Effectiveness of China's National Forest Protection Program and nature reserves

The positive impact of conservation action

Governments recently adopted new global targets to halt and reverse the loss of biodiversity. It is therefore crucial to understand the outcomes of conservation actions. We conducted a global meta-analysis of 186 studies (including 665 trials) that measured biodiversity over time and compared outcomes under conservation action with a suitable counterfactual of no action. We find that in two-thirds of cases, conservation either improved the state of biodiversity or at least slowed declines. Specifically, we find that interventions targeted at species and ecosystems, such as invasive species control, habitat loss reduction and restoration, protected areas, and sustainable management, are highly effective and have large effect sizes. This provides the strongest evidence to date that conservation actions are successful but require transformational scaling up to meet global targets.

The Consumption and Diversity Variation Responses of Agricultural Pests and Their Dietary Niche Differentiation in Insectivorous Bats

Insectivorous bats are generalist predators and can flexibly respond to fluctuations in the distribution and abundance of insect prey. To better understand the effects of bats on arthropod pests, the types of pests eaten by bats and the response of bats to insect prey need to be determined. In this study, we performed DNA metabarcoding to examine prey composition and pest diversity in the diets of four insectivorous species of bats (Hipposideros armiger, Taphozous melanopogon, Aselliscus stoliczkanus, and Miniopterus fuliginosus). We evaluated the correlation between bat activity and insect resources and assessed dietary niche similarity and niche breadth among species and factors that influence prey consumption in bats. We found that the diets of these bats included arthropods from 23 orders and 200 families, dominated by Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera. The proportion of agricultural pests in the diet of each of the four species of bats exceeded 40% and comprised 713 agricultural pests, including those that caused severe economic losses. Bats responded to the availability of insects. For example, a higher abundance of insects, especially Lepidoptera, and a higher insect diversity led to an increase in the duration of bat activity. In areas with more abundant insects, the number of bat passes also increased. The dietary composition, diversity, and niches differed among species and were particularly significant between H. armiger and T. melanopogon; the dietary niche width was the greatest in A. stoliczkanus and the narrowest in H. armiger. The diet of bats was correlated with their morphological and echolocation traits. Larger bats preyed more on insects in the order Coleoptera, whereas the proportion of bats consuming insects in the order Lepidoptera increased as the body size decreased. Bats that emitted echolocation calls with a high peak frequency and duration preyed more on insects in the order Mantodea. Our results suggest that dietary niche differentiation promotes the coexistence of different bat species and increases the ability of bats to consume insect prey and agricultural pests. Our findings provide greater insights into the role of bats that prey on agricultural pests and highlight the importance of combining bat conservation with integrated pest management.

Significant early end of the growing season of forest vegetation inside China's protected areas

The land surface phenology (LSP) indicators (i.e., start, end, and length of the growing season: SOS, EOS, LOS) are important to reflect the growth of forest and its response to environmental changes. However, the spatiotemporal variation and its mechanism of forest phenology under different human disturbance' levels are still unclear. Here, we compare the LSP indicators inside and outside China's 257 protected areas (PAs) and explore the influencing factors of phenological differences (ΔSOS, ΔEOS, ΔLOS). We find that in general, EOS inside PAs (mean ± s.e.m: 312.6 ± 1.2days) is significantly earlier than outside (314.6 ± 1.2days), and LOS inside PAs (218.9 ± 2.0days) are significantly shorter than outside (220.6 ± 2.0days). ΔSOS and ΔEOS are controlled by nighttime and daytime temperature differences, respectively, and both factors affect ΔLOS. This evidence provides a new understanding about the functions of PAs and its influence on forest vegetation growth.

Human activity and climate change accelerate the extinction risk to non-human primates in China

Human activity and climate change affect biodiversity and cause species range shifts, contractions, and expansions. Globally, human activities and climate change have emerged as persistent threats to biodiversity, leading to approximately 68% of the ~522 primate species being threatened with extinction. Here, we used habitat suitability models and integrated data on human population density, gross domestic product (GDP), road construction, the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), the location of protected areas (PAs), and climate change to predict potential changes in the distributional range and richness of 26 China's primate species. Our results indicate that both PAs and NDVI have a positive impact on primate distributions. With increasing anthropogenic pressure, species' ranges were restricted to areas of high vegetation cover and in PAs surrounded by buffer zones of 2.7-4.5 km and a core area of PAs at least 0.1-0.5 km from the closest edge of the PA. Areas with a GDP below the Chinese national average of 100,000 yuan were found to be ecologically vulnerable, and this had a negative impact on primate distributions. Changes in temperature and precipitation were also significant contributors to a reduction in the range of primate species. Under the expected influence of climate change over the next 30-50 years, we found that highly suitable habitat for primates will continue to decrease and species will be restricted to smaller and more peripheral parts of their current range. Areas of high primate diversity are expected to lose from 3 to 7 species. We recommend that immediate action be taken, including expanding China's National Park Program, the Ecological Conservation Redline Program, and the Natural Forest Protection Program, along with a stronger national policy promoting alternative/sustainable livelihoods for people in the local communities adjacent to primate ranges, to offset the detrimental effects of anthropogenic activities and climate change on primate survivorship.

