1
|
Olsen NJ, Benko AL, Mcaloose CA, Becker PM, Wright D, Sunyer T, Kawasawa YI, Kovacs WJ. Repository corticotropin injection reverses critical elements of the TLR9/B cell receptor activation response in human B cells in vitro. Clin Immunol 2019; 201:70-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2019.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Revised: 01/29/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
|
2
|
Shin DH, Park KW, Wu LC, Hong JW. ZAS3 promotes TNFα-induced apoptosis by blocking NFκB-activated expression of the anti-apoptotic genes TRAF1 and TRAF2. BMB Rep 2011; 44:267-72. [DOI: 10.5483/bmbrep.2011.44.4.267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
|
3
|
Kern AD, Begun DJ. Recurrent deletion and gene presence/absence polymorphism: telomere dynamics dominate evolution at the tip of 3L in Drosophila melanogaster and D. simulans. Genetics 2008; 179:1021-7. [PMID: 18505885 PMCID: PMC2429855 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.107.078345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2007] [Accepted: 04/08/2008] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Although Drosophila melanogaster has been the subject of intensive analysis of polymorphism and divergence, little is known about the distribution of variation at the most distal regions of chromosomes arms. Here we report a survey of genetic variation on the tip of 3L in D. melanogaster and D. simulans. Levels of single nucleotide polymorphism in the most distal euchromatic sequence are approximately one order of magnitude less than that typically observed in genomic regions of normal crossing over, consistent with what might be expected under models of linked selection in regions of low crossing over. However, despite this reduced level of nucleotide variation, we found abundant deletion polymorphism. These deletions create at least three gene presence/absence polymorphisms within D. melanogaster: the putative G-protein coupled receptor mthl-8 (which is the most distal known or predicted gene on 3L) and the unannotated mRNAs AY060886 and BT006009. Strikingly, D. simulans is also segregating deletions that cause mthl8 presence/absence polymorphism. Breakpoint sequencing and tests of correlations with segregating SNPs in D. melanogaster suggest that each deletion is unique. Cloned breakpoint sequences revealed the presence of Het-A elements just distal to unique, canonical euchromatic sequences. This pattern suggests a model in which repeated telomeric deficiencies cause deletions of euchromatic sequence followed by subsequent "healing" by retrotranposition of Het-A elements. These data reveal the dominance of telomeric dynamics on the evolution of closely linked sequences in Drosophila.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Kern
- Center for Biomolecular Science and Engineering, University of California, Santa Cruz, California 95060, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Abstract
The activator protein 1 (AP-1) transcription factor is a key participant in the control of T cell proliferation, cytokine production, and effector function. In the immune system, AP-1 activity is highest in T cells, suggesting that a subset of T cell–specific coactivator proteins exist to selectively potentiate AP-1 function. Here, we describe that the expression of Schnurri-3, also known as κ recognition component (KRC), is induced upon T cell receptor signaling in T cells and functions to regulate the expression of the interleukin 2 (IL-2) gene. Overexpression of KRC in transformed and primary T cells leads to increased IL-2 production, whereas dominant-negative KRC, or loss of KRC protein in KRC-null mice, results in diminished IL-2 production. KRC physically associates with the c-Jun transcription factor and serves as a coactivator to augment AP-1–dependent IL-2 gene transcription.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Oukka
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Allen CE, Muthusamy N, Weisbrode SE, Hong JW, Wu LC. Developmental anomalies and neoplasia in animals and cells deficient in the large zinc finger protein KRC. