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Silva JDM, Alves CEDC, Pontes GS. Epstein-Barr virus: the mastermind of immune chaos. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1297994. [PMID: 38384471 PMCID: PMC10879370 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1297994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024] Open
Abstract
The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous human pathogen linked to various diseases, including infectious mononucleosis and multiple types of cancer. To control and eliminate EBV, the host's immune system deploys its most potent defenses, including pattern recognition receptors, Natural Killer cells, CD8+ and CD4+ T cells, among others. The interaction between EBV and the human immune system is complex and multifaceted. EBV employs a variety of strategies to evade detection and elimination by both the innate and adaptive immune systems. This demonstrates EBV's mastery of navigating the complexities of the immunological landscape. Further investigation into these complex mechanisms is imperative to advance the development of enhanced therapeutic approaches with heightened efficacy. This review provides a comprehensive overview of various mechanisms known to date, employed by the EBV to elude the immune response, while establishing enduring latent infections or instigate its lytic replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean de Melo Silva
- Laboratory of Virology and Immunology, National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA), Manaus, AM, Brazil
- Post-Graduate Program in Basic and Applied Immunology, Institute of Biological Science, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, AM, Brazil
| | | | - Gemilson Soares Pontes
- Laboratory of Virology and Immunology, National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA), Manaus, AM, Brazil
- Post-Graduate Program in Basic and Applied Immunology, Institute of Biological Science, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, AM, Brazil
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2
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Bednarska K, Chowdhury R, Tobin JWD, Swain F, Keane C, Boyle S, Khanna R, Gandhi MK. Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphomas decoded. Br J Haematol 2024; 204:415-433. [PMID: 38155519 DOI: 10.1111/bjh.19255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated lymphomas cover a range of histological B- and T-cell non-Hodgkin and Hodgkin lymphoma subtypes. The role of EBV on B-cell malignant pathogenesis and its impact on the tumour microenvironment are intriguing but incompletely understood. Both the International Consensus Classification (ICC) and 5th Edition of the World Health Organization (WHO-HAEM5) proposals give prominence to the distinct clinical, prognostic, genetic and tumour microenvironmental features of EBV in lymphoproliferative disorders. There have been major advances in our biological understanding, in how to harness features of EBV and its host immune response for targeted therapy, and in using EBV as a method to monitor disease response. In this article, we showcase the latest developments and how they may be integrated to stimulate new and innovative approaches for further lines of investigation and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Bednarska
- Mater Research Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Rakin Chowdhury
- Frazer Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Department of Haematology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Joshua W D Tobin
- Mater Research Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Department of Haematology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Fiona Swain
- Frazer Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Department of Haematology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Colm Keane
- Frazer Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Department of Haematology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Stephen Boyle
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Rajiv Khanna
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Maher K Gandhi
- Mater Research Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Department of Haematology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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3
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Gutjahr E, Fremd C, Arnscheidt J, Penzel R, Wacker J, Sinn P. Non-Response of Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Breast Cancer after Primary Chemotherapy: Report of Two Cases. Pathogens 2023; 12:1387. [PMID: 38133273 PMCID: PMC10747629 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12121387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Based on epidemiological evidence and molecular findings, a possible association of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) with the carcinogenesis of breast cancer has been described. However, the frequency of EBV in breast cancer and the role of EBV regarding tumor progression or therapeutic results is largely unexplored. Here, we report on two cases of advanced, lymph node-positive invasive breast cancer of no special type (NST), histologically showing no clinical or histological evidence of tumor regression as an equivalent of a lack of response to primary systemic therapy. Both tumors were considered to be EBV-associated due to their positivity in EBV-encoded RNA (EBER) in situ hybridization (ISH) and their immunoreactivity against EBV Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA1). We hypothesize that the unusual non-response to chemotherapy in these cases of breast cancer classified as triple-negative and HER2-positive may be linked to the EBV co-infection of tumor cells. Therefore, EBV tumor testing should be considered in patients with breast cancer presenting with resistance to chemotherapy. This hypothesis may provide a new aspect in the context of EBV-associated mechanisms of tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewgenija Gutjahr
- Department of General Pathology, University Hospital, 69121 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Carlo Fremd
- Department of Medical Oncology, National Center for Tumor Diseases, University Hospital and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), 69121 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Johanna Arnscheidt
- Department of General Pathology, University Hospital, 69121 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Roland Penzel
- Department of General Pathology, University Hospital, 69121 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jürgen Wacker
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fuerst-Stirum-Hospital, 76646 Bruchsal, Germany
| | - Peter Sinn
- Department of General Pathology, University Hospital, 69121 Heidelberg, Germany
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4
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Wyatt S, Glover K, Dasanna S, Lewison M, González-García M, Colbert CL, Sinha SC. Epstein-Barr Virus Encoded BCL2, BHRF1, Downregulates Autophagy by Noncanonical Binding of BECN1. Biochemistry 2023; 62:2934-2951. [PMID: 37776275 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.3c00225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/02/2023]
Abstract
γ-herpesviruses (γHVs) encode BCL2 homologues (vBCL2) that bind the Bcl-2 homology 3 domains (BH3Ds) of diverse proteins, inhibiting apoptosis and promoting host cell and virus survival. vBCLs encoded by Kaposi sarcoma-associated HV (KSHV) and γHV68 downregulate autophagy, a degradative cellular process crucial for homeostasis and innate immune responses to pathogens, by binding to a BH3D in BECN1, a key autophagy protein. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) encodes a vBCL2 called BHRF1. Here we show that unlike the KSHV and γHV68 vBCL2s, BHRF1 does not bind the isolated BECN1 BH3D. We use yeast two-hybrid assays to identify the minimal region of BECN1 required and sufficient for binding BHRF1. We confirm that this is a direct, albeit weak, interaction via affinity pull-down assays and isothermal titration calorimetry. To understand the structural bases of BHRF1 specificity, we determined the 2.6 Å crystal structure of BHRF1 bound to the BID BH3D, which binds ∼400-times tighter to BHRF1 than does BECN1, and performed a detailed structural comparison with complexes of diverse BH3Ds bound to BHRF1 and to other antiapoptotic BCL2s. Lastly, we used mammalian cell autophagy assays to demonstrate that BHRF1 downregulates autophagy and that a cell-permeable peptide derived from the BID BH3D inhibits BHRF1-mediated downregulation of autophagy. In summary, our results suggest that BHRF1 downregulates autophagy by noncanonical binding of a flexible region of BECN1 that includes but is not limited to the BH3D and that BH3D-derived peptides that bind better to BHRF1 can block downregulation of autophagy by BHRF1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Wyatt
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108-6050, United States
| | - Karen Glover
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108-6050, United States
| | - Srinivasulu Dasanna
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108-6050, United States
| | - Monica Lewison
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108-6050, United States
| | - Maribel González-García
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Kingsville, Texas 78363-8202, United States
| | - Christopher L Colbert
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108-6050, United States
| | - Sangita C Sinha
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108-6050, United States
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5
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Huang W, Bai L, Tang H. Epstein-Barr virus infection: the micro and macro worlds. Virol J 2023; 20:220. [PMID: 37784180 PMCID: PMC10546641 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-023-02187-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Epstein‒Barr virus (EBV) is a DNA virus that belongs to the human B lymphotropic herpesvirus family and is highly prevalent in the human population. Once infected, a host can experience latent infection because EBV evades the immune system, leading to hosts harboring the virus for their lifetime. EBV is associated with many diseases and causes significant challenges to human health. This review first offers a description of the natural history of EBV infection, clarifies the interaction between EBV and the immune system, and finally focuses on several major types of diseases caused by EBV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Huang
- Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Division of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Lang Bai
- Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China.
- Division of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China.
| | - Hong Tang
- Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China.
- Division of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China.