Carbon budget of different forests in China estimated by an individual-based model and remote sensing

Forests play a key role in the regional or global carbon cycle. Determining the forest carbon budget is of great significance for estimating regional carbon budgets and formulating forest management policies to cope with climate change. However, the carbon budget of Chinese different forests and their relative contributions are not completely clear so far. We evaluated the carbon budget of different forests from 1981 to 2020 in China through combining model with remote sensing observation. In addition, we also determined the relative contribution of carbon budget of each forest type to all forests in China. Eight forest types were studied: evergreen coniferous forest (ECF), deciduous coniferous forest (DCF), coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest (CBF), deciduous broad-leaved forest (DBF), evergreen broad-leaved forest (EBF), evergreen deciduous broad-leaved mixed forest (EDBF), seasonal rain forest (SRF), and rain forest (RF). The results indicated that the Chinese forests were mainly carbon sink from 1981 to 2020, particularly the annual average carbon budget of forest from 2011 to 2020 was 0.191 PgC·a-1. Spatially, the forests' carbon budget demonstrated obvious regional differences, gradually decreasing from Southeast China to Northwest China. The relative contributions of carbon budget in different forests to all forests in China were different. During 2011-2020, the ECF forests contributed the most carbon budget (34.45%), followed by DBF forests (25.89%), EBF forests (24.82%), EDBF forests (13.10%), RF forests (2.23%), SRF forests (3.14%) and CBF forests (1.14%). However, the DCF forests were found mainly as carbon source. These results contribute to our understanding of regional carbon budget of forests.

Upgrading protected areas can improve or reverse the decline in conservation effectiveness: Evidence from the Tibetan Plateau, China

Protected areas (PAs) are considered essential for maintaining biodiversity. Several governments would like to strengthen the management levels of their PAs (as shorthand for a hierarchy in PA administrative governance) to consolidate their conservation effectiveness. This upgrade (e.g., from provincial- to national-level PAs) means stricter protection and increased funds for PA management. However, confirming whether such an upgrade can produce the expected positive outcomes is key given limited conservation funds. Here, we used the Propensity Score Matching (PSM) method to quantify the impacts of upgrading PAs (i.e., from provincial to national) on vegetation growth on the Tibetan Plateau (TP). We found that the impacts of PA's upgrading can be divided into two impact types: 1) curbed or reversed declines in conservation effectiveness and 2) rapidly increased conservation effectiveness before the upgrade. These results indicate that the PA's upgrading process (including the pre-upgrade operations) can improve PA effectiveness. Nevertheless, the gains did not always occur after the official upgrade. This study demonstrated that in comparison to other PAs, those with more resources or stronger management policies were more effective.

Spatiotemporal Characteristics of the Coupled Coordination Degree of Ecosystem Services Supply and Demand in Chinese National Nature Reserves

Nature reserves (NRs) are the main components of protected areas and geographic spaces, with unique natural and cultural resources. The establishment of nature reserves has not only strengthened the protection of specific species but has also played a vital role in the protection of ecosystem services (ESs). However, few studies have been conducted to systematically assess the effectiveness of nature reserves from the perspective of ecosystem services supply and demand (S&D) or make comparisons between the conservation effects of different types of nature reserves. This study analyzed the spatiotemporal characteristics of ecosystem service supply and demand in 412 Chinese national nature reserves. The results showed that both supply and demand for ecosystem services per unit area show a spatial pattern of increasing from west to east. The supply-demand matching pattern is dominated by high supply-high demand (H-H) and low supply-high demand (L-H) in the central and eastern regions, and high supply-low demand (H-L) and low supply-low demand (L-L) in the northeast, northwest, and southwest regions. The coupling coordination degree (CCD) of ecosystem services supply and demand increased from 0.53 in 2000 to 0.57 in 2020, and the number of NRs reaching the coordinated level (>0.5) increased by 15 from 2000 to 2020, representing 3.64% of the total number of protected areas. Steppe meadows, ocean coasts, forest ecosystems, wildlife, and wild plant types of nature reserves all improved more obviously. This provides a scientific basis for strengthening the ecological and environmental supervision of nature reserves, and the research methods and ideas can provide references for similar research.

Period-oriented spatial comparative evaluation of biodiversity conservation effectiveness in China

The period-oriented comparative evaluation of biodiversity conservation effectiveness is the main basis for implementing the transfer payment policy of ecological compensation. In response to the lack of such a spatial comparative assessment system, the paper proposes a method to construct the period conservation effectiveness index (PCEI) and applies it to the spatial comparative assessment of Chinese biodiversity conservation effectiveness in three periods from 1990 to 2015, while validating the rationality of the reference. The results show that (1) spatially, the biodiversity conservation effectiveness of key ecological function areas (KEFAs) in Central China and South China is better, while Southwest and Northwest are in the middle, and East China and Northeast are worse; (2) temporally, the biodiversity conservation effectiveness of KEFAs as a whole is worse from 1990 to 2000, best from 2000 to 2010, and middle from 2010 to 2015; (3) The existing reference establishment methods can reflect the spatial differences of natural environment background, which effectively support the spatial comparison assessment of biodiversity conservation effectiveness. This study constructs a spatial comparison assessment system of biodiversity conservation effectiveness within periods, which can provide a scientific basis for national and even global large-scale ecological compensation and other fund allocation methods.

Improving protected area effectiveness through consideration of different human-pressure baselines

Previous assessments of the effectiveness of protected areas (PAs) focused primarily on changes in human pressure over time and did not consider the different human-pressure baselines of PAs, thereby potentially over- or underestimating PA effectiveness. We developed a framework that considers both human-pressure baseline and change in human pressure over time and assessed the effectiveness of 338 PAs in China from 2010 to 2020. The initial state of human pressure on PAs was taken as the baseline, and changes in human pressure index (HPI) were further analyzed under different baselines. We used the random forest models to identify the management measures that most improved effectiveness in resisting human pressure for the PAs with different baselines. Finally, the relationships between the changes in the HPI and the changes in natural ecosystems in PAs were analyzed with different baselines. Of PAs with low HPI baselines, medium HPI baselines, and high HPI baselines, 76.92% (n=150), 11.11% (n=12), and 22.86% (n=8) , respectively, showed positive effects in resisting human pressure. Overall, ignoring human-pressure baselines somewhat underestimated the positive effects of PAs, especially for those with low initial human pressure. For PAs with different initial human pressures, different management measures should be taken to improve effectiveness and reduce threats to natural ecosystems. We believe our framework is useful for assessing the effectiveness of PAs globally, and we recommend it be included in the Convention on Biological Diversity Post-2020 Strategy.

