathology-ICMR, Safdarjang Hospital Campus, Post Box no. 4909, New Delhi-110 029, India
| | - Sudha Salhan
- Department of Gynaecology & Obstetrics, Safdarjung Hospital, New Delhi-110 029, India
| | - Aruna Mittal
- Institute of Pathology-ICMR, Safdarjang Hospital Campus, Post Box no. 4909, New Delhi-110 029, India
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14
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Kelly KA, Chan AM, Butch A, Darville T. Two different homing pathways involving integrin β7 and E-selectin significantly influence trafficking of CD4 cells to the genital tract following Chlamydia muridarum infection. Am J Reprod Immunol 2009; 61:438-45. [PMID: 19392981 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2009.00704.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM Chlamydia trachomatis causes STI and reproductive dysfunction worldwide which is not preventable with antibiotics. Identifying a population of endocervical T cells to target in vaccine development would enhance efficacy. METHOD OF STUDY Trafficking of murine CD4+ lymphocytes to Chlamydia muridarum infected genital tract (GT) tissue in vivo was measured using adoptive transfer studies of fluorescent CD4+ T cells from integrin β7-/- mice or mice which lack E-selectin on endothelial cells. RESULTS Murine in vivo migration studies showed that lack of α4β7 or E-selectin significantly reduced trafficking of CD4 T cells to the GT of mice infected with C. muridarum. CONCLUSION CD4+ T cells use at least two different adhesive mechanisms involving an integrin of the mucosal homing pathway and selectin pathway to accumulate in the GT during C. muridarum infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen A Kelly
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1732, USA.
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15
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Kelly KA, Wiley D, Wiesmeier E, Briskin M, Butch A, Darville T. The combination of the gastrointestinal integrin (α4β7) and selectin ligand enhances T-Cell migration to the reproductive tract during infection with Chlamydia trachomatis. Am J Reprod Immunol 2009; 61:446-52. [PMID: 19392980 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2009.00705.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM Chlamydia trachomatis causes sexually transmitted infection and reproductive dysfunction worldwide. Identifying a population of endocervical T-cells to target in vaccine development is likely to enhance efficacy of a vaccine and reduce reproductive tract dysfunction. METHOD OF STUDY Endocervical samples were obtained from young women and flow cytometric analysis was used to identify lymphocytes that appeared in the genital tract in response to sexually transmitted bacterial infections caused by C. trachomatis. RESULTS Increased numbers of α4β7+CLA+ memory T-cells, a unique T-cell phenotype, were found in the endocervix of human female subjects infected with C. trachomatis. CONCLUSION A unique population of memory T lymphocytes expressing both α4β7 and CLA gain access to reproductive tract tissues during a sexually transmitted infection with C. trachomatis and should be considered in development of vaccines against sexually transmitted infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen A Kelly
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1732, USA.
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16
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Abstract
Effective tubal transport of ova, sperm and embryos is a prerequisite for successful spontaneous pregnancy. Although there is much yet to be discovered about the mechanisms involved, it is evident that tubal transit is a far more complicated process than initially thought. Propulsion of gametes and embryos is achieved by complex interaction between muscle contractions, ciliary activity and the flow of tubal secretions. Evidence is accumulating of the important and possibly pre-eminent role of ciliary motion in this process; and this review describes current knowledge about ciliary activity and its physiological regulation. There is also a description of the effects on ciliary function of cigarette smoking and various pathological states, including endometriosis and microbial infection, with consideration given as to how altered ciliary activity may impact upon fertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Lyons
- Academic Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, St. Bartholomew's and The Royal London Hospital School of Medicine and Dentistry, Whitechapel, London E1 1BB, UK
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17
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Abstract
Sexually transmitted Chlamydia trachomatis infections are a serious public-health problem. With more than 90 million new cases occurring annually, C. trachomatis is the most common cause of bacterial sexually transmitted disease worldwide. Recent progress in elucidating the immunobiology of Chlamydia muridarum infection of mice has helped to guide the interpretation of immunological findings in studies of human C. trachomatis infection and has led to the development of a common model of immunity. In this review, we describe our current understanding of the immune response to infection with Chlamydia spp. and how this information is improving the prospects for development of a vaccine against infection with C. trachomatis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert C Brunham
- University of British Columbia Centre for Disease Control, Vancouver, British Columbia V5Z 4R4, Canada.