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Zhang Q, Xu M. EBV-induced T-cell responses in EBV-specific and nonspecific cancers. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1250946. [PMID: 37841280 PMCID: PMC10576448 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1250946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous human tumor virus associated with various malignancies, including B-lymphoma, NK and T-lymphoma, and epithelial carcinoma. It infects B lymphocytes and epithelial cells within the oropharynx and establishes persistent infection in memory B cells. With a balanced virus-host interaction, most individuals carry EBV asymptomatically because of the lifelong surveillance by T cell immunity against EBV. A stable anti-EBV T cell repertoire is maintained in memory at high frequency in the blood throughout persistent EBV infection. Patients with impaired T cell immunity are more likely to develop life-threatening lymphoproliferative disorders, highlighting the critical role of T cells in achieving the EBV-host balance. Recent studies reveal that the EBV protein, LMP1, triggers robust T-cell responses against multiple tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) in B cells. Additionally, EBV-specific T cells have been identified in EBV-unrelated cancers, raising questions about their role in antitumor immunity. Herein, we summarize T-cell responses in EBV-related cancers, considering latency patterns, host immune status, and factors like human leukocyte antigen (HLA) susceptibility, which may affect immune outcomes. We discuss EBV-induced TAA-specific T cell responses and explore the potential roles of EBV-specific T cell subsets in tumor microenvironments. We also describe T-cell immunotherapy strategies that harness EBV antigens, ranging from EBV-specific T cells to T cell receptor-engineered T cells. Lastly, we discuss the involvement of γδ T-cells in EBV infection and associated diseases, aiming to elucidate the comprehensive interplay between EBV and T-cell immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Miao Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Diagnosis and Therapy, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center (SYSUCC), Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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7
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Wang Y, Rong Y, Yang L, Lu Z. Genetic variability and mutation of Epstein‒Barr virus (EBV)-encoded LMP-1 and BHRF-1 genes in EBV-infected patients: identification of precise targets for development of personalized EBV vaccines. Virus Genes 2023; 59:541-553. [PMID: 37243920 PMCID: PMC10220333 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-023-02006-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The critical Epstein‒Barr virus (EBV)-encoded latent membrane protein 1 (LMP-1) and BamHI fragment H rightward open reading frame 1 (BHRF-1) genes affect EBV-mediated malignant transformation and virus replication during EBV infection. Therefore, these two genes are considered ideal targets for EBV vaccine development. However, gene mutations in LMP-1 and BHRF-1 in different cohorts may affect the biological functions of EBV, which would seriously hinder development of personalized vaccines for EBV. In the present study, by performing nested polymerase chain reaction (nested PCR) and DNA sequence techniques, we analyzed the nucleotide variability and phylogeny of LMP-1 containing a 30 bp deletion region (del-LMP-1) and BHRF-1 in EBV-infected patients (N = 382) and healthy persons receiving physical examination (N = 98; defined as the control group) in Yunnan Province, China. Three BHRF-1 subtypes were identified in this study: 79V88V, 79L88L, and 79V88L, with mutation frequencies of 58.59%, 24.24%, and 17.17%, respectively. Compared with the control group, the distribution of BHRF-1 subtypes of the three groups showed no significant difference, suggesting that BHRF-1 is highly conserved in EBV-related samples. In addition, a short fragment of del-LMP-1 was found in 133 cases, and the nucleotide variation rate was 87.50% (133/152). For del-LMP-1, a significant distribution in three groups was detected, as characterized by a high mutation rate. In conclusion, our study illustrates gene variability and mutations of EBV-encoded del-LMP-1 and BHRF-1 in clinical samples. Highly mutated LMP-1 might be associated with various types of EBV-related diseases, indicating that BHRF-1 combined with LMP-1 may be used as an ideal target for development of EBV personalized vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Wang
- Forensic Center of Justice, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yuan Rong
- Forensic Center of Justice, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Lijuan Yang
- Central Lab of the 2Nd, Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650101 Yunnan China
| | - Zhiyan Lu
- Forensic Center of Justice, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
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8
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Tan H, Gong Y, Liu Y, Long J, Luo Q, Faleti OD, Lyu X. Advancing therapeutic strategies for Epstein-Barr virus-associated malignancies through lytic reactivation. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 164:114916. [PMID: 37229802 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a widespread human herpes virus associated with lymphomas and epithelial cell cancers. It establishes two separate infection phases, latent and lytic, in the host. Upon infection of a new host cell, the virus activates several pathways, to induce the expression of lytic EBV antigens and the production of infectious virus particles. Although the carcinogenic role of latent EBV infection has been established, recent research suggests that lytic reactivation also plays a significant role in carcinogenesis. In this review, we summarize the mechanism of EBV reactivation and recent findings about the role of viral lytic antigens in tumor formation. In addition, we discuss the treatment of EBV-associated tumors with lytic activators and the targets that may be therapeutically effective in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiqi Tan
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, China; The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Yibing Gong
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, China; The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Yi Liu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, China; The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Jingyi Long
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, China; The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Qingshuang Luo
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, China; The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Oluwasijibomi Damola Faleti
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, China; The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, China; Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, 999000, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China
| | - Xiaoming Lyu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, China; The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, China.
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Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is the first identified human oncogenic virus that can establish asymptomatic life-long persistence. It is associated with a large spectrum of diseases, including benign diseases, a number of lymphoid malignancies, and epithelial cancers. EBV can also transform quiescent B lymphocytes into lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs) in vitro. Although EBV molecular biology and EBV-related diseases have been continuously investigated for nearly 60 years, the mechanism of viral-mediated transformation, as well as the precise role of EBV in promoting these diseases, remain a major challenge yet to be completely explored. This review will highlight the history of EBV and current advances in EBV-associated diseases, focusing on how this virus provides a paradigm for exploiting the many insights identified through interplay between EBV and its host during oncogenesis, and other related non-malignant disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Yu
- Department of Hematology, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Jiangsu Province Hospital of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210029, China
- Departments of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, and Microbiology, The Tumor Virology Program, Abramson Cancer Center, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Erle S. Robertson
- Departments of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, and Microbiology, The Tumor Virology Program, Abramson Cancer Center, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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10
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Ross AM, Leahy CI, Neylon F, Steigerova J, Flodr P, Navratilova M, Urbankova H, Vrzalikova K, Mundo L, Lazzi S, Leoncini L, Pugh M, Murray PG. Epstein-Barr Virus and the Pathogenesis of Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma. Life (Basel) 2023; 13. [PMID: 36836878 DOI: 10.3390/life13020521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), defined as a group I carcinogen by the World Health Organization (WHO), is present in the tumour cells of patients with different forms of B-cell lymphoma, including Burkitt lymphoma, Hodgkin lymphoma, post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders, and, most recently, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL). Understanding how EBV contributes to the development of these different types of B-cell lymphoma has not only provided fundamental insights into the underlying mechanisms of viral oncogenesis, but has also highlighted potential new therapeutic opportunities. In this review, we describe the effects of EBV infection in normal B-cells and we address the germinal centre model of infection and how this can lead to lymphoma in some instances. We then explore the recent reclassification of EBV+ DLBCL as an established entity in the WHO fifth edition and ICC 2022 classifications, emphasising the unique nature of this entity. To that end, we also explore the unique genetic background of this entity and briefly discuss the potential role of the tumour microenvironment in lymphomagenesis and disease progression. Despite the recent progress in elucidating the mechanisms of this malignancy, much work remains to be done to improve patient stratification, treatment strategies, and outcomes.
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López C, Burkhardt B, Chan JKC, Leoncini L, Mbulaiteye SM, Ogwang MD, Orem J, Rochford R, Roschewski M, Siebert R. Burkitt lymphoma. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2022; 8:78. [PMID: 36522349 DOI: 10.1038/s41572-022-00404-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Burkitt lymphoma (BL) is an aggressive form of B cell lymphoma that can affect children and adults. The study of BL led to the identification of the first recurrent chromosomal aberration in lymphoma, t(8;14)(q24;q32), and subsequent discovery of the central role of MYC and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) in tumorigenesis. Most patients with BL are cured with chemotherapy but those with relapsed or refractory disease usually die of lymphoma. Historically, endemic BL, non-endemic sporadic BL and the immunodeficiency-associated BL have been recognized, but differentiation of these epidemiological variants is confounded by the frequency of EBV positivity. Subtyping into EBV+ and EBV- BL might better describe the biological heterogeneity of the disease. Phenotypically resembling germinal centre B cells, all types of BL are characterized by dysregulation of MYC due to enhancer activation via juxtaposition with one of the three immunoglobulin loci. Additional molecular changes commonly affect B cell receptor and sphingosine-1-phosphate signalling, proliferation, survival and SWI-SNF chromatin remodelling. BL is diagnosed on the basis of morphology and high expression of MYC. BL can be effectively treated in children and adolescents with short durations of high dose-intensity multiagent chemotherapy regimens. Adults are more susceptible to toxic effects but are effectively treated with chemotherapy, including modified versions of paediatric regimens. The outcomes in patients with BL are good in high-income countries with low mortality and few late effects, but in low-income and middle-income countries, BL is diagnosed late and is usually treated with less-effective regimens affecting the overall good outcomes in patients with this lymphoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina López
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Human Genetics, Ulm University and Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | - Birgit Burkhardt
- Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster (NHL-BFM) Study Center and Paediatric Hematology, Oncology and BMT, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - John K C Chan
- Department of Pathology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Lorenzo Leoncini
- Section of Pathology, Department of Medical Biotechnology, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Sam M Mbulaiteye
- Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, US Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Rosemary Rochford
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Mark Roschewski
- Lymphoid Malignancies Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Reiner Siebert
- Institute of Human Genetics, Ulm University and Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany.
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12
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Yap LF, Wong AKC, Paterson IC, Young LS. Functional Implications of Epstein-Barr Virus Lytic Genes in Carcinogenesis. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14. [PMID: 36497262 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14235780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is associated with a diverse range of tumors of both lymphoid and epithelial origin. Similar to other herpesviruses, EBV displays a bipartite life cycle consisting of latent and lytic phases. Current dogma indicates that the latent genes are key drivers in the pathogenesis of EBV-associated cancers, while the lytic genes are primarily responsible for viral transmission. In recent years, evidence has emerged to show that the EBV lytic phase also plays an important role in EBV tumorigenesis, and the expression of EBV lytic genes is frequently detected in tumor tissues and cell lines. The advent of next generation sequencing has allowed the comprehensive profiling of EBV gene expression, and this has revealed the consistent expression of several lytic genes across various types of EBV-associated cancers. In this review, we provide an overview of the functional implications of EBV lytic gene expression to the oncogenic process and discuss possible avenues for future investigations.