Assessment of the Ecological Protection Effectiveness of Protected Areas Using Propensity Score Matching: A Case Study in Sichuan, China

Protected areas constitute a global strategic resource for enhancing the effectiveness of ecological protection, which can alleviate the impact of unsustainable human production and living activities on the ecological environment. However, the spatiotemporal evolution of ecological protection effectiveness needs to be quantitatively revealed. The net primary productivity (NPP) of plants is an important measure of the effectiveness of ecological protection efforts. The main purpose of this study is to use the relative change in the annual average NPP to evaluate the ecological protection effectiveness of protected areas. We compared the historical changes in the annual average NPP of protected areas in Sichuan Province from 2000 to 2019. We added the spatial coordinates to the impact factor system and adopted propensity score matching (PSM) in a quasi-natural experimental method to determine the experimental group and the control group. The ecological protection effectiveness of the protected areas in the study area in 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2019 was measured and classified into three types of changes in protection effectiveness, namely effective, ineffective, or fluctuating. According to the administrative level, type, and spatial distribution, we determined the number and type of changes in the protection effectiveness of different protected areas. The results show that the annual average NPP of the protected areas in Sichuan Province generally fluctuated. The annual average NPP increased in 95.47% of the total protected area and decreased in 4.53%. The overall protection effectiveness of protected areas was positive and significant and gradually improved. Effective protected areas at the national, provincial, and county levels accounted for 40.27% of the total number of protected areas, and the other 14.77% of effective protected area was managed at other administrative levels. Among the different types of protected areas, the proportion of effective protected areas was highest in wild animal protected areas, followed by forest ecology protected areas, wild plant protected areas, and wetland ecology protected areas. The results of this study can provide an important reference for the verification and improvement of the ecological protection effectiveness of various protected areas.

Effectiveness of functional zones in National Nature Reserves for the protection of forest ecosystems in China

Protected areas (PAs) have been established worldwide to conserve biodiversity. However, the conservation effectiveness of different PA functional zones remains poorly understood. Here, we investigated National Nature Reserves (NNRs) in China to explore and quantify the conservation in their core, buffer, and experimental zones. We compared the area and proportion of forest loss for these functional zones during the period from 2001 to 2018. The results showed that the forest loss in NNRs showed a decreasing trend since 2011, indicating that NNRs reduced the forest loss. There was no significant difference of forest loss proportion (p = 0.42) between the core zones (0.60 ± 1.32%) and buffer zones (0.55 ± 0.88%), implying that their performance in forest conservation was similar. There was a significant difference between experimental and core zones as well as between experimental and buffer zones both in forest loss area and proportion (p ˂ 0.05). We confirmed that the proportion of functional zones significantly affects the conservation effectiveness, i.e., an improper proportion of core zones or buffer zones may lead to forest loss. Therefore, we suggest an optimal proportion of core and buffer zones at 30%-50% and 10%-40%, respectively. Overall, the effectiveness of functional zones in forest nature reserves was assessed on a national scale. The results of this study support the recent adjustment in the PA functional zoning system in China.

Temporal and spatial changes of biodiversity in Caverns of Heaven and Places of Blessing, Zhejiang Province, China from 1990 to 2020

Caverns of Heaven and Places of Blessing (CHPB) are the earliest Ecological Reserve in China, but in recent years, due to the accelerated process of urbanization and weak protection, the Chinese traditional ecological reserve represented by CHPB has been damaged to a certain extent. How to accurately measure the dynamic changes of ecological value in existing ecological protection and construct is an initial topic of CHPB protection. To understand the temporal and spatial changes characteristics of biodiversity in CHPB, this paper selects three-time nodes in 1990, 2005, and 2020, and takes CHPB in Zhejiang Province as an example, comprehensive three influencing factors: habitat quality, landscape pattern, and nighttime-light. To provide a relevant theoretical basis for the protection of CHPB, this paper quantitatively analyzes the changes of ecological environment and biodiversity in recent 30 years. The results showed that from 1990 to 2020, the biodiversity of CHPB in Zhejiang Province showed a positive change, the decline in Caverns of Heaven overall area slowed down, and the core area rebounded. The spatial distribution change of biodiversity is highly consistent with the land-use changes. The low value regions of biodiversity are mainly concentrated in the regions with intensive human activities, and the area decreases with the expansion of construction land. The core areas are primary areas with high biodiversity and overlap with nature reserves, natural parks, Scenic and Historic Interest Area, and other protected areas. In a word, CHPB still plays a vital role in ecological and environmental protection. In the future development, we should still pay attention to its biodiversity protection, and give full play to its role in ecological and environmental protection, and realize the contemporary application of CHPB’s traditional ecological knowledge.

Measuring protected-area effectiveness using vertebrate distributions from leech iDNA

Protected areas are key to meeting biodiversity conservation goals, but direct measures of effectiveness have proven difficult to obtain. We address this challenge by using environmental DNA from leech-ingested bloodmeals to estimate spatially-resolved vertebrate occupancies across the 677 km² Ailaoshan reserve in Yunnan, China. From 30,468 leeches collected by 163 park rangers across 172 patrol areas, we identify 86 vertebrate species, including amphibians, mammals, birds and squamates. Multi-species occupancy modelling shows that species richness increases with elevation and distance to reserve edge. Most large mammals (e.g. sambar, black bear, serow, tufted deer) follow this pattern; the exceptions are the three domestic mammal species (cows, sheep, goats) and muntjak deer, which are more common at lower elevations. Vertebrate occupancies are a direct measure of conservation outcomes that can help guide protected-area management and improve the contributions that protected areas make towards global biodiversity goals. Here, we show the feasibility of using invertebrate-derived DNA to estimate spatially-resolved vertebrate occupancies across entire protected areas.