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 2002; 35:287-98. [PMID: 12378523 DOI: 10.1002/gcc.10128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The large zinc finger protein KRC binds to the signal sequences of V(D)J recombination and the kappaB motif. Disruption of KRC expression in cell lines resulted in increased cell proliferation, anchorage independence of growth, and uncoupling of nuclear division and cell division. In this report, the function of KRC was studied in a RAG2-deficient blastocyst complementation animal model. KRC-deficient embryonic stem cells were generated by homologous recombination and were introduced into RAG2(-/-) blastocysts to generate KRC(-/-);RAG2(-/-) chimeric mice. The lymphoid compartments of chimeras examined at 5 weeks of age were developed, suggesting that KRC is not essential for V(D)J recombination development. However, by 6 months of age, there was a marked deficit in CD4(+)CD8(+) thymocytes in the chimeras, suggesting that KRC may be involved in T-lymphocyte survival. Additionally, one chimera developed anomalies, including postaxial polydactyly, hydronephrosis, and an extragonadal malignant teratoma. DNA analysis showed that the teratoma was derived from KRC(-/-) embryonic stem cells. The teratoma had compound tissue organization and was infiltrated with B lymphocytes. Subsequently, several immortalized KRC-deficient cell lines were established from the teratoma. In this study, growth anomalies and neoplasia were observed in animals and cells deficient in KRC, and other studies have shown allelic loss occurring at the chromosomal region of the human KRC counterpart in various tumors. We propose that KRC may be a previously unidentified tumor-suppresser gene.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carl E Allen
- Program of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, College of Medicine and Public Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Allen CE, Mak CH, Wu LC. The kappa B transcriptional enhancer motif and signal sequences of V(D)J recombination are targets for the zinc finger protein HIVEP3/KRC: a site selection amplification binding study. BMC Immunol 2002; 3:10. [PMID: 12193271 PMCID: PMC122077 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2172-3-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2002] [Accepted: 08/22/2002] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ZAS family is composed of proteins that regulate transcription via specific gene regulatory elements. The amino-DNA binding domain (ZAS-N) and the carboxyl-DNA binding domain (ZAS-C) of a representative family member, named kappaB DNA binding and recognition component (KRC), were expressed as fusion proteins and their target DNA sequences were elucidated by site selection amplification binding assays, followed by cloning and DNA sequencing. The fusion proteins-selected DNA sequences were analyzed by the MEME and MAST computer programs to obtain consensus motifs and DNA elements bound by the ZAS domains. RESULTS Both fusion proteins selected sequences that were similar to the kappaB motif or the canonical elements of the V(D)J recombination signal sequences (RSS) from a pool of degenerate oligonucleotides. Specifically, the ZAS-N domain selected sequences similar to the canonical RSS nonamer, while ZAS-C domain selected sequences similar to the canonical RSS heptamer. In addition, both KRC fusion proteins selected oligonucleoties with sequences identical to heptamer and nonamer sequences within endogenous RSS. CONCLUSIONS The RSS are cis-acting DNA motifs which are essential for V(D)J recombination of antigen receptor genes. Due to its specific binding affinity for RSS and kappaB-like transcription enhancer motifs, we hypothesize that KRC may be involved in the regulation of V(D)J recombination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carl E Allen
- Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine and Public Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | - Chi-ho Mak
- Ohio State Biochemistry Program, College of Medicine and Public Health, The Ohio State University, OH, 43210, USA
| | - Lai-Chu Wu
- Ohio State Biochemistry Program, College of Medicine and Public Health, The Ohio State University, OH, 43210, USA
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, College of Medicine and Public Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Immunology, College of Medicine and Public Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Abstract
KRC fusion proteins bind to the kappaB enhancer motif and to the signal sequences of V(D)J recombination. Here we have characterized endogenous KRC in mouse embryos and lymphoma cell lines. Starting from midgestation, neuronal- and lymphoid-restricted expression of KRC was observed from the dorsal root ganglia, trigeminal ganglion, thymus, and cerebral cortex. Several B-cell lines produced an alternatively spliced KRC transcript of 4.5 kb and a 115-kDa DNA-binding protein isoform. Additionally, that KRC transcript was induced by lipopolysaccharide, a potent activator of cells in immunity and inflammation. In genetic-engineered B cells stably transfected with inducible expression vectors for the recombination activating genes RAG1, RAG2, or both, the avidity of KRC to DNA was markedly decreased when RAG1 and RAG2 were overexpressed. We hypothesize that KRC may function in developing thymocytes and neurons, where its role might be transcription regulation or DNA recombination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark D Hicar