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13
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Wyżewski Z, Mielcarska MB, Gregorczyk-Zboroch KP, Myszka A. Virus-Mediated Inhibition of Apoptosis in the Context of EBV-Associated Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Perspectives. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23137265. [PMID: 35806271 PMCID: PMC9266970 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23137265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 06/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), the representative of the Herpesviridae family, is a pathogen extensively distributed in the human population. One of its most characteristic features is the capability to establish latent infection in the host. The infected cells serve as a sanctuary for the dormant virus, and therefore their desensitization to apoptotic stimuli is part of the viral strategy for long-term survival. For this reason, EBV encodes a set of anti-apoptotic products. They may increase the viability of infected cells and enhance their resistance to chemotherapy, thereby contributing to the development of EBV-associated diseases, including Burkitt’s lymphoma (BL), Hodgkin’s lymphoma (HL), gastric cancer (GC), nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) and several other malignancies. In this paper, we have described the molecular mechanism of anti-apoptotic actions of a set of EBV proteins. Moreover, we have reviewed the pro-survival role of non-coding viral transcripts: EBV-encoded small RNAs (EBERs) and microRNAs (miRNAs), in EBV-carrying malignant cells. The influence of EBV on the expression, activity and/or intracellular distribution of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) protein family members, has been presented. Finally, we have also discussed therapeutic perspectives of targeting viral anti-apoptotic products or their molecular partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zbigniew Wyżewski
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University, Dewajtis 5, 01-815 Warsaw, Poland;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-728-208-338
| | - Matylda Barbara Mielcarska
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland; (M.B.M.); (K.P.G.-Z.)
| | | | - Anna Myszka
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University, Dewajtis 5, 01-815 Warsaw, Poland;
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14
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Zaremba AA, Zaremba PY, Platonov MO. De novo designed EBAI as a potential inhibitor of the viral protein BHRF1. Research in silico. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2022; 41:3680-3685. [PMID: 35315740 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2022.2053746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus is a DNA-containing virus that, according to current data, is associated with approximately 1% of all cancers in the world. This viral effect on the human body is associated with its pronounced antiapoptotic activity. An important role in this process is played by the protein BHRF1, which is a structural and functional homologue of antiapoptotic proteins of the BCL-2 family. In this study, we investigate the selective low molecular weight inhibitor of the above viral protein - EBAI (Epstein-Barr virus Antiapoptotic Inhibitor), which we designed using in silico methods. We conducted two parallel simulation experiments where EBAI was intentionally destabilized to demonstrate its high-affinity recognition potential of the BHRF1 pocket, which binds BH3.Thus, although the potential inhibitor was in close proximity to the site of interaction, it contacted it only through orientation interactions (hydrogen and Coulomb interactions). Despite this complication of the standard ligand-receptor complex simulation procedure, we demonstrated in two parallel computational experiments the high affinity of EBAI for the BH3-binding pocket of BHRF1. In both cases, in the first nanoseconds of modeling, our inhibitor underwent the necessary conformational rearrangements and formed all the required interactions for effective complexation. Thus, further in vitro studies are logical and necessary step to fully evaluate the potential of EBAI as an inhibitor of the antiapoptotic protein BHRF1 of Epstein-Barr virus.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrii A. Zaremba
- Zabolotny Institute of Microbiology and Virology of NASU, Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Polina Y. Zaremba
- Zabolotny Institute of Microbiology and Virology of NASU, Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Maxim O. Platonov
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine
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15
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Farrell PJ, White RE. Do Epstein–Barr Virus Mutations and Natural Genome Sequence Variations Contribute to Disease? Biomolecules 2022; 12:17. [PMID: 35053165 PMCID: PMC8774192 DOI: 10.3390/biom12010017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Most of the world’s population is infected by the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), but the incidence of the diseases associated with EBV infection differs greatly in different parts of the world. Many factors may determine those differences, but variation in the virus genome is likely to be a contributing factor for some of the diseases. Here, we describe the main forms of EBV genome sequence variation, and the mechanisms by which variations in the virus genome are likely to contribute to disease. EBV genome deletions or polymorphisms can also provide useful markers for monitoring disease. If some EBV strains prove to be more pathogenic than others, this suggests the possible value of immunising people against infection by those pathogenic strains.
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16
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Notarte KI, Senanayake S, Macaranas I, Albano PM, Mundo L, Fennell E, Leoncini L, Murray P. MicroRNA and Other Non-Coding RNAs in Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Cancers. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:3909. [PMID: 34359809 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13153909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
EBV is a direct causative agent in around 1.5% of all cancers. The oncogenic properties of EBV are related to its ability to activate processes needed for cellular proliferation, survival, migration, and immune evasion. The EBV latency program is required for the immortalization of infected B cells and involves the expression of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including viral microRNAs. These ncRNAs have different functions that contribute to virus persistence in the asymptomatic host and to the development of EBV-associated cancers. In this review, we discuss the function and potential clinical utility of EBV microRNAs and other ncRNAs in EBV-associated malignancies. This review is not intended to be comprehensive, but rather to provide examples of the importance of ncRNAs.
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Manivannan AC, Devaraju V, Velmurugan P, Sathiamoorthi T, Sivakumar S, Subbiah SK, Ravi AV. Tumorigenesis and diagnostic practice applied in two oncogenic viruses: Epstein Barr virus and T-cell lymphotropic virus-1-Mini review. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 142:111974. [PMID: 34343895 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2021.111974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
To date, seven viruses have been reliably connected to various forms of human cancer: Epstein Barr Virus (EBV), Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), high-risk Human papillomavirus (HPV), Merkel Cell Polyomavirus (MCPV), Hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV1). This mini-review summarizes two of these viruses, EPV and HTLV-1, in terms of their general pathway of infection, the key mechanism of cancer induction, and the prominent technologies used to detect the infections. EBV is the first discovered human oncovirus and HTLV - I is the first human retrovirus and both were discovered from patient with distinct lymphoma clinical condition. Both the viruses can immortalize lymphocytes invitro and lymphomas are common manifestation of majority oncogenic viruses. Lymphomagenesis are discovered in associated with EBV, HTLV-I, Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Kaposi sarcoma - associated herpes virus and hepatitis c virus. Later the undefined mechanism behind the induction of cancer by these viruses was unveiled gradually along with the responsible cofactors and mimicry mechanism. These two viruses contrast in their genetic structure, location of the infection, and latency, yet clinically, they generate similar cancer disorders. The major focus of this study is to brief the mechanism of these two unrelated viral cancer promoting agents on how they simulate a condition similar to lymphoma which may or may not undergo mimicry and cofactor utilization process, handpicked and vital genes behind the transformation mechanism are given accordingly.
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Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infects most people worldwide and persists for life due to complicated interplay between lytic infection and multiple types of latent infections. While usually asymptomatic, EBV is a causative agent in several types of cancer and has a strong association with multiple sclerosis. Exactly how EBV promotes these diseases and why they are rare consequences of infection are incompletely understood. Here I will discuss current ideas on disease induction by EBV, including the importance of lytic protein expression in the context of latent infection as well as the possible importance of specific EBV variants in disease induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori Frappier
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, 661 University Ave, Suite 1600, Toronto, ON, M5G 1M1, Canada.
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19
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Sinclair AJ. Could Changing the DNA Methylation Landscape Promote the Destruction of Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Cancers? Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:695093. [PMID: 34123880 PMCID: PMC8194487 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.695093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
DNA methylation at CpG motifs provides an epigenetic route to regulate gene expression. In general, an inverse correlation between DNA hypermethylation at CpG motifs and gene expression is observed. Epstein Barr-virus (EBV) infects people and the EBV genome resides in the nucleus where either its replication cycle initiates or it enters a long-term latency state where the viral genome becomes hypermethylated at CpG motifs. Viral gene expression shows a largely inverse correlation with DNA hypermethylation. DNA methylation occurs through the action of DNA methyl transferase enzymes: writer DNA methyl transferases add methyl groups to specific regions of unmethylated DNA; maintenance DNA methyl transferases reproduce the pattern of DNA methylation during genome replication. The impact of DNA methylation is achieved through the association of various proteins specifically with methylated DNA and their influence on gene regulation. DNA methylation can be changed through altering DNA methyl transferase activity or through the action of enzymes that further modify methylated CpG motifs. Azacytidine prodrugs that are incorporated into CpG motifs during DNA replication are recognized by DNA methyl transferases and block their function resulting in hypomethylation of DNA. EBV-associated cancers have hypermethylated viral genomes and many carcinomas also have highly hypermethylated cellular genomes. Decitabine, a member of the azacytidine prodrug family, reactivates viral gene expression and promotes the recognition of lymphoma cells by virus-specific cytotoxic T-cells. For EBV-associated cancers, the impact of decitabine on the cellular genome and the prospect of combining decitabine with other therapeutic approaches is currently unknown but exciting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison J Sinclair
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
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20
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Lee LA, Fang TJ, Li HY, Chuang HH, Kang CJ, Chang KP, Liao CT, Chen TC, Huang CG, Yen TC. Effects of Epstein-Barr Virus Infection on the Risk and Prognosis of Primary Laryngeal Squamous Cell Carcinoma: A Hospital-Based Case-Control Study in Taiwan. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:1741. [PMID: 33917480 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13071741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Mounting molecular evidence supports Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) involvement in the pathogenesis of laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC); however, the epidemiological data are inconsistent. In this retrospective case-control study, we aimed to determine whether EBV infection underlies the risk and prognosis of LSCC. The prevalence of EBV infection, as analyzed using an EBV DNA polymerase chain reaction assay, was significantly higher in 42 Taiwanese patients with newly diagnosed primary LSCC, compared to 39 age- and sex-matched control patients without cancer (48% vs. 19%). Furthermore, most of the EBER signals detected using in situ hybridization were localized to the nuclei of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes. In multivariate analysis, EBV DNA positivity, age ≥ 55 years, cigarette smoking, and high BCL-2, B2M, and CD161 expression (assessed using immunohistochemistry) were identified as independent risk factors for LSCC. Furthermore, five-year local recurrence and disease-free survival rates were 34% and 58%, respectively, with a high EBER signal and low CD3 expression independently predicting five-year local recurrence and disease-free survival. Our comprehensive profiling data accurately identified patients at risk for LSCC development, local recurrence, or disease-free survival. The information obtained in this study improves our understanding of EBV infection in LSCC, and may guide precision medicine for patients with LSCC.