Invertebrate-derived eDNA (iDNA) is an emerging tool for taxonomic and spatial biodiversity monitoring. Here, the authors use metabarcoding of leech-derived iDNA to estimate vertebrate occupancy over an entire protected area, the Ailaoshan Nature Reserve, China.

Have China's national forest reserves designated since 1990 conserved forests effectively?

China's forests were severely degraded by human activities during the latter half of the 20th century. Therefore, China enacted ambitious programs of natural forest protection and afforestation to protect and expand forests. Yet it is unclear how the programs, especially the designation of forest reserves, have affected forest cover and fragmentation. We evaluated the effectiveness of China's national forest reserves designated since 1990 in conserving forests, by analyzing four forest metrics (i.e., percentage forest cover, mean forest patch size, mean forest patch radius of gyration, and forest patch cohesion index) derived from a newly produced 30 m annual China land cover dataset from 1990 to 2019. We found that overall forest cover increased and fragmentation decreased from baseline years, when reserves were designated, to 2019 in both reserves and their surrounding areas, and only the increase in forest cover relative to baseline was significantly greater in reserves than in surrounding areas. The designation time of reserves under national protection had no considerable effect on changes in the four metrics, but for zonation, the core zone showed a significantly higher increase in forest patch cohesion index relative to baseline than the buffer and transition zones. Nevertheless, forest cover declined and fragmentation increased in highly forested reserves, suggesting destructive human activities and ineffective management. Thus, forest protection and regeneration programs were moderately successful. We recommend that there is significant improvement needed to ensure greater protection of existing forests and reduction of threats to promote effective management.

Farmers’ Attitudes and Perceptions and the Effects of the Grain for Green Project in China: A Case Study in the Loess Plateau

The Grain for Green Project (GGP) aims to protect and improve the ecological environment, end farming on sloping farmland, and plant trees and restore forest vegetation. China’s GGP has been widely implemented, but its impact on the environment is rarely evaluated from farmers’ perspectives. This study took place in Zhidan and Yanchang Counties, Shaanxi Province. Farmers’ attitudes towards the GGP were investigated through semi-structured interviews to understand their perceptions of changes in ecosystem services and their level of ecological awareness, as well as analyzing which factors had the greatest impact on them. Our results indicate that some farmers are not satisfied with the GGP and are unwilling to participate in future GGPs, which is not only due to the dissatisfaction with subsidies offered but also because the needs of the farmers have been ignored. From the perspective of farmers, the GGP has greatly reduced soil erosion and air pollution but has had no effect on improving water quality and protecting biodiversity. More male farmers are willing to participate, and farmers with higher levels of education are more satisfied with the GGP. We also found that the level of understanding of ecological cognition affected farmers’ attitudes, and farmers with different levels of knowledge differ in their willingness to participate. Our research found that many farmers were dissatisfied with the GGP. To improve this situation, it is necessary to improve the ecological awareness of farmers. At the same time, policy makers should also further understand the needs of farmers in order to make reasonable management strategies.

Assessing effects of the Returning Farmland to Forest Program on vegetation cover changes at multiple spatial scales: The case of northwest Yunnan, China

Chinese state authorities have successfully accelerated afforestation over large areas through the Returning Farmland to Forest Program (RFFP). However, variation in the implementation of the RFFP among villages may lead to uncertainty in forest transitions at multiple spatial levels. Here, we combined remote sensing analysis with field quadrats and questionnaire surveys to assess the RFFP's effectiveness in increasing vegetation cover at the Lancang watershed, township and natural village levels in Weixi County, a biodiversity hotspot in northwest Yunnan. From 2000 to 2010 and 2010 to 2014, forest coverage increased, and areas of shrubland and agricultural land decreased at both watershed and township levels, which reflected a positive impact of the RFFP. However, the new forests established under the RFFP in the study area mostly consisted of monocultures of walnut and pine trees, a situation that could threaten local biodiversity. Changes in forest and shrub coverage varied among natural villages-gain and loss trends both occurred, indicating a limited impact of the RFFP. Nonparticipating RFFP households also abandoned cropland, and agricultural land area in these villages declined over the study period. At the watershed and township levels, RFFP greatly promoted increases in forest coverage. Elevation, the behavior of village officials and household livelihoods were often the most relevant factors at the natural village level. Interactions among these multiple drivers resulted in cross-scale heterogeneity of vegetation cover changes in northwest Yunnan. Future forest policies need to be tailored to specific regions and be based on assessments of local natural and socioeconomic conditions.

Evaluating Communities’ Willingness to Participate in Ecosystem Conservation in Southeast Tibetan Nature Reserves, China

Southeast Tibet is significant in maintaining key ecological functions and providing irreplaceable ecosystem services but is also extremely vulnerable and susceptible to the impacts of human activities. Understanding the attitudes of local residents toward ecosystem conservation is considered essential for nature resource management. We therefore aimed to conduct an evaluation framework under hypothetical scenarios to measure communities’ willingness to participate in ecosystem conservation using the contingent valuation method (CVM). Second, this study determined the underlying factors that might affect local’s willingness to participate and then compared the willingness to pay (WTP) and willingness to work (WTW) for different types of nature reserves. We found that income, education, community attachment, and acceptance of a payment scheme are significant factors determining the average amount that residents are willing to pay for ecosystem conservation, while their income, acceptance of a work scheme, and education are significant factors influencing the average service time that residents are willing to devote to work. Our results revealed that community residents have considerable willingness to participate in ecosystem conservation, which points not only to the great value attached to the ecosystem service function of Southeast Tibet nature but also suggests that people’s willingness to participate is influenced by a conglomeration of socio-economic characteristics and their previous experience. The information herein can be used to implement conservation planning that involves community co-management and policymaking for sustainable development and will be beneficial to the dynamic conservation and adaptive management of Tibetan nature reserves.