- Department of Molecular Virology, Immunology and Medical Genetics, The Ohio State University, College of Medicine and Public Health, Columbus 43210, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Abstract
A ZAS gene encodes a large protein with two separate C2H2 zinc finger pairs that independently bind to specific DNA sequences, including the kappaB motif. Three paralogous mammalian genes, ZAS1, ZAS2, and ZAS3, and a related Drosophila gene, Schnurri, have been cloned and characterized. The ZAS genes encode transcriptional proteins that activate or repress the transcription of a variety of genes involved in growth, development, and metastasis. In addition, ZAS3 associates with a TNF receptor-associated factor to inhibit NF-kappaB- and JNK/ SAPK-mediated signaling of TNF-alpha. Genetic experiments show that ZAS3 deficiency leads to proliferation of cells and tumor formation in mice. The data suggest that ZAS3 is important in controlling cell growth, apoptosis, and inflammation. The potent vasoactive hormone endothelin and transcription factor AP2 gene families also each consist of three members. The ZAS, endothelin, and transcription factor AP2 genes form several linkage groups. Knowledge of the chromosomal locations of these genes provides valuable clues to the evolution of the vertebrate genome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lai-Chu Wu
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, College of Medicine and Public Health, Columbus 43210, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Oukka M, Kim ST, Lugo G, Sun J, Wu LC, Glimcher LH. A mammalian homolog of Drosophila schnurri, KRC, regulates TNF receptor-driven responses and interacts with TRAF2. Mol Cell 2002; 9:121-31. [PMID: 11804591 DOI: 10.1016/s1097-2765(01)00434-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The cytokine TNFalpha launches cascades of gene activation that control inflammation and apoptosis through NFkappaB and JNK/SAPK signal transduction pathways. Here we describe a function for the zinc finger transcription factor kappa recognition component (KRC) in regulating patterns of gene activation in response to proinflammatory stimuli. We demonstrate that KRC overexpression inhibits while antisense or dominant-negative KRC enhances NFkappaB-dependent transactivation and JNK phosphorylation and consequently, apoptosis and cytokine gene expression. The effect of KRC is mediated through its interaction with the adaptor protein TRAF2, which intersects both pathways. KRC is a hitherto unrecognized participant in the signal transduction pathway leading from the TNF receptor to gene activation and may play a critical role in inflammatory and apoptotic responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Oukka
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, 651 Huntington Avenue, FXB-2, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Cohn MA, Hjelmsø I, Wu LC, Guldberg P, Lukanidin EM, Tulchinsky EM. Characterization of Sp1, AP-1, CBF and KRC binding sites and minisatellite DNA as functional elements of the metastasis-associated mts1/S100A4 gene intronic enhancer. Nucleic Acids Res 2001; 29:3335-46. [PMID: 11504871 PMCID: PMC55845 DOI: 10.1093/nar/29.16.3335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2001] [Revised: 06/29/2001] [Accepted: 06/29/2001] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The mts1/S100A4 gene encodes a small acidic calcium-binding protein that is expressed in a cell-specific manner in development, tumorigenesis and certain tissues of adult mice. A composite enhancer that is active in murine mammary adenocarcinoma cells was previously identified in the first intron of the mts1/S100A4 gene. Here we present a detailed analysis of the structure and function of this enhancer in the Mts1/S100A4-expressing CSML100 and non-expressing CSML0 mouse adenocarcinoma cell lines. In CSML100 cells the enhancer activity is composed of at least six cis-elements interacting with Sp1 and AP-1 family members and CBF/AML/PEBP2 and KRC transcription factors. In addition, a minisatellite-like DNA sequence significantly contributes to the enhancer activity via interaction with abundant proteins, which likely have been described previously under the name minisatellite-binding proteins. Extensive mutational analysis of the mts1/S100A4 enhancer revealed a cooperative function of KRC and the factors binding minisatellite DNA. This is the first example of an enhancer where two nuclear factors earlier implicated in different recombination processes cooperate to activate transcription. In Mts1/S100A4-negative CSML0 cells the strength of the enhancer was 7- to 12.5-fold lower compared to that in CSML100 cells, when referred to the activities of three viral promoters. In CSML0 cells the enhancer could be activated by exogenous AP-1 and CBF transcription factors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M A Cohn