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Mabuchi S, Hijioka F, Watanabe T, Yanagi Y, Okuno Y, Masud HMAA, Sato Y, Murata T, Kimura H. Role of Epstein-Barr Virus C Promoter Deletion in Diffuse Large B Cell Lymphoma. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:561. [PMID: 33535665 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13030561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The C promoter of Epstein–Barr virus is assumed to be important for B cell growth and transformation. However, we present evidence that promoter activity is not only unneeded for transformation but also that absence of the promoter increased the transformation activity of the virus. We found that the C promoter was lost in some Epstein–Barr virus-associated lymphoma specimens. Therefore, deletion of the promoter could partially account for the tumorigenesis of Epstein–Barr virus-associated lymphomas. Abstract The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is the cause of several malignancies, including diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL). We recently found that EBV genomes in EBV-positive cancer specimens have various deletions (Okuno et al. Nat Microbiol. 2019). Here, we focus on the deletion of C promoter (Cp), which transcribes EBV nuclear antigen (EBNA) genes in type III latency. The Cp deletion found in a DLBCL patient (332 bp) was introduced into EBV-BAC of the B95-8 strain. Interestingly, the dCp virus transformed B cells more efficiently than WT and revertant strains. Deletion of Cp also promoted tumor formation and severe pathogenicity in a mouse xenograft model. RNA sequencing and qRT–PCR analyses revealed that Cp transcription was undetectable in the dCp cells. Instead, transcription from the W promoter (Wp), an alternative promoter for EBNA, was activated in the dCp mutant. We also found that the expression of latent membrane protein 2A (LMP2A) was somehow induced in the dCp mutant. Double knockout of Cp and LMP2A indicated that LMP2A is crucial for B cell transformation, but the increased transformation induced by Cp deletion cannot be explained by LMP2A alone. We also tested the effect of an anti-apoptotic viral BCL2 homolog, BHRF1, because its expression was reportedly induced more efficiently by that of Wp. However, increased growth transformation via Cp deletion was not due to the BHRF1 gene. Taken together, the results indicated that deletion of a specific region in Cp increased in vitro transformation and the rate of progression of EBV-positive lymphoproliferative disorders in vivo. Our data suggest that genomic alteration not only of the host but also the virus promotes EBV-positive tumor generation and expansion, although the molecular mechanism underlying this phenomenon is still unclear. However, LMP2A and BHRF1 are not involved.
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Hutcheson RL, Chakravorty A, Sugden B. Burkitt Lymphomas Evolve to Escape Dependencies on Epstein-Barr Virus. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 10:606412. [PMID: 33505922 PMCID: PMC7829347 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.606412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) can transform B cells and contributes to the development of Burkitt lymphoma and other cancers. Through decades of study, we now recognize that many of the viral genes required to transform cells are not expressed in EBV-positive Burkitt lymphoma (BL) tumors, likely due to the immune pressure exerted on infected cells. This recognition has led to the hypothesis that the loss of expression of these viral genes must be compensated through some mechanisms. Recent progress in genome-wide mutational analysis of tumors provides a wealth of data about the cellular mutations found in EBV-positive BLs. Here, we review common cellular mutations found in these tumors and consider how they may compensate for the viral genes that are no longer expressed. Understanding these mutations and how they may substitute for EBV's genes and contribute to lymphomagenesis can serve as a launchpad for more mechanistic studies, which will help us navigate the sea of genomic data available today, and direct the discoveries necessary to improve the treatment of EBV-positive BLs.
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Rosemarie Q, Sugden B. Epstein-Barr Virus: How Its Lytic Phase Contributes to Oncogenesis. Microorganisms 2020; 8:E1824. [PMID: 33228078 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8111824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 11/14/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV) contributes to the development of lymphoid and epithelial malignancies. While EBV’s latent phase is more commonly associated with EBV-associated malignancies, there is increasing evidence that EBV’s lytic phase plays a role in EBV-mediated oncogenesis. The lytic phase contributes to oncogenesis primarily in two ways: (1) the production of infectious particles to infect more cells, and (2) the regulation of cellular oncogenic pathways, both cell autonomously and non-cell autonomously. The production of infectious particles requires the completion of the lytic phase. However, the regulation of cellular oncogenic pathways can be mediated by an incomplete (abortive) lytic phase, in which early lytic gene products contribute substantially, whereas late lytic products are largely dispensable. In this review, we discuss the evidence of EBV’s lytic phase contributing to oncogenesis and the role it plays in tumor formation and progression, as well as summarize known mechanisms by which EBV lytic products regulate oncogenic pathways. Understanding the contribution of EBV’s lytic phase to oncogenesis will help design ways to target it to treat EBV-associated malignancies.
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Telford M, Hughes DA, Juan D, Stoneking M, Navarro A, Santpere G. Expanding the Geographic Characterisation of Epstein-Barr Virus Variation through Gene-Based Approaches. Microorganisms 2020; 8:E1686. [PMID: 33138327 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8111686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) infects the vast majority of human individuals worldwide (~90%) and is associated with several diseases, including different types of cancer and multiple sclerosis, which show wide variation in incidence among global geographical regions. Genetic variants in EBV genomic sequences have been used to determine the geographical structure of EBV isolates, but our understanding of EBV diversity remains highly incomplete. We generated sequences for 13 pivotal EBV genes derived from 103 healthy individuals, expanding current EBV diversity datasets with respect to both geographic coverage and number of isolates per region. These newly generated sequences were integrated with the more than 250 published EBV genomes, generating the most geographically comprehensive data set of EBV strains to date. We report remarkable variation in single-gene phylogenies that, when analysed together, show robust signals of population structure. Our results not only confirm known major global patterns of geographic variation, such as the clear separation of Asian isolates from the rest, and the intermixed relationships among African, European and Australian isolates, but yield novel phylogenetic relationships with previously unreported populations. We provide a better understanding of EBV's population structure in South America, Africa and, by the inclusion of Turkey and Georgia, we also gain insight into EBV diversity in Western Asia, a crossroads connecting Europe, Africa and Asia. In summary, our results provide a detailed world-wide characterisation of EBV genetic clusters, their enrichment in specific geographic regions, novel inter-population relationships, and a catalogue of geographically informative EBV genetic variants.
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Gallo A, Bulati M, Miceli V, Amodio N, Conaldi PG. Non-Coding RNAs: Strategy for Viruses' Offensive. Noncoding RNA 2020; 6:ncrna6030038. [PMID: 32927786 PMCID: PMC7549346 DOI: 10.3390/ncrna6030038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The awareness of viruses as a constant threat for human public health is a matter of fact and in this resides the need of understanding the mechanisms they use to trick the host. Viral non-coding RNAs are gaining much value and interest for the potential impact played in host gene regulation, acting as fine tuners of host cellular defense mechanisms. The implicit importance of v-ncRNAs resides first in the limited genomes size of viruses carrying only strictly necessary genomic sequences. The other crucial and appealing characteristic of v-ncRNAs is the non-immunogenicity, making them the perfect expedient to be used in the never-ending virus-host war. In this review, we wish to examine how DNA and RNA viruses have evolved a common strategy and which the crucial host pathways are targeted through v-ncRNAs in order to grant and facilitate their life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Gallo
- Department of Research, IRCCS ISMETT (Istituto Mediterraneo per i Trapianti e Terapie ad alta specializzazione), Via E.Tricomi 5, 90127 Palermo, Italy; (M.B.); (V.M.); (P.G.C.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-91-21-92-649
| | - Matteo Bulati
- Department of Research, IRCCS ISMETT (Istituto Mediterraneo per i Trapianti e Terapie ad alta specializzazione), Via E.Tricomi 5, 90127 Palermo, Italy; (M.B.); (V.M.); (P.G.C.)
| | - Vitale Miceli
- Department of Research, IRCCS ISMETT (Istituto Mediterraneo per i Trapianti e Terapie ad alta specializzazione), Via E.Tricomi 5, 90127 Palermo, Italy; (M.B.); (V.M.); (P.G.C.)
| | - Nicola Amodio
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy;
| | - Pier Giulio Conaldi
- Department of Research, IRCCS ISMETT (Istituto Mediterraneo per i Trapianti e Terapie ad alta specializzazione), Via E.Tricomi 5, 90127 Palermo, Italy; (M.B.); (V.M.); (P.G.C.)