Does leakage exist in China's typical protected areas? Evidence from 13 national nature reserves

There is profound interest in knowing the degree to which the effectiveness of China's nature reserves, and whether leakage is common around the reserves, in the face of the most drastic conflicts between conservation and development in the world. To answer these questions, we employed the Landsat-derived Global Forest Change Dataset with 30-m resolution to examine forest change patterns during 2001 and 2017 both inside and outside of 13 typically national nature reserves in China. The average forest loss rates inside the reserves were significantly lower than those of outside the reserves (i.e., both in buffer and landscape zones), suggesting the success in protecting forest of these reserves in China. We found that the protection practice reduced approximately 10% of deforestation. Protection efficiency may be substantially overestimated (about 13-43%) if failing to control the related variables, such as altitude, climate, and human interference. The forest loss rates in the buffer zones were not significantly higher than those in the broader landscape zones, suggesting that leakage is not a frequent occurrence in the buffer zones of the reserves. However, the forest loss rates showed a slightly increasing tendency from 2001 to 2017, the loss rates increased gradually from inside to their outside buffer zones, and leakage was observed in certain zones of some years for most of the reserves. The conversions of forest to grassland and cultivated land were the primary trajectories of forest loss both inside and outside of the reserves. Though the leakage is not universal in the reserves across the country, forest loss rates are much higher in the buffer zones than those inside the reserves, resulting in increased insulation of the reserves that could undermine the provisioning of ecosystem services and the biodiversity conservation efficiency.

Ecological Effect of Ecological Engineering Projects on Low-Temperature Forest Cover in Great Khingan Mountain, China

The evaluation of ecological restoration projects can provide support for further strengthening the efforts of ecological restoration work and implementing the strategic objectives of the ecological region. Considering the current problem of the single evaluation index, this study evaluated the implementation effect of ecological projects from different temporal and spatial dimensions. Based on the MODIS vegetation index time series data, this study first computed the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) indicator 15.3.1 of Great Khingan Mountain (GKM) to evaluate the impact of ecological engineering on land use change and land productivity. As a common indicator, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) values showed a trend of a decrease and then gradual increase after the start of the Natural Forest Protection Project (NFPP) II, which was related to the land use changes from the forest to the grassland during the implementation of the NFPP. However, land productivity maintained a steady trend because of the transition between the forest and grassland. Meanwhile, to detect changes in vegetation at a smaller scale, the LandTrendr algorithm was used to identify the magnitude of forest disturbance, the years when it occurred, and the year of restoration. After implementing the ecological project, the forests in the GKM region were only partially disturbed, and most of the forests in most areas maintained a stable trend. Our study highlighted the varying effectiveness of different indexes for NFPP and evaluated the ecological impact of ecological projects from multiple perspectives.

Effects of protected areas on survival of threatened gibbons in China

Establishing protected areas (PAs) is an essential strategy to reduce biodiversity loss. However, many PAs do not provide adequate protection due to poor funding, inadequate staffing and equipment, and ineffective management. As part of China's recent economic growth, the Chinese government has significantly increased investment in nature reserves over the past 20 years, providing a unique opportunity to evaluate whether PAs can protect threatened species effectively. We compiled data from published literature on populations of gibbons (Hylobatidae), a threatened taxon with cultural significance, that occurred in Chinese reserves after 1980. We evaluated the ability of these PAs to maintain gibbon habitat and populations by comparing forest cover and human disturbance between reserves and their surrounding areas and modeling the impact of reserve characteristics on gibbon population trends. We also assessed the perspective of reserve staff concerning PA management effectiveness through an online survey. Reserves effectively protected gibbon habitat by reducing forest loss and human disturbance; however, half the reserves lost their gibbon populations since being established. Gibbons were more likely to survive in reserves established more recently, at higher elevation, with less forest loss and lower human impact, and that have been relatively well studied. A larger initial population size in the 1980s was positively associated with gibbon persistence. Although staff of all reserves reported increased investment and improved management over the past 20-30 years, no relationship was found between management effectiveness and gibbon population trends. We suggest early and emphatic intervention is critical to stop population decline and prevent extinction.

Which management measures lead to better performance of China's protected areas in reducing forest loss?

Protected areas (PAs) are considered essential for biodiversity conservation, and concerns about the effectiveness of PAs in terms of reducing deforestation are growing. However, few studies have identified the management measures that best reduce deforestation within existing PAs. Here, we carried out 10-year (from 2007 to 2016) field surveys and obtained a database of 10 management measures of 227 PAs mainly protecting forest ecosystems in China. We examined the contributions of the above 10 management measures in relation to the effectiveness of 227 PAs in reducing deforestation. Our results indicated that 52.68% of PAs had positive effects related to reducing deforestation (E > 0, P < 0.05), while 16.52% of PAs had negative effects (E < 0, P < 0.05). The most important management measures affecting the effectiveness of PAs in reducing deforestation were funding, infrastructure, and scientific research and monitoring. Thus, our study provides evidence indicating that improved funding and scientific research benefit the effectiveness of PAs. The findings have global implications for guiding PAs to take explicit measures to improve the outcomes of biodiversity conservation.

Establishment of an integrated decision-making method for planning the ecological restoration of terrestrial ecosystems

Ecological restoration of terrestrial ecosystems facilitates environmental protection and enhances sustainable development of land resources. With increasingly severe land degradation, new and effective methods must be developed for the restoration of ecological functions. In this study, we developed a regional risk assessment approach to support the planning of ecological restoration of a terrestrial ecosystem located in the Daye area in central China. The study area was divided into six sub-regions where ecological risks were characterized by building a non-linear model to represent ecological interactions among the risk components there. Socio-economic conditions in the areas were evaluated and presented using an analytic hierarchy process. Assessment of different stakeholders there was conducted based on multiple-criteria decision analysis. Then, integrated assessment was performed using the technique of order preference for an ideal solution. We divided the degraded land in Daye into areas with different priorities for restoration or rectification and presented corresponding sequential time intervals for the action. The results are as follows: (i) the top priority rectification areas (totaling 358 km²) are mainly distributed in northeast and northwest regions; (ii) the high priority rectification areas are concentrated in the central region spanning 226 km²; (iii) the medium priority rectification areas comprised a large amount of arable and forest land spanning 605 km²; and (iv) the low priority rectification areas cover the rest part of the Daye area spanning 195 km². The assessment tool was proven to be useful in planning regional ecological restoration in terrestrial ecosystems.

