Low levels of aflatoxin B1, ricin, and milk enhance recombinant protein production in mammalian cells

Structure of PAP-IgM FcK fusion protein with J-chain expressed in transgenic plant

Transgenic plants expressing immunoglobulin (Ig) M Fc-fused Prostate acid phosphatase (PAP) antigenic proteins (PAP-IgM FcK) and J-chain proteins were generated by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. The Fc region was tagged with the ER retention motif (KDEL) to make PAP-IgM FcK. Two transgenic plants were crossed together to generate F1 expressing both PAP-IgM FcK and J-chain proteins (PAP-IgM FcK × J-chain). PCR and RT-PCR analyses confirmed the transgene insertion and mRNA transcription of PAP-IgM FcK and J-chain in leaf tissue of PAP-IgM FcK × J-chain F1 plant. Western blot confirmed the expression of PAP-IgM FcK × J-chain protein. Size exclusion (SEC)-high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and Bio-transmission electron microscope (TEM) analyses were performed to show the size and shape of the PAP- IgM FcK × J-chain fusion proteins. These results suggest that PAP-IgM FcK with J-chain can be produced in plant expression system with plant crossing.

Transient expression of the full-length glycoprotein from infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus in bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) leaves via agroinfiltration

The glycoprotein of infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV), the causative agent of acute disease in salmonids, is the only structural protein of the virus that can induce protective immunity in the fish host. Here, the reliability of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) plant for the production of this viral protein was examined by the transient expression method. Using the syringe agroinfiltration method, leaves of bean plants were transformed with the expression construct encoding the full-length of IHNV glycoprotein (IHNV-G) gene. Furthermore, the transformation efficacy of two infiltration buffers including PBS-A (PBS+acetosyringone) and MMS-A (MES buffer + MgSO₄  + sucrose + acetosyringone) was compared. The analysis of mRNA and dot-blot assay confirmed the transcription and translation of IHNV-G protein in bean leaves. Moreover, Western blotting verified the production of intact, full-length (∼57 kDa) IHNV-G protein in the agroinfiltrated plants. Of note, the production level of IHNV-G using MMS-A agroinfiltration buffer was approximately five times higher compared to PBS-A buffer (0.48 vs. 0.1% of total soluble protein), indicating the effect of infiltration buffer on the transient transformation efficiency. The recombinant protein was purified at the final yield of 0.35 μg/g of fresh leaf tissue, using nickel affinity chromatography. The present work is the first report describing the feasibility of the plant expression platform for the production of IHNV-G protein, which can be served as an oral vaccine against IHNV infection.

Aflatoxin B1 inhibits the type 1 interferon response pathway via STAT1 suggesting another mechanism of hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination of food is very high in most sub-Saharan African countries. AFB1 is known to cause hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) by inducing mutation in the tumour suppressor gene TP53. The number of new HCC cases is high in West Africa with an accompanying high mortality. The type I interferon (IFN) pathway of the innate immune system limits viral infections and exerts its anti-cancer property by up-regulating tumour suppressor activities and pro-apoptotic pathways. Indeed, IFN-α is reported to show significant protective effects against hepatic fibrogenesis and carcinogenesis. However, the mechanism behind AFB1 deregulation of the type I interferon (IFN) signalling pathway, with consequent HCC is largely unknown. This current study seeks to test the hypothesis that AFB1 inhibits the type I IFN response by directly interfering with key signalling proteins and thus increase the risk of HCC in humans.

METHODS

We evaluated the effects of AFB1 on the type I IFN signalling pathway using IFN stimulated response element (ISRE)-based luciferase reporter gene assay. In addition, the effects of AFB1 on the transcript levels of JAK1, STAT1 and OAS3 were assessed by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and confirmed by immunoblot assay.

RESULTS

Our results indicated that AFB1 inhibited the type I IFN signalling pathway in human hepatoma cell line HepG2 cells by suppressing the transcript levels of JAK1, STAT1 and OAS3. AFB1 also decreased the accumulation of STAT1 protein.