- Department of Molecular Cancer Biology, Institute of Cancer Biology, The Danish Cancer Society, Strandboulevarden 49, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Hicar MD, Liu Y, Allen CE, Wu LC. Structure of the human zinc finger protein HIVEP3: molecular cloning, expression, exon-intron structure, and comparison with paralogous genes HIVEP1 and HIVEP2. Genomics 2001; 71:89-100. [PMID: 11161801 DOI: 10.1006/geno.2000.6425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Here we report the cloning and characterization of HIVEP3, the newest member in the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 enhancer-binding protein family that encodes large zinc finger proteins and regulates transcription via the kappaB enhancer motif. The largest open reading frame of HIVEP3 contains 2406 aa. and is approximately 80% identical to the mouse counterpart. The HIVEP3 gene is located in the chromosomal region 1p34 and is at least 300 kb with 10 exons. RNA studies show that multiple HIVEP3 transcripts are differentially expressed and regulated. Additionally, transcription termination occurs in the ultimate exon, exon 10, or in exon 6. Therefore, HIVEP3 may produce protein isoforms that contain or exclude the carboxyl DNA binding domain and the leucine zipper by alternative RNA splicing and differential polyadenylation. Sequence homologous to HIVEP3 exon 6 is not found in mouse nor are the paralogous genes HIVEP1 and HIVEP2. Zoo-blot analysis suggests that sequences homologous to the human exon 6 are present only in primates and cow. Therefore, a foreign DNA harboring a termination exon likely was inserted into the HIVEP3 locus relatively recently in evolution, resulting in the acquisition of novel gene regulatory mechanisms as well as the generation of structural and functional diversity.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Blotting, Northern
- Blotting, Southern
- Brain/metabolism
- Carrier Proteins/chemistry
- Carrier Proteins/genetics
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 1
- Cloning, Molecular
- Cosmids
- DNA, Complementary/metabolism
- DNA-Binding Proteins/biosynthesis
- DNA-Binding Proteins/chemistry
- DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- Exons
- Expressed Sequence Tags
- Gene Library
- Humans
- Introns
- Mice
- Models, Genetic
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Oligonucleotide Probes/metabolism
- Open Reading Frames
- Phylogeny
- Poly A/metabolism
- Protein Isoforms
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Tissue Distribution
- Transcription Factors
- Transcription, Genetic
- Zinc Fingers
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M D Hicar
- Department of Molecular Virology, Immunology, and Medical Genetics, College of Medicine and Public Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Abstract
The large zinc finger protein KRC regulates transcription of target genes via the kappaB gene enhancer element. As an attempt to investigate the cellular function of KRC, we have established cell lines stably transfected with KRC expression vectors. Introduction of a vector directing expression of a transcript antisense to KRC mRNAs in several mammalian cell lines resulted in accelerated proliferation. Furthermore, in HeLa cells, downregulation of KRC conferred anchorage-independent growth and promoted cell cycle progression without an intervening cytokinesis, culminating in the formation of multinucleated giant cells. Ultimately these cells died.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C E Allen
- Program of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 43210, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Hjelmsoe I, Allen CE, Cohn MA, Tulchinsky EM, Wu LC. The kappaB and V(D)J recombination signal sequence binding protein KRC regulates transcription of the mouse metastasis-associated gene S100A4/mts1. J Biol Chem 2000; 275:913-20. [PMID: 10625627 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.275.2.913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