Forest Cover Change and the Effectiveness of Protected Areas in the Himalaya since 1998

Himalaya, a global biodiversity hotspot, has undergone considerable forest cover fluctuation in recent decades, and numerous protected areas (PAs) have been established to prohibit forest degradation there. However, the spatiotemporal characteristics of this forest cover change across the whole region are still unknown, as are the effectiveness of its PAs. Therefore, here, we first mapped the forest cover of Himalaya in 1998, 2008, and 2018 with high accuracy (>90%) using a random forest (RF) algorithm based on Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform. The propensity score matching (PSM) method was applied with eight control variables to balance the heterogeneity of land characteristics inside and outside PAs. The effectiveness of PAs in Himalaya was quantified based on matched samples. The results showed that the forest cover in Himalaya increased by 4983.65 km2 from 1998 to 2008, but decreased by 4732.71 km2 from 2008 to 2018. Further analysis revealed that deforestation and reforestation mainly occurred at the edge of forest tracts, with over 55% of forest fluctuation occurring below a 2000 m elevation. Forest cover changes in PAs of Himalaya were analyzed; these results indicated that about 56% of PAs had a decreasing trend from 1998 to 2018, including the Torsa (Ia PA), an area representative of the most natural conditions, which is strictly protected. Even so, as a whole, PAs in Himalaya played a positive role in halting deforestation.

Biodiversity conservation in China: A review of recent studies and practices

Biodiversity conservation plays an important role in the sustainable development of human society. China had made significant progress in biodiversity conservation studies and practices. This paper reviews major achievements in China in the past decades, especially those since 2010. In terms of the science behind biodiversity conservation, Chinese scholars have made significant contributions to priority research subjects, including mechanisms for maintaining biological communities and the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Simultaneously, biodiversity conservation and management systems specific to China have been basically established. The Chinese Government and researchers have undertaken a number of investigations, scientific studies, and monitoring, and have established relevant databases. With efforts taken to protect and restore biodiversity and ecosystems, the concept of biodiversity has gradually become popular in China. This review is an attempt to share with the world the learning from China's progress towards becoming an ecological civilization and highlights that the efforts towards biodiversity conservation need to be organically integrated with sustainable development goals.

Assessing the Effectiveness of China's Panda Protection System

Protected areas form the backbone of biodiversity conservation, yet their effectiveness is often not known nor even evaluated [1-3]. China-best known for its record of ecological degradation in the face of rapidly increasing gross domestic product and resource consumption [4]-has in recent years enacted a series of policies and programs to conserve its natural resources. Chief among them is an ambitious protected area system covering 17% of its terrestrial land mass [4, 5]. An important early impetus for the establishment of this reserve system was the protection of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) [5-8]. Using data from two previous large-scale surveys [9, 10] separated by a decade, and including over 50,000 habitat plots, we examined the panda population and habitat trends inside and outside reserves. Despite ambitious ecocompensation programs in panda habitat outside reserves [11-13], the protection provided by reserves reduced most classes of human disturbance compared to outside reserves, and most disturbances decreased through time more strongly inside than outside reserves. Reserves also contained more and increasing suitable panda than found outside reserves [14, 15]. Comparing reserve performance, reserves with increasing older forests and bamboo correlated with increasing panda populations. Together these findings indicate that China's panda reserves have been effective and that they are functioning better over time, conserving more and better habitats and containing more pandas. While China's protected area system still has much room for improvement [4, 5], including to support pandas [16], these findings underscore the progress made in China's nascent environmental movement.

Determinants of the beta diversity of tree species in tropical forests: Implications for biodiversity conservation

The mapping of earth's biodiversity has advanced our theoretical and empirical understanding of biodiversity and has thus guided conservation efforts. Yet, early biodiversity maps often relied on alpha diversity indices, while beta diversity has rarely been used for practical conservation actions. We used generalized dissimilarity modelling (GDM) and variance partitioning to map beta diversity patterns of Hainan Island, China, and explore its underlying factors based on a large dataset of 248,538 individual trees belonging to 1,016 species in 902 forest plots. We used principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering to visualize community similarity, and spatial overlap analysis to assess the ability of the current protected areas (PAs) to encompass beta diversity. The GDMs explained 27.65% and 26.58% of the variation in beta diversity at the genus and species levels, respectively. The community composition of tree species in Hainan presented a general east-to-west gradient, and three floristic regions were delineated. This biogeographical pattern is predominantly structured by mean annual precipitation. Environmental variables, rather than geographical distance, were the most important factors determining present beta diversity patterns. Currently, PAs of Hainan Island are concentrated on mountain forest areas, while the lowland forest has largely been ignored. Thus, we suggest that biodiversity mapping based only on alpha diversity is not enough to identify conservation gaps, and the inclusion of beta diversity in such maps constitutes a promising tool to maximize the biodiversity coverage of PAs. Our study provides empirical evidence that a spatially explicit analysis of beta diversity in a specific region can be used for conservation planning.