CONCLUSION

The inhibition of the type I IFN anti-cancer response pathway by AFB1 suggest a novel mechanism by which AFB1 may induce hepatocellular carcinoma in humans.

Rapid Cell-Based Assay for Detection and Quantification of Active Staphylococcal Enterotoxin Type D

Food poisoning by Staphylococcus aureus is a result of ingestion of Staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs) produced by this bacterium and is a major source of foodborne illness. Staphylococcal enterotoxin D (SED) is one of the predominant enterotoxins recovered in Staphylococcal food poisoning incidences, including a recent outbreak in Guam affecting 300 children. Current immunology methods for SED detection cannot distinguish between the biologically active form of the toxin, which poses a threat, from the inactive form, which poses no threat. In vivo bioassays that measure emetic activity in kitten and monkeys have been used, but these methods rely upon expensive procedures using live animals and raising ethical concerns. A rapid (5 h) quantitative bioluminescence assay, using a genetically engineered T-cell Jurkat cell line expressing luciferase under regulation of nuclear factor of activated T cells response elements, in combination with the lymphoblastoid B-cell line Raji for antigen presentation, was developed. In this assay, the detection limit of biologically active SED is 100 ng/mL, which is 10 times more sensitive than the splenocyte proliferation assay, and 10⁵ times more sensitive than monkey or kitten bioassay. Pasteurization or repeated freeze-thaw cycles had no effect on SED activity, but reduction in SED activity was shown with heat treatment at 100°C for 5 min. It was also shown that milk exhibits a protective effect on SED. This bioluminescence assay may also be used to rapidly evaluate antibodies to SED for potential therapeutic application as a measurement of neutralizing biological effects of SED.

Sensitive, Rapid, Quantitative and in Vitro Method for the Detection of Biologically Active Staphylococcal Enterotoxin Type E

Staphylococcus aureus is a major bacterial cause of clinical infections and foodborne illnesses through its production of a group of enterotoxins (SEs) which cause gastroenteritis and also function as superantigens to massively activate T cells. In the present study, we tested Staphylococcal enterotoxin type E (SEE), which was detected in 17 of the 38 suspected staphylococcal food poisoning incidents in a British study and was the causative agent in outbreaks in France, UK and USA. The current method for detection of enterotoxin activity is an in vivo monkey or kitten bioassay; however, this expensive procedure has low sensitivity and poor reproducibility, requires many animals, is impractical to test on a large number of samples, and raises ethical concerns with regard to the use of experimental animals. The purpose of this study is to develop rapid sensitive and quantitative bioassays for detection of active SEE. We apply a genetically engineered T cell-line expressing the luciferase reporter gene under the regulation of nuclear factor of activated T-cells response element (NFAT-RE), combined with a Raji B-cell line that presents the SEE-MHC (major histocompatibility complex) class II to the engineered T cell line. Exposure of the above mixed culture to SEE induces differential expression of the luciferase gene and bioluminescence is read out in a dose dependent manner over a 6-log range. The limit of detection of biologically active SEE is 1 fg/mL which is 10⁹ times more sensitive than the monkey and kitten bioassay.

Effect of Selenium Supplementation on Apoptosis and Cell Cycle Blockage of Renal Cells in Broilers Fed a Diet Containing Aflatoxin B1

The aim of the study was to investigate the competency of selenium (Se) in counteracting the adverse effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) on apoptosis, cell cycle, and proliferation of nephritic cells. Two hundred forty 1-day-old healthy male avian broilers were randomly divided into four groups and fed basal diet (control group), 0.3 mg/kg AFB1 diet (AFB1 group), 0.4 mg/kg Se diet (+Se group), and 0.3 mg/kg AFB1 + 0.4 mg/kg Se diet (AFB1 + Se group), respectively. Compared to the control group, the number of apoptotic renal cells and expressions of Bax and caspase-3 messenger RNA (mRNA) were significantly increased, while the expression of Bcl-2 was significantly decreased in the AFB1 and the +Se groups (p < 0.01). A significantly decreased proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression and arrested G0/G1 phases of the cell cycle were also seen in the AFB1 and the +Se groups when compared with those of the control group. Moreover, these parameters were restored to the control group levels in the AFB1 + Se group. These results suggested that sodium selenite supplied in the diet could effectively inhibit AFB1-induced apoptosis and cell cycle blockage in renal cells of broiler.