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18
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Despite much interest in the mechanisms of immune protection against sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), little is known about the role of the immune system in the genital tract. A better knowledge is needed to understand not only host protection against STDs, but also how tolerance is established in pregnancy to avoid rejection of the foetus. RECENT FINDINGS The immune system of the genital tract displays characteristic features that are unique, and therefore distinct from those of other mucosal and systemic immune sites. It is functionally separate from the mucosal immune systems of the lung or intestine, and contrary to these systems, antibodies in the genital tract are dominated by IgG and not IgA. Most of the IgA is polymeric and consists of equal proportions IgA1 and IgA2. Polymeric IgA is actively transported via the polymeric immunoglobulin receptor on the basolateral surface of the epithelial cell, whereas it is not known how IgG antibodies are secreted. Antibody levels and isotypes exhibit strong hormonal dependence. Less is known about cell-mediated immune responses in the genital tract. Interest has focused on adhesion molecules, the existence of regulatory T and natural killer cells, and whether innate and early adaptive immune responses may be stimulated by local vaginal, intranasal or intestinal vaccinations. These topics are reviewed here and the most recent developments in these areas are reported. SUMMARY A greater knowledge of immune activation and the homing of leukocytes to the genital tract is important for future attempts to design vaccines against STDs, as well as in understanding foetal tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Johansson
- Department of Clinical Immunology, University of Göteborg, Göteborg, Sweden
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19
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Abstract
This chapter presents different means by which community initiatives have been undertaken to reduce the prevalence and incidence of genital and allied infections caused by Chlamydia trachomatis. As most of these infections in the majority of infected individuals do not produce symptoms that are likely to urge them to attend any health care unit, screening programmes are mandatory to be able to influence the epidemic of infections with this agent. In many societies there has been a skewed gender distribution in the number of chlamydia-positive persons; this probably indicates that diagnostic service activities have been directed more against one gender than the other. The important role of partner notification, as in the case of other sexually transmitted infections, has been documented. Different means of community initiative have included counselling of school children and groups of persons more likely to be infected. Counselling by the pharmacy has an important role in many societies. Selected cohorts have been offered - via the mass media, Internet, radio and television programmes - sampling kits which can be mailed to a laboratory for testing. The establishment of youth clinics has been found effective for detecting teenagers harbouring C. trachomatis, similarly to screening at antenatal clinics. The offer of free consultations, aetiological tests and therapy has been a part of community initiatives, mimicking the services offered for some of the classic sexually transmitted infections. This chapter considers the usefulness of different test methods and stresses the need to retest those found to be positive. Barriers to the successful introduction of screening activities and diagnostic services are also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per-Anders Mårdh
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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20
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Ault KA, Kelly KA, Ruther PE, Izzo AA, Izzo LS, Sigar IM, Ramsey KH. Chlamydia trachomatis enhances the expression of matrix metalloproteinases in an in vitro model of the human fallopian tube infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 187:1377-83. [PMID: 12439534 DOI: 10.1067/mob.2002.126850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The sequelae of sexually transmitted Chlamydia trachomatis infection include fallopian tube scarring, which implies modification of the extracellular matrix. Our objective was to describe the production of two matrix metalloproteinases in response to chlamydial infection in vitro. STUDY DESIGN Human fallopian tube organ cultures were infected with Chlamydia, and the production of matrix metalloproteinases was assessed by gelatin zymography, antigen capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, immunohistochemistry, and in situ zymography. RESULTS Significantly elevated levels of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and matrix metalloproteinase-9 were found in supernatants of infected segments. Immunohistochemistry and in situ zymography revealed that epithelial cells tended toward matrix metalloproteinase-2 production and that matrix metalloproteinase-9 exhibited a more diffuse stromal staining pattern. CONCLUSION Matrix metalloproteinase-2 and matrix metalloproteinase-9 are expressed in vitro in response to chlamydial infection. Enhanced matrix metalloproteinase production in some individuals in response to infection may lead to tubal scarring through the increased turnover and subsequent repair of the extracellular matrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin A Ault
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Iowa College of Medicine, Iowa City, USA
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