- UPMC Italy (University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Italy), Discesa dei Giudici 4, 90133 Palermo, Italy
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Yetming KD, Lupey-Green LN, Biryukov S, Hughes DJ, Marendy EM, Miranda JL, Sample JT. The BHLF1 Locus of Epstein-Barr Virus Contributes to Viral Latency and B-Cell Immortalization. J Virol 2020; 94:e01215-20. [PMID: 32581094 DOI: 10.1128/JVI.01215-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) BHLF1 gene encodes an abundant linear and several circular RNAs believed to perform noncoding functions during virus replication, although an open reading frame (ORF) is retained among an unknown percentage of EBV isolates. Evidence suggests that BHLF1 is also transcribed during latent infection, which prompted us to investigate the contribution of this locus to latency. Analysis of transcripts transiting BHLF1 revealed that its transcription is widespread among B-cell lines supporting the latency I or III program of EBV protein expression and is more complex than originally presumed. EBV-negative Burkitt lymphoma cell lines infected with either wild-type or two different BHLF1 mutant EBVs were initially indistinguishable in supporting latency III. However, cells infected with BHLF1 - virus ultimately transitioned to the more restrictive latency I program, whereas cells infected with wild-type virus either sustained latency III or transitioned more slowly to latency I. Upon infection of primary B cells, which require latency III for growth in vitro, both BHLF1 - viruses exhibited variably reduced immortalization potential relative to the wild-type virus. Finally, in transfection experiments, efficient protein expression from an intact BHLF1 ORF required the EBV posttranscriptional regulator protein SM, whose expression is limited to the replicative cycle. Thus, one way in which BHLF1 may contribute to latency is through a mechanism, possibly mediated or regulated by a long noncoding RNA, that supports latency III critical for the establishment of EBV latency and lifelong persistence within its host, whereas any retained protein-dependent function of BHLF1 may be restricted to the replication cycle.IMPORTANCE Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) has significant oncogenic potential that is linked to its latent infection of B lymphocytes, during which virus replication is not supported. The establishment of latent infection, which is lifelong and can precede tumor development by years, requires the concerted actions of nearly a dozen EBV proteins and numerous small non-protein-coding RNAs. Elucidating how these EBV products contribute to latency is crucial for understanding EBV's role in specific malignancies and, ultimately, for clinical intervention. Historically, EBV genes that contribute to virus replication have been excluded from consideration of a role in latency, primarily because of the general incompatibility between virus production and cell survival. However, here, we provide evidence that the genetic locus containing one such gene, BHLF1, indeed contributes to key aspects of EBV latency, including its ability to promote the continuous growth of B lymphocytes, thus providing significant new insight into EBV biology and oncogenic potential.
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Fitzsimmons L, Cartlidge R, Chang C, Sejic N, Galbraith LCA, Suraweera CD, Croom-Carter D, Dewson G, Tierney RJ, Bell AI, Shannon-Lowe C, Herold MJ, Rickinson AB, Colman PM, Huang DCS, Strasser A, Kvansakul M, Rowe M, Kelly GL. EBV BCL-2 homologue BHRF1 drives chemoresistance and lymphomagenesis by inhibiting multiple cellular pro-apoptotic proteins. Cell Death Differ 2020; 27:1554-1568. [PMID: 31645677 PMCID: PMC7206097 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-019-0435-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), which is ubiquitous in the adult population, is causally associated with human malignancies. Like many infectious agents, EBV has evolved strategies to block host cell death, including through expression of viral homologues of cellular BCL-2 pro-survival proteins (vBCL-2s), such as BHRF1. Small molecule inhibitors of the cellular pro-survival BCL-2 family proteins, termed 'BH3-mimetics', have entered clinical trials for blood cancers with the BCL-2 inhibitor venetoclax already approved for treatment of therapy refractory chronic lymphocytic leukaemia and acute myeloid leukaemia in the elderly. The generation of BH3-mimetics that could specifically target vBCL-2 proteins may be an attractive therapeutic option for virus-associated cancers, since these drugs would be expected to only kill virally infected cells with only minimal side effects on normal healthy tissues. To achieve this, a better understanding of the contribution of vBCL-2 proteins to tumorigenesis and insights into their biochemical functions is needed. In the context of Burkitt lymphoma (BL), BHRF1 expression conferred strong resistance to diverse apoptotic stimuli. Furthermore, BHRF1 expression in mouse haematopoietic stem and progenitor cells accelerated MYC-induced lymphoma development in a model of BL. BHRF1 interacts with the cellular pro-apoptotic BCL-2 proteins, BIM, BID, PUMA and BAK, but its capability to inhibit apoptosis could not be mapped solely to one of these interactions, suggesting plasticity is a key feature of BHRF1. Site-directed mutagenesis revealed a site in BHRF1 that was critical for its interaction with PUMA and blocking DNA-damage-induced apoptosis, identifying a potentially therapeutically targetable vulnerability in BHRF1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah Fitzsimmons
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK.
| | - Rachel Cartlidge
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Catherine Chang
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute for Medical Research, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Nenad Sejic
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute for Medical Research, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
- Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Laura C A Galbraith
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Glasgow, G61 1BD, UK
- Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G61 1QH, UK
| | - Chathura D Suraweera
- La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, 3086, Australia
| | - Deborah Croom-Carter
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Grant Dewson
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute for Medical Research, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Rosemary J Tierney
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Andrew I Bell
- Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Clare Shannon-Lowe
- Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Marco J Herold
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute for Medical Research, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Alan B Rickinson
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Peter M Colman
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute for Medical Research, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - David C S Huang
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute for Medical Research, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Andreas Strasser
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute for Medical Research, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Marc Kvansakul
- La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, 3086, Australia
| | - Martin Rowe
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Gemma L Kelly
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute for Medical Research, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia.
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia.
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Bridges R, Correia S, Wegner F, Venturini C, Palser A, White RE, Kellam P, Breuer J, Farrell PJ. Essential role of inverted repeat in Epstein-Barr virus IR-1 in B cell transformation; geographical variation of the viral genome. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 374:20180299. [PMID: 30955492 PMCID: PMC6501908 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2018.0299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Many regions of the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) genome, repeated and unique sequences, contribute to the geographical variation observed between strains. Here we use a large alignment of curated EBV genome sequences to identify major sites of variation in the genome of type 1 EBV strains; the CAO deletion in latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) is the most frequent major indel present in the unique regions of EBV strains from various parts of the world. Principal component analysis was used to identify patterns of sequence variation and nucleotide positions in the sequences that can distinguish EBV from some different geographical regions. Viral genome sequence variation also affects interpretation of genetic content; known genes, origins of replication and gene expression control regions explain most of the viral genome but there are still a few sections of unknown function. One of these EBV genome regions contains a large inverted repeat sequence (invR) within the IR-1 major internal repeat array. We deleted this invR sequence and showed that this abolished the ability of the virus to transform human B cells into lymphoblastoid cell lines. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Silent cancer agents: multi-disciplinary modelling of human DNA oncoviruses’.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ray Bridges
- 1 Section of Virology, Faculty of Medicine , Imperial College London, London W2 1PG , UK
| | - Samantha Correia
- 1 Section of Virology, Faculty of Medicine , Imperial College London, London W2 1PG , UK
| | - Fanny Wegner
- 2 Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London , Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT , UK
| | - Cristina Venturini
- 2 Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London , Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT , UK
| | - Anne Palser
- 3 Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute , Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SJ , UK
| | - Robert E White
- 1 Section of Virology, Faculty of Medicine , Imperial College London, London W2 1PG , UK
| | - Paul Kellam
- 1 Section of Virology, Faculty of Medicine , Imperial College London, London W2 1PG , UK.,3 Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute , Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SJ , UK
| | - Judith Breuer
- 2 Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London , Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT , UK
| | - Paul J Farrell
- 1 Section of Virology, Faculty of Medicine , Imperial College London, London W2 1PG , UK
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29
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Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infects most people and establishes life-long infection controlled by the host's immune system. The genetic stability of the virus, deep understanding of the viral antigens and immune epitopes recognized by the host's T-cell system and the fact that recent infection can be identified by the development of symptomatic infectious mononucleosis makes EBV a powerful system in which to study human immunology. The association between EBV and multiple cancers also means that the lessons learned have strong translational potential. Increasing evidence of a role for resident memory T-cells and non-conventional γδ T-cells in controlling EBV infection suggests new opportunities for research and means the virus will continue to provide exciting new insights into human biology and immunology into the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather M Long
- Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin J Meckiff
- Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Graham S Taylor
- Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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30
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Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a gamma-1 herpesvirus, is carried as a life-long asymptomatic infection by the great majority of individuals in all human populations. Yet this seemingly innocent virus is aetiologically linked to two pre-malignant lymphoproliferative diseases (LPDs) and up to nine distinct human tumors; collectively these have a huge global impact, being responsible for some 200,000 new cases of cancer arising worldwide each year. EBV replicates in oral epithelium but persists as a latent infection within the B cell system and several of its diseases are indeed of B cell origin; these include B-LPD of the immunocompromised, Hodgkin Lymphoma (HL), Burkitt Lymphoma (BL), Diffuse Large B cell Lymphoma (DLBCL) and two rarer tumors associated with profound immune impairment, plasmablastic lymphoma (PBL) and primary effusion lymphoma (PEL). Surprisingly, the virus is also linked to tumors arising in other cellular niches which, rather than being essential reservoirs of virus persistence in vivo, appear to represent rare cul-de-sacs of latent infection. These non-B cell tumors include LPDs and malignant lymphomas of T or NK cells, nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) and gastric carcinoma of epithelial origin, and leiomyosarcoma, a rare smooth muscle cell tumor of the immunocompromised. Here we describe the main characteristics of these tumors, their distinct epidemiologies, histological features and degrees of EBV association, then consider how their different patterns of EBV latency may reflect the alternative latency programmes through which the virus first colonizes and then persists in immunocompetent host. For each tumor, we discuss current understanding of EBV's role in the oncogenic process, the identity (where known) of host genetic and environmental factors predisposing tumor development, and the recent evidence from cancer genomics identifying somatic changes that either complement or in some cases replace the contribution of the virus. Thereafter we look for possible connections between the pathogenesis of these apparently different malignancies and point to new research areas where insights may be gained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Shannon-Lowe