Milk matrix effects on antibody binding analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and biolayer interferometry

Biolayer interferometry (BLI) was employed to study the impact of the milk matrix on the binding of ricin to asialofetuin (ASF) and to antibodies. This optical sensing platform used ligands immobilized covalently or via biotin-streptavidin linkage, and the results were compared to those obtained by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In sandwich ELISA, the binding of ricin to ASF was dramatically decreased when galactose was present during the analyte or detection antibody binding step. Low concentrations of milk (1%, v/v) produced a similar reduction in ricin binding to ASF but not to a high-affinity monoclonal antibody (mAb), increasing the dissociation rate of ASF-ricin complexes up to 100-fold. The effect of milk on the binding of ricin to ASF was ascribable to dialyzable factors, and milk sugar can account for these effects. The use of high-affinity mAbs in ELISA effectively limits the milk matrix effect on ricin analysis.

Non-linear relationships between aflatoxin B₁ levels and the biological response of monkey kidney vero cells

Aflatoxin-producing fungi contaminate food and feed during pre-harvest, storage and processing periods. Once consumed, aflatoxins (AFs) accumulate in tissues, causing illnesses in animals and humans. Most human exposure to AF seems to be a result of consumption of contaminated plant and animal products. The policy of blending and dilution of grain containing higher levels of aflatoxins with uncontaminated grains for use in animal feed implicitly assumes that the deleterious effects of low levels of the toxins are linearly correlated to concentration. This assumption may not be justified, since it involves extrapolation of these nontoxic levels in feed, which are not of further concern. To develop a better understanding of the significance of low dose effects, in the present study, we developed quantitative methods for the detection of biologically active aflatoxin B₁ (AFB1) in Vero cells by two independent assays: the green fluorescent protein (GFP) assay, as a measure of protein synthesis by the cells, and the microculture tetrazolium (MTT) assay, as a measure of cell viability. The results demonstrate a non-linear dose-response relationship at the cellular level. AFB1 at low concentrations has an opposite biological effect to higher doses that inhibit protein synthesis. Additional studies showed that heat does not affect the stability of AFB1 in milk and that the Vero cell model can be used to determine the presence of bioactive AFB1 in spiked beef, lamb and turkey meat. The implication of the results for the cumulative effects of low amounts of AFB1 in numerous foods is discussed.

Review of the inhibition of biological activities of food-related selected toxins by natural compounds

There is a need to develop food-compatible conditions to alter the structures of fungal, bacterial, and plant toxins, thus transforming toxins to nontoxic molecules. The term 'chemical genetics' has been used to describe this approach. This overview attempts to survey and consolidate the widely scattered literature on the inhibition by natural compounds and plant extracts of the biological (toxicological) activity of the following food-related toxins: aflatoxin B1, fumonisins, and ochratoxin A produced by fungi; cholera toxin produced by Vibrio cholerae bacteria; Shiga toxins produced by E. coli bacteria; staphylococcal enterotoxins produced by Staphylococcus aureus bacteria; ricin produced by seeds of the castor plant Ricinus communis; and the glycoalkaloid α-chaconine synthesized in potato tubers and leaves. The reduction of biological activity has been achieved by one or more of the following approaches: inhibition of the release of the toxin into the environment, especially food; an alteration of the structural integrity of the toxin molecules; changes in the optimum microenvironment, especially pH, for toxin activity; and protection against adverse effects of the toxins in cells, animals, and humans (chemoprevention). The results show that food-compatible and safe compounds with anti-toxin properties can be used to reduce the toxic potential of these toxins. Practical applications and research needs are suggested that may further facilitate reducing the toxic burden of the diet. Researchers are challenged to (a) apply the available methods without adversely affecting the nutritional quality, safety, and sensory attributes of animal feed and human food and (b) educate food producers and processors and the public about available approaches to mitigating the undesirable effects of natural toxins that may present in the diet.