Human Activity Intensity Assessment by Remote Sensing in the Water Source Area of the Middle Route of the South-to-North Water Diversion Project in China

Human activities have significantly affected the natural eco-environment, which could lead to land cover changes. The human activity intensity of land surface (HAILS) represent human activity at the regional scale and can be monitored efficiently over a long term based on land cover data collected by remote sensing techniques. In this study, we quantify the HAILS index for 2000, 2010, and 2015 based on land cover, and analyze its temporal and spatial variation to illustrate the potential influence of human activities on the water quality in the water source area of the Middle Route of the South-to-North Water Diversion Project (MR-SNWDP). The results show that from 2000 to 2015, the HAILS decreased in general but increased with the highest increment of 78.4% around water resources. The area showing high values of HAILS increased at a rate of 30.8% from 2000 to 2015. In the riparian zone around the water body, the HAILS rose at an increment of 0.68% in 2010 to 0.05% in 2015. On the basis of the variation of the HAILS, it has been revealed that human activities, increased mainly around water bodies, may increase the risk of water pollution.

Does China's Yangtze River Economic Belt policy impact on local ecosystem services?

The ecological protection of the Yangtze River Economic Belt (YREB) is one part of China's national strategy, and to identify the spatiotemporal variation of ecosystem service values (ESV) and examine the YREB policies performances can provide effective knowledge and supports for making ecological protection policies. In this paper, the ESV of YREB's 11 units were measured based on equivalent factor value method. Panal data and regression discontinuity model were used to discuss the impact of the ecological protection policies issued 2012 and 2014 on the ESVs. The results showed that: (1) From 2009 to 2016, the total ESVs of the YREB increased from 617.49 billion USD to 844.84 billion USD, showing a pattern of slow increase (2009-2012), substantial growth (2012-2014) and stability of high level (2014-2016). Forestland and water body were the key types of land to ecological protection. For the average of all measured years, the two lands accounted for 43.24% of total ecological land and provided 82.36% of total ESVs;(2) Generally, all the units were closely related to the ecological protection policy and were positively affected. In the first period (2009-2012), the ESVs of 11 units had three statuses: declined, kept steady and moderately increased. After strong policy implementation, all units rose sharply (2012-2014) and maintained a steady increase at a high level (2014-2016); (3) Ecological protection policies have a significant positive effect on the ESVs. The policy in 2012 suppressed the downward trend of ESVs increase and the policy in 2014 had a positive impact to increase ESVs. This study proved that possible to achieve a win-win situation of urban development and ecological environmental protection by implementing ecological protection policies.

Changes in ecosystem services and an analysis of driving factors for China's Natural Forest Conservation Program

China's Natural Forest Conservation Program (NFCP) is aimed at improving the fragile and unstable ecological environment and has become one of the largest ecological restoration programs in the world because of its enormous investment and effects. It is important to work out and strengthen new measures to overcome difficulties to promote more ecosystem services and human well-being in the NFCP. This study focused on how to evaluate the ecosystem services change brought about by implementing the NFCP. Taking the key state-owned forest areas in the Northeast and Inner Mongolia as the study area, we provide a basic overview of development and construct an evaluation index system and a distributed calculation method for the NFCP to analyze the implications of the NFCP on ecosystem services combined with multi-source data coupling. An evaluation index system for NFCP ecosystem services was constructed. The system includes five ecological service functions and 12 evaluation indices. The trade-off and/or synergistic analysis of ecosystem services were carried out. The regional characteristics and changes in the NFCP ecosystem services were emphasized. Although it has not been implemented for a long time, the NFCP has had a great impact on ecosystem services because it reduces soil and water losses, increases soil fertility, strengthens the forest carbon sink and helped the forest accumulate nutrients and purify the atmosphere. Socioeconomic factors affect the NFCP ecosystem services, such as the implementation area of NFCP, investment amount of NFCP, area ratio of nature reserves, and yield of tree stock volume. Policy drivers of the NFCP, changes in the economic structure and reductions in forest yield are the main factors affecting the change in NFCP ecosystem services. Although the NFCP has positively affected the society, the economy, and the ecological environment, it has also generated some problems, such as the improper management of forest resources, shortage of capital investment, staff transfer, etc. The social and economic problems will be transient with implementation of the NFCP, and the structural changes in forestry and agriculture may eventually benefit the forestry workers and other stakeholders.

Main ecological drivers of woody plant species richness recovery in secondary forests in China

Identifying drivers behind biodiversity recovery is critical to promote efficient ecological restoration. Yet to date, for secondary forests in China there is a considerable uncertainty concerning the ecological drivers that affect plant diversity recovery. Following up on a previous published meta-analysis on the patterns of species recovery across the country, here we further incorporate data on the logging history, climate, forest landscape and forest attribute to conduct a nationwide analysis of the main drivers influencing the recovery of woody plant species richness in secondary forests. Results showed that regional species pool exerted a positive effect on the recovery ratio of species richness and this effect was stronger in selective cutting forests than that in clear cutting forests. We also found that temperature had a negative effect, and the shape complexity of forest patches as well as the percentage of forest cover in the landscape had positive effects on the recovery ratio of species richness. Our study provides basic information on recovery and resilience analyses of secondary forests in China.

China's response to a national land-system sustainability emergency

China has responded to a national land-system sustainability emergency via an integrated portfolio of large-scale programmes. Here we review 16 sustainability programmes, which invested US$378.5 billion (in 2015 US$), covered 623.9 million hectares of land and involved over 500 million people, mostly since 1998. We find overwhelmingly that the interventions improved the sustainability of China's rural land systems, but the impacts are nuanced and adverse outcomes have occurred. We identify some key characteristics of programme success, potential risks to their durability, and future research needs. We suggest directions for China and other nations as they progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations' Agenda 2030.