A kappaB-like sequence, Sb, is integral to the composite enhancer located in the first intron of the metastasis-associated gene, S100A4/mts1. Oligonucleotides containing this sequence form three specific complexes with nuclear proteins prepared from S100A4/mts1-expressing CSML100 adenocarcinoma cells. Protein studies show the Sb-interacting complexes include NF-kappaB/Rel proteins, p50.p50 and p50.p65 dimers. Additionally, the Sb sequence was bound by an unrelated approximately 200-kDa protein, p200. Site-directed mutagenesis in conjunction with transient transfections indicate that p200, but not the NF-kappaB/Rel proteins, transactivates S100A4/mts1. To identify candidate genes for p200, double-stranded DNA probes containing multiple copies of Sb were used to screen a randomly primed lambdagt11 cDNA expression library made from CSML100 poly(A)(+) RNA. Two clones corresponding to the DNA-binding proteins KRC and Alf1 were identified. KRC encodes a large zinc finger protein that binds to the kappaB motif and to the signal sequences of V(D)J recombination. In vitro DNA binding assays using bacterially expressed KRC fusion proteins, demonstrate specific binding of KRC to the Sb sequence. In addition, introduction of KRC expression vectors into mammalian cells induces expression of S100A4/mts1 and reporter genes driven by S100A4/mts1 gene regulatory sequences. These data indicate that KRC positively regulates transcription of S100A4/mts1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- I Hjelmsoe
- Danish Cancer Society, Department of Molecular Cancer Biology, Strandboulevarden 49, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Bachmeyer C, Mak CH, Yu CY, Wu LC. Regulation by phosphorylation of the zinc finger protein KRC that binds the kappaB motif and V(D)J recombination signal sequences. Nucleic Acids Res 1999; 27:643-8. [PMID: 9862992 PMCID: PMC148227 DOI: 10.1093/nar/27.2.643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The DNA binding protein KRC (forkappaB binding andrecognitioncomponent of the V(D)J recombination signal sequence) belongs to a family of large zinc finger proteins that bind to the kappaB motif and contains two widely separated DNA binding structures. In addition to the kappaB motif, KRC fusion proteins bind to the signal sequences of V(D)J recombination to form highly ordered complexes. Here, we report that KRC may be regulated by post-translational modifications. Specific protein kinases present in the nucleus of pre-B cells phosphorylated a KRC fusion protein at tyrosine and serine residues. Such protein modifications increased DNA binding, thereby providing a mechanism by which KRC responds to signal transduction pathways. KRC is a substrate of epidermal growth factor receptor kinase and P34cdc2 kinase in vitro. Our results suggest that activation of the KRC family of transcription factors may provide a mechanism by which oncogenic tyrosine kinases regulate genes with kappaB-controlled gene regulatory elements.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C Bachmeyer
- Department of Internal Medicine and Department of Medical Biochemistry, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Leu TM, Schatz DG. rag-1 and rag-2 are components of a high-molecular-weight complex, and association of rag-2 with this complex is rag-1 dependent. Mol Cell Biol 1995; 15:5657-70. [PMID: 7565717 PMCID: PMC230816 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.15.10.5657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the essential and synergistic functions of the rag-1 and rag-2 proteins in V(D)J recombination and lymphocyte development, little is known about the biochemical properties of the two proteins. We have developed cell lines expressing high levels of the rag proteins and specific, sensitive immunological reagents for their detection, and we have examined the physical properties of the rag proteins in vitro and their subcellular localizations in vivo. rag-1 is tightly associated with nuclear structures, requires a high salt concentration to maintain its solubility, and is a component of large, heterogeneously sized complexes. Furthermore, the presence of rag-1 alters the behavior of rag-2, conferring on it properties similar to those of rag-1 and changing its distribution in the nucleus. We demonstrate that rag-1 and rag-2 are present in the same complex by coimmunoprecipitation, and we provide evidence that these complexes contain more molecules of rag-2 than of rag-1. The demonstration of intracellular complexes containing rag-1 and rag-2 raises the possibility that interaction between these proteins is necessary for their biological function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T M Leu
- Section of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8011, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|