- Institute for Immunology and Immunotherapy, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Alan Rickinson
- Institute for Immunology and Immunotherapy, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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31
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Nakhoul H, Lin Z, Wang X, Roberts C, Dong Y, Flemington E. High-Throughput Sequence Analysis of Peripheral T-Cell Lymphomas Indicates Subtype-Specific Viral Gene Expression Patterns and Immune Cell Microenvironments. mSphere 2019; 4:e00248-19. [PMID: 31292228 PMCID: PMC6620372 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00248-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Certain peripheral T-cell lymphomas (PTCLs) have been associated with viral infection, particularly infection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). However, a comprehensive virome analysis across PTCLs has not previously been reported. Here we utilized published whole-transcriptome RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data sets from seven different PTCL studies and new RNA-seq data from our laboratory to screen for virus association, to analyze viral gene expression, and to assess B- and T-cell receptor diversity paradigms across PTCL subtypes. In addition to identifying EBV in angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma (AITL) and extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma (ENKTL), two PTCL subtypes with well-established EBV associations, we also detected EBV in several cases of anaplastic large-cell lymphoma (ALCL), and we found evidence of infection by the oncogenic viruses Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 in isolated PTCL cases. In AITLs, EBV gene expression analysis showed expression of immediate early, early, and late lytic genes, suggesting either low-level lytic gene expression or productive infection in a subset of EBV-infected B-lymphocyte stromal cells. Deconvolution of immune cell subpopulations demonstrated a greater B-cell signal in AITLs than in other PTCL subtypes, consistent with a larger role for B-cell support in the pathogenesis of AITL. Reconstructed T-cell receptor (TCR) and B-cell receptor (BCR) repertoires demonstrated increased BCR diversity in AITLs, consistent with a possible EBV-driven polyclonal response. These findings indicate potential alternative roles for EBV in PTCLs, in addition to the canonical oncogenic mechanisms associated with EBV latent infection. Our findings also suggest the involvement of other viruses in PTCL pathogenesis and demonstrate immunological alterations associated with these cancers.IMPORTANCE In this study, we utilized next-generation sequencing data from 7 different studies of peripheral T-cell lymphoma (PTCL) patient samples to globally assess viral associations, provide insights into the contributions of EBV gene expression to the tumor phenotype, and assess the unique roles of EBV in modulating the immune cell tumor microenvironment. These studies revealed potential roles for EBV replication genes in some PTCL subtypes, the possible role of additional human tumor viruses in rare cases of PTCLs, and a role for EBV in providing a unique immune microenvironmental niche in one subtype of PTCLs. Together, these studies provide new insights into the understudied role of tumor viruses in PTCLs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hani Nakhoul
- Department of Pathology, Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Zhen Lin
- Department of Pathology, Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Xia Wang
- Department of Pathology, Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Claire Roberts
- Department of Pathology, Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Yan Dong
- Department of Structural and Cellular Biology, Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Erik Flemington
- Department of Pathology, Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
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Jangra S, Yuen KS, Botelho MG, Jin DY. Epstein-Barr Virus and Innate Immunity: Friends or Foes? Microorganisms 2019; 7:E183. [PMID: 31238570 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7060183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Revised: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 06/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) successfully persists in the vast majority of adults but causes lymphoid and epithelial malignancies in a small fraction of latently infected individuals. Innate immunity is the first-line antiviral defense, which EBV has to evade in favor of its own replication and infection. EBV uses multiple strategies to perturb innate immune signaling pathways activated by Toll-like, RIG-I-like, NOD-like, and AIM2-like receptors as well as cyclic GMP-AMP synthase. EBV also counteracts interferon production and signaling, including TBK1-IRF3 and JAK-STAT pathways. However, activation of innate immunity also triggers pro-inflammatory response and proteolytic cleavage of caspases, both of which exhibit proviral activity under some circumstances. Pathogenic inflammation also contributes to EBV oncogenesis. EBV activates NFκB signaling and induces pro-inflammatory cytokines. Through differential modulation of the proviral and antiviral roles of caspases and other host factors at different stages of infection, EBV usurps cellular programs for death and inflammation to its own benefits. The outcome of EBV infection is governed by a delicate interplay between innate immunity and EBV. A better understanding of this interplay will instruct prevention and intervention of EBV-associated cancers.
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Dasari V, Sinha D, Neller MA, Smith C, Khanna R. Prophylactic and therapeutic strategies for Epstein-Barr virus-associated diseases: emerging strategies for clinical development. Expert Rev Vaccines 2019; 18:457-474. [PMID: 30987475 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2019.1605906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infects more than 95% of the world's population and is associated with infectious mononucleosis as well as a number of cancers in various geographical locations. Despite its significant health burden, no licenced prophylactic or therapeutic vaccines are available. Areas covered: Over the last two decades, our understanding of the role of EBV infection in the pathogenesis and immune regulation of EBV-associated diseases has provided new lines of research to conceptualize various novel prophylactic and therapeutic approaches to control EBV-associated disease. In this review, we evaluate the prophylactic and therapeutic vaccine approaches against EBV and various immunotherapeutic strategies against a number of EBV-associated malignancies. This review also describes the existing and future prospects of improved EBV-targeted therapeutic strategies. Expert opinion: It is anticipated that these emerging strategies will provide answers for the major challenges in EBV vaccine development and help improve the efficacy of novel therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijayendra Dasari
- a QIMR Berghofer Centre for Immunotherapy and Vaccine Development and Tumour Immunology Laboratory, Department of Immunology , QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute , Brisbane , Australia
| | - Debottam Sinha
- a QIMR Berghofer Centre for Immunotherapy and Vaccine Development and Tumour Immunology Laboratory, Department of Immunology , QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute , Brisbane , Australia
| | - Michelle A Neller
- a QIMR Berghofer Centre for Immunotherapy and Vaccine Development and Tumour Immunology Laboratory, Department of Immunology , QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute , Brisbane , Australia
| | - Corey Smith
- a QIMR Berghofer Centre for Immunotherapy and Vaccine Development and Tumour Immunology Laboratory, Department of Immunology , QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute , Brisbane , Australia
| | - Rajiv Khanna
- a QIMR Berghofer Centre for Immunotherapy and Vaccine Development and Tumour Immunology Laboratory, Department of Immunology , QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute , Brisbane , Australia
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34
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Abstract
Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) contributes to about 1.5% of all cases of human cancer worldwide, and viral genes are expressed in the malignant cells. EBV also very efficiently causes the proliferation of infected human B lymphocytes. The functions of the viral proteins and small RNAs that may contribute to EBV-associated cancers are becoming increasingly clear, and a broader understanding of the sequence variation of the virus genome has helped to interpret their roles. The improved understanding of the mechanisms of these cancers means that there are great opportunities for the early diagnosis of treatable stages of EBV-associated cancers and the use of immunotherapy to target EBV-infected cells or overcome immune evasion. There is also scope for preventing disease by immunization and for developing therapeutic agents that target the EBV gene products expressed in the cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J. Farrell
- Section of Virology, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, London W2 1PG, United Kingdom
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35
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Tatfi M, Hermine O, Suarez F. Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)-Related Lymphoproliferative Disorders in Ataxia Telangiectasia: Does ATM Regulate EBV Life Cycle? Front Immunol 2019; 9:3060. [PMID: 30662441 PMCID: PMC6329310 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.03060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is an ubiquitous herpesvirus with a tropism for epithelial cells (where lytic replication occurs) and B-cells (where latency is maintained). EBV persists throughout life and chronic infection is asymptomatic in most individuals. However, immunocompromised patients may be unable to control EBV infection and are at increased risk of EBV-related malignancies, such as diffuse large B-cell lymphomas or Hodgkin's lymphomas. Ataxia telangiectasia (AT) is a primary immunodeficiency caused by mutations in the ATM gene and associated with an increased incidence of cancers, particularly EBV-associated lymphomas. However, the immune deficiency present in AT patients is often too modest to explain the increased incidence of EBV-related malignancies. The ATM defect in these patients could therefore impair the normal regulation of EBV latency in B-cells, thus promoting lymphomagenesis. This suggests that ATM plays a role in the normal regulation of EBV latency. ATM is a serine/threonine kinase involved in multiple cell functions such as DNA damage repair, cell cycle regulation, oxidative stress, and gene expression. ATM is implicated in the lytic cycle of EBV, where EBV uses the activation of DNA damage repair pathway to promote its own replication. ATM regulates the latent cycle of the EBV-related herpesvirus KSHV and MHV68. However, the contribution of ATM in the control of the latent cycle of EBV is not yet known. A better understanding of the regulation of EBV latency could be harnessed in the conception of novel therapeutic strategies in AT and more generally in all ATM deficient EBV-related malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Felipe Suarez
- INSERM U1163/CNRS ERL8254 - Laboratory of cellular and molecular mechanisms of hematological disorders and therapeutic implications, IMAGINE Institute, Paris, France
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36
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Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is one of the most widespread human pathogens. EBV infection is usually asymptomatic, and it establishes life-long latent infection. EBV latent infection sometimes causes various tumorigenic diseases, such as EBV-related lymphoproliferative diseases, Burkitt lymphomas, Hodgkin lymphomas, NK/T-cell lymphomas, and epithelial carcinomas. EBV-encoded latent genes are set of viral genes that are expressed in latently infected cells. They include virally encoded proteins, noncoding RNAs, and microRNAs. Different latent gene expression patterns are noticed in different types of EBV-infected cells. Viral latent gene products contribute to EBV-mediated B cell transformation and likely contribute to lymphomagenesis and epithelial carcinogenesis as well. Many biological functions of viral latent gene products have been reported, making difficult to understand a whole view of EBV latency. In this review, we will focus on latent gene functions that have been verified by genetic experiments using EBV mutants. We will also summarize how viral latent genes contribute to EBV-mediated B cell transformation, Burkitt lymphomagenesis, and epithelial carcinogenesis.