Adaptation of global land use and management intensity to changes in climate and atmospheric carbon dioxide

Land use contributes to environmental change, but is also influenced by such changes. Climate and atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂ ) levels' changes alter agricultural crop productivity, plant water requirements and irrigation water availability. The global food system needs to respond and adapt to these changes, for example, by altering agricultural practices, including the crop types or intensity of management, or shifting cultivated areas within and between countries. As impacts and associated adaptation responses are spatially specific, understanding the land use adaptation to environmental changes requires crop productivity representations that capture spatial variations. The impact of variation in management practices, including fertiliser and irrigation rates, also needs to be considered. To date, models of global land use have selected agricultural expansion or intensification levels using relatively aggregate spatial representations, typically at a regional level, that are not able to characterise the details of these spatially differentiated responses. Here, we show results from a novel global modelling approach using more detailed biophysically derived yield responses to inputs with greater spatial specificity than previously possible. The approach couples a dynamic global vegetative model (LPJ-GUESS) with a new land use and food system model (PLUMv2), with results benchmarked against historical land use change from 1970. Land use outcomes to 2100 were explored, suggesting that increased intensity of climate forcing reduces the inputs required for food production, due to the fertilisation and enhanced water use efficiency effects of elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentrations, but requiring substantial shifts in the global and local patterns of production. The results suggest that adaptation in the global agriculture and food system has substantial capacity to diminish the negative impacts and gain greater benefits from positive outcomes of climate change. Consequently, agricultural expansion and intensification may be lower than found in previous studies where spatial details and processes consideration were more constrained.

A road for a promising future for China's primates: The potential for restoration

China is one of the most dynamic countries of the world and it shelters some amazing levels of biodiversity, including some very special primate species. However, primarily as a result of forest loss, most of which occurred in historical times, approximately 70% of China’s primate species have less than 3 000 individuals. Here I evaluate one road for future conservation/development that could produce very positive gains for China’s primates; namely forest restoration. I argue that for a large scale restoration project to be possible two conditions must be met; the right societal conditions must exist and the right knowledge must be in hand. This evaluation suggests that the restoration of native forest to support many of China’s primates holds great potential to advance conservation goals and to promote primate population recovery.

China's fight to halt tree cover loss

China is investing immense resources for planting trees, totalling more than US$ 100 billion in the past decade alone. Every year, China reports more afforestation than the rest of the world combined. Here, we show that China's forest cover gains are highly definition-dependent. If the definition of ‘forest’ follows FAO criteria (including immature and temporarily unstocked areas), China has gained 434 000 km² between 2000 and 2010. However, remotely detectable gains of vegetation that non-specialists would view as forest (tree cover higher than 5 m and minimum 50% crown cover) are an order of magnitude less (33 000 km²). Using high-resolution maps and environmental modelling, we estimate that approximately 50% of the world's forest with minimum 50% crown cover has been lost in the past approximately 10 000 years. China historically lost 1.9–2.7 million km² (59–67%), and substantial losses continue. At the same time, most of China's afforestation investment targets environments that our model classes as unsuitable for trees. Here, gains detectable via satellite imagery are limited. Conversely, the regions where modest gains are detected are environmentally suitable but have received little afforestation investment due to conflicting land-use demands for agriculture and urbanization. This highlights the need for refined forest monitoring, and greater consideration of environmental suitability in afforestation programmes.

Effects of national forest-management regimes on unprotected forests of the Himalaya

Globally, deforestation continues, and although protected areas effectively protect forests, the majority of forests are not in protected areas. Thus, how effective are different management regimes to avoid deforestation in non-protected forests? We sought to assess the effectiveness of different national forest-management regimes to safeguard forests outside protected areas. We compared 2000-2014 deforestation rates across the temperate forests of 5 countries in the Himalaya (Bhutan, Nepal, China, India, and Myanmar) of which 13% are protected. We reviewed the literature to characterize forest management regimes in each country and conducted a quasi-experimental analysis to measure differences in deforestation of unprotected forests among countries and states in India. Countries varied in both overarching forest-management goals and specific tenure arrangements and policies for unprotected forests, from policies emphasizing economic development to those focused on forest conservation. Deforestation rates differed up to 1.4% between countries, even after accounting for local determinants of deforestation, such as human population density, market access, and topography. The highest deforestation rates were associated with forest policies aimed at maximizing profits and unstable tenure regimes. Deforestation in national forest-management regimes that emphasized conservation and community management were relatively low. In India results were consistent with the national-level results. We interpreted our results in the context of the broader literature on decentralized, community-based natural resource management, and our findings emphasize that the type and quality of community-based forestry programs and the degree to which they are oriented toward sustainable use rather than economic development are important for forest protection. Our cross-national results are consistent with results from site- and regional-scale studies that show forest-management regimes that ensure stable land tenure and integrate local-livelihood benefits with forest conservation result in the best forest outcomes.

A meta-analysis on growth, physiological, and biochemical responses of woody species to ground-level ozone highlights the role of plant functional types

The carbon-sink strength of temperate and boreal forests at midlatitudes of the northern hemisphere is decreased by ozone pollution, but knowledge on subtropical evergreen broadleaved forests is missing. Taking the dataset from Chinese studies covering temperate and subtropical regions, effects of elevated ozone concentration ([O₃ ]) on growth, biomass, and functional leaf traits of different types of woody plants were quantitatively evaluated by meta-analysis. Elevated mean [O₃ ] of 116 ppb reduced total biomass of woody plants by 14% compared with control (mean [O₃ ] of 21 ppb). Temperate species from China were more sensitive to O₃ than those from Europe and North America in terms of photosynthesis and transpiration. Significant reductions in chlorophyll content, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, and ascorbate peroxidase induced significant injury to photosynthesis and growth (height and diameter). Importantly, subtropical species were significantly less sensitive to O₃ than temperate ones, whereas deciduous broadleaf species were significantly more sensitive than evergreen broadleaf and needle-leaf species. These findings suggest that carbon-sink strength of Chinese forests is reduced by present and future [O₃ ] relative to control (20-40 ppb). Given that (sub)-tropical evergreen broadleaved species dominate in Chinese forests, estimation of the global carbon-sink constraints due to [O₃ ] should be re-evaluated.