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37
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Correia S, Bridges R, Wegner F, Venturini C, Palser A, Middeldorp JM, Cohen JI, Lorenzetti MA, Bassano I, White RE, Kellam P, Breuer J, Farrell PJ. Sequence Variation of Epstein-Barr Virus: Viral Types, Geography, Codon Usage, and Diseases. J Virol 2018; 92:e01132-18. [PMID: 30111570 DOI: 10.1128/JVI.01132-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 08/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus causes most cases of infectious mononucleosis and posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease. It contributes to several types of cancer, including Hodgkin's lymphoma, Burkitt's lymphoma, diffuse large B cell lymphoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, and gastric carcinoma. EBV genome variation is important because some of the diseases associated with EBV have very different incidences in different populations and geographic regions, and differences in the EBV genome might contribute to these diseases. Some specific EBV genome alterations that appear to be significant in EBV-associated cancers are already known, and current efforts to make an EBV vaccine and antiviral drugs should also take account of sequence differences in the proteins used as targets. One hundred thirty-eight new Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) genome sequences have been determined. One hundred twenty-five of these and 116 from previous reports were combined to produce a multiple-sequence alignment of 241 EBV genomes, which we have used to analyze variation within the viral genome. The type 1/type 2 classification of EBV remains the major form of variation and is defined mostly by EBNA2 and EBNA3, but the type 2 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at the EBNA3 locus extend into the adjacent gp350 and gp42 genes, whose products mediate infection of B cells by EBV. A small insertion within the BART microRNA region of the genome was present in 21 EBV strains. EBV from saliva of U.S. patients with chronic active EBV infection aligned with the wild-type EBV genome with no evidence of WZhet rearrangements. The V3 polymorphism in the Zp promoter for BZLF1 was found to be frequent in nasopharyngeal carcinoma cases from both Hong Kong and Indonesia. Codon usage was found to differ between latent and lytic cycle EBV genes, and the main forms of variation of the EBNA1 protein have been identified. IMPORTANCE Epstein-Barr virus causes most cases of infectious mononucleosis and posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease. It contributes to several types of cancer, including Hodgkin's lymphoma, Burkitt's lymphoma, diffuse large B cell lymphoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, and gastric carcinoma. EBV genome variation is important because some of the diseases associated with EBV have very different incidences in different populations and geographic regions, and differences in the EBV genome might contribute to these diseases. Some specific EBV genome alterations that appear to be significant in EBV-associated cancers are already known, and current efforts to make an EBV vaccine and antiviral drugs should also take account of sequence differences in the proteins used as targets.
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38
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Manners O, Murphy JC, Coleman A, Hughes DJ, Whitehouse A. Contribution of the KSHV and EBV lytic cycles to tumourigenesis. Curr Opin Virol 2018; 32:60-70. [PMID: 30268927 PMCID: PMC6259586 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2018.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Kaposi's Sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) and Epstein Barr virus (EBV) are the causative agents of several malignancies. Like all herpesviruses, KSHV and EBV undergo distinct latent and lytic replication programmes. The transition between these states allows the establishment of a lifelong persistent infection, dissemination to sites of disease and the spread to new hosts. Latency-associated viral proteins have been well characterised in transformation and tumourigenesis pathways; however, a number of studies have shown that abrogation of KSHV and EBV lytic gene expression impairs the oncogenesis of several cancers. Furthermore, several lytically expressed proteins have been functionally tethered to the angioproliferative and anti-apoptotic phenotypes of virus-infected cells. As a result, the investigation and therapeutic targeting of KSHV and EBV lytic cycles may be essential for the treatment of their associated malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Manners
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom; Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - James C Murphy
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom; Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - Alex Coleman
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom; Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - David J Hughes
- School of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Building, University of St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9AJ, United Kingdom
| | - Adrian Whitehouse
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom; Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom; Department of Biochemistry & Microbiology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, 6140, South Africa.
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39
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El-Sharkawy A, Al Zaidan L, Malki A. Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Malignancies: Roles of Viral Oncoproteins in Carcinogenesis. Front Oncol 2018; 8:265. [PMID: 30116721 PMCID: PMC6082928 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2018.00265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is the first herpesvirus identified to be associated with human cancers known to infect the majority of the world population. EBV-associated malignancies are associated with a latent form of infection, and several of the EBV-encoded latent proteins are known to mediate cellular transformation. These include six nuclear antigens and three latent membrane proteins (LMPs). In lymphoid and epithelial tumors, viral latent gene expressions have distinct pattern. In both primary and metastatic tumors, the constant expression of latent membrane protein 2A (LMP2A) at the RNA level suggests that this protein is the key player in the EBV-associated tumorigenesis. While LMP2A contributing to the malignant transformation possibly by cooperating with the aberrant host genome. This can be done in part by dysregulating signaling pathways at multiple points, notably in the cell cycle and apoptotic pathways. Recent studies also have confirmed that LMP1 and LMP2 contribute to carcinoma progression and that this may reflect the combined effects of these proteins on activation of multiple signaling pathways. This review article aims to investigate the aforementioned EBV-encoded proteins that reveal established roles in tumor formation, with a greater emphasis on the oncogenic LMPs (LMP1 and LMP2A) and their roles in dysregulating signaling pathways. It also aims to provide a quick look on the six members of the EBV nuclear antigens and their roles in dysregulating apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed El-Sharkawy
- Human Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Institute of Genetics and Biophysics "A. Buzzati-Traverso" (IGB)-CNR, Naples, Italy.,Biomolecular Science Programme, Università Degli Studi Della Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy
| | - Lobna Al Zaidan
- Biomedical Science Department, College of Health Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Ahmed Malki
- Biomedical Science Department, College of Health Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
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40
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Romero-Masters JC, Ohashi M, Djavadian R, Eichelberg MR, Hayes M, Bristol JA, Ma S, Ranheim EA, Gumperz J, Johannsen EC, Kenney SC. An EBNA3C-deleted Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) mutant causes B-cell lymphomas with delayed onset in a cord blood-humanized mouse model. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1007221. [PMID: 30125329 PMCID: PMC6117096 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Revised: 08/30/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
EBV causes human B-cell lymphomas and transforms B cells in vitro. EBNA3C, an EBV protein expressed in latently-infected cells, is required for EBV transformation of B cells in vitro. While EBNA3C undoubtedly plays a key role in allowing EBV to successfully infect B cells, many EBV+ lymphomas do not express this protein, suggesting that cellular mutations and/or signaling pathways may obviate the need for EBNA3C in vivo under certain conditions. EBNA3C collaborates with EBNA3A to repress expression of the CDKN2A-encoded tumor suppressors, p16 and p14, and EBNA3C-deleted EBV transforms B cells containing a p16 germline mutation in vitro. Here we have examined the phenotype of an EBNAC-deleted virus (Δ3C EBV) in a cord blood-humanized mouse model (CBH). We found that the Δ3C virus induced fewer lymphomas (occurring with a delayed onset) in comparison to the wild-type (WT) control virus, although a subset (10/26) of Δ3C-infected CBH mice eventually developed invasive diffuse large B cell lymphomas with type III latency. Both WT and Δ3C viruses induced B-cell lymphomas with restricted B-cell populations and heterogeneous T-cell infiltration. In comparison to WT-infected tumors, Δ3C-infected tumors had greatly increased p16 levels, and RNA-seq analysis revealed a decrease in E2F target gene expression. However, we found that Δ3C-infected tumors expressed c-Myc and cyclin E at similar levels compared to WT-infected tumors, allowing cells to at least partially bypass p16-mediated cell cycle inhibition. The anti-apoptotic proteins, BCL2 and IRF4, were expressed in Δ3C-infected tumors, likely helping cells avoid c-Myc-induced apoptosis. Unexpectedly, Δ3C-infected tumors had increased T-cell infiltration, increased expression of T-cell chemokines (CCL5, CCL20 and CCL22) and enhanced type I interferon response in comparison to WT tumors. Together, these results reveal that EBNA3C contributes to, but is not essential for, EBV-induced lymphomagenesis in CBH mice, and suggest potentially important immunologic roles of EBNA3C in vivo.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Transformation, Viral/genetics
- Cells, Cultured
- Disease Models, Animal
- Epstein-Barr Virus Infections/complications
- Epstein-Barr Virus Infections/genetics
- Epstein-Barr Virus Nuclear Antigens/genetics
- Fetal Blood/immunology
- HEK293 Cells
- Herpesvirus 4, Human/genetics
- Herpesvirus 4, Human/physiology
- Humans
- Lymphoma, B-Cell/immunology
- Lymphoma, B-Cell/pathology
- Lymphoma, B-Cell/virology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred NOD
- Mice, Transgenic
- Virus Latency/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- James C. Romero-Masters
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Makoto Ohashi
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Reza Djavadian
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Mark R. Eichelberg
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Mitch Hayes
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Jillian A. Bristol
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Shidong Ma
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Erik A. Ranheim
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Jenny Gumperz
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Eric C. Johannsen
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Shannon C. Kenney
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
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41
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Murata T. Encyclopedia of EBV-Encoded Lytic Genes: An Update. In: Kawaguchi Y, Mori Y, Kimura H, editors. Human Herpesviruses. Singapore: Springer; 2018. pp. 395-412. [DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-7230-7_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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42
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Li H, Hu J, Luo X, Bode AM, Dong Z, Cao Y. Therapies based on targeting Epstein-Barr virus lytic replication for EBV-associated malignancies. Cancer Sci 2018; 109:2101-2108. [PMID: 29751367 PMCID: PMC6029825 DOI: 10.1111/cas.13634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2018] [Revised: 04/24/2018] [Accepted: 04/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, Epstein‐Barr virus (EBV) lytic infection has been shown to significantly contribute to carcinogenesis. Thus, therapies aimed at targeting the EBV lytic cycle have been developed as novel strategies for treatment of EBV‐associated malignancies. In this review, focusing on the viral lytic proteins, we describe recent advances regarding the involvement of the EBV lytic cycle in carcinogenesis. Moreover, we further discuss 2 distinct EBV lytic cycle‐targeted therapeutic strategies against EBV‐induced malignancies. One of the strategies involves inhibition of the EBV lytic cycle by natural compounds known to have anti‐EBV properties; another is to intentionally induce EBV lytic replication in combination with nucleotide analogues. Recent advances in EBV lytic‐based strategies are beginning to show promise in the treatment and/or prevention of EBV‐related tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongde Li
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Invasion, Chinese Ministry of Education, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Cancer Research Institute, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis, Chinese Ministry of Health, Changsha, China
| | - Jianmin Hu
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Invasion, Chinese Ministry of Education, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Cancer Research Institute, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis, Chinese Ministry of Health, Changsha, China
| | - Xiangjian Luo
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Invasion, Chinese Ministry of Education, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Cancer Research Institute, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis, Chinese Ministry of Health, Changsha, China
| | - Ann M Bode
- The Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, Austin, MN, USA
| | - Zigang Dong
- The Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, Austin, MN, USA
| | - Ya Cao
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Invasion, Chinese Ministry of Education, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Cancer Research Institute, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis, Chinese Ministry of Health, Changsha, China.,Research Center for Technologies of Nucleic Acid-Based Diagnostics and Therapeutics, Hunan Province, Changsha, China
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43
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Morales-Sánchez A, Fuentes-Panana EM. The Immunomodulatory Capacity of an Epstein-Barr Virus Abortive Lytic Cycle: Potential Contribution to Viral Tumorigenesis. Cancers (Basel) 2018; 10:E98. [PMID: 29601503 DOI: 10.3390/cancers10040098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is characterized by a bipartite life cycle in which latent and lytic stages are alternated. Latency is compatible with long-lasting persistency within the infected host, while lytic expression, preferentially found in oropharyngeal epithelial tissue, is thought to favor host-to-host viral dissemination. The clinical importance of EBV relates to its association with cancer, which we think is mainly a consequence of the latency/persistency mechanisms. However, studies in murine models of tumorigenesis/lymphomagenesis indicate that the lytic cycle also contributes to cancer formation. Indeed, EBV lytic expression is often observed in established cell lines and tumor biopsies. Within the lytic cycle EBV expresses a handful of immunomodulatory (BCRF1, BARF1, BNLF2A, BGLF5 & BILF1) and anti-apoptotic (BHRF1 & BALF1) proteins. In this review, we discuss the evidence supporting an abortive lytic cycle in which these lytic genes are expressed, and how the immunomodulatory mechanisms of EBV and related herpesviruses Kaposi Sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV) and human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) result in paracrine signals that feed tumor cells. An abortive lytic cycle would reconcile the need of lytic expression for viral tumorigenesis without relaying in a complete cycle that would induce cell lysis to release the newly formed infective viral particles.
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44
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Chelouah S, Cochet E, Couvé S, Balkaran S, Robert A, May E, Ogryzko V, Wiels J. New Interactors of the Truncated EBNA-LP Protein Identified by Mass Spectrometry in P3HR1 Burkitt's Lymphoma Cells. Cancers (Basel) 2018; 10:E12. [PMID: 29303964 DOI: 10.3390/cancers10010012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Revised: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The Epstein-Barr virus nuclear antigen leader protein (EBNA-LP) acts as a co-activator of EBNA-2, a transcriptional activator essential for Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-induced B-cell transformation. Burkitt's lymphoma (BL) cells harboring a mutant EBV strain that lacks both the EBNA-2 gene and 3' exons of EBNA-LP express Y1Y2-truncated isoforms of EBNA-LP (tEBNA-LP) and better resist apoptosis than if infected with the wild-type virus. In such BL cells, tEBNA-LP interacts with the protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) catalytic subunit (PP2A C), and this interaction likely plays a role in resistance to apoptosis. Here, 28 cellular and four viral proteins have been identified by mass spectrometry as further possible interactors of tEBNA-LP. Three interactions were confirmed by immunoprecipitation and Western blotting, namely with the A structural subunit of PP2A (PP2A A), the structure-specific recognition protein 1 (SSRP1, a component of the facilitate chromatin transcription (FACT) complex), and a new form of the transcription factor EC (TFEC). Thus, tEBNA-LP appears to be involved not only in cell resistance to apoptosis through its interaction with two PP2A subunits, but also in other processes where its ability to co-activate transcriptional regulators could be important.
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45
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Ba Abdullah MM, Palermo RD, Palser AL, Grayson NE, Kellam P, Correia S, Szymula A, White RE. Heterogeneity of the Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) Major Internal Repeat Reveals Evolutionary Mechanisms of EBV and a Functional Defect in the Prototype EBV Strain B95-8. J Virol 2017; 91:e00920-17. [PMID: 28904201 PMCID: PMC5686732 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00920-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2017] [Accepted: 09/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous pathogen of humans that can cause several types of lymphoma and carcinoma. Like other herpesviruses, EBV has diversified through both coevolution with its host and genetic exchange between virus strains. Sequence analysis of the EBV genome is unusually challenging because of the large number and lengths of repeat regions within the virus. Here we describe the sequence assembly and analysis of the large internal repeat 1 of EBV (IR1; also known as the BamW repeats) for more than 70 strains. The diversity of the latency protein EBV nuclear antigen leader protein (EBNA-LP) resides predominantly within the exons downstream of IR1. The integrity of the putative BWRF1 open reading frame (ORF) is retained in over 80% of strains, and deletions truncating IR1 always spare BWRF1. Conserved regions include the IR1 latency promoter (Wp) and one zone upstream of and two within BWRF1. IR1 is heterogeneous in 70% of strains, and this heterogeneity arises from sequence exchange between strains as well as from spontaneous mutation, with interstrain recombination being more common in tumor-derived viruses. This genetic exchange often incorporates regions of <1 kb, and allelic gene conversion changes the frequency of small regions within the repeat but not close to the flanks. These observations suggest that IR1-and, by extension, EBV-diversifies through both recombination and breakpoint repair, while concerted evolution of IR1 is driven by gene conversion of small regions. Finally, the prototype EBV strain B95-8 contains four nonconsensus variants within a single IR1 repeat unit, including a stop codon in the EBNA-LP gene. Repairing IR1 improves EBNA-LP levels and the quality of transformation by the B95-8 bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC).IMPORTANCE Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infects the majority of the world population but causes illness in only a small minority of people. Nevertheless, over 1% of cancers worldwide are attributable to EBV. Recent sequencing projects investigating virus diversity to see if different strains have different disease impacts have excluded regions of repeating sequence, as they are more technically challenging. Here we analyze the sequence of the largest repeat in EBV (IR1). We first characterized the variations in protein sequences encoded across IR1. In studying variations within the repeat of each strain, we identified a mutation in the main laboratory strain of EBV that impairs virus function, and we suggest that tumor-associated viruses may be more likely to contain DNA mixed from two strains. The patterns of this mixing suggest that sequences can spread between strains (and also within the repeat) by copying sequence from another strain (or repeat unit) to repair DNA damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed M Ba Abdullah
- Section of Virology, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, St. Mary's Hospital, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
| | - Richard D Palermo
- Section of Virology, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, St. Mary's Hospital, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
| | - Anne L Palser
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Paul Kellam
- Section of Virology, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, St. Mary's Hospital, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Kymab, Babraham Research Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Samantha Correia
- Section of Virology, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, St. Mary's Hospital, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
| | - Agnieszka Szymula
- Section of Virology, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, St. Mary's Hospital, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
| | - Robert E White
- Section of Virology, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, St. Mary's Hospital, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
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46
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Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) was first discovered in cells from a patient with Burkitt lymphoma (BL), and is now known to be a contributory factor in 1-2% of all cancers, for which there are as yet, no EBV-targeted therapies available. Like other herpesviruses, EBV adopts a persistent latent infection in vivo and only rarely reactivates into replicative lytic cycle. Although latency is associated with restricted patterns of gene expression, genes are never expressed in isolation; always in groups. Here, we discuss (1) the ways in which the latent genes of EBV are known to modulate cell death, (2) how these mechanisms relate to growth transformation and lymphomagenesis, and (3) how EBV genes cooperate to coordinately regulate key cell death pathways in BL and lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs). Since manipulation of the cell death machinery is critical in EBV pathogenesis, understanding the mechanisms that underpin EBV regulation of apoptosis therefore provides opportunities for novel therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah Fitzsimmons
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences and Centre for Human Virology, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK.
| | - Gemma L Kelly
- Molecular Genetics of Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute for Medical Research, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia.
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia.
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47
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Kvansakul M, Caria S, Hinds MG. The Bcl-2 Family in Host-Virus Interactions. Viruses 2017; 9:E290. [PMID: 28984827 DOI: 10.3390/v9100290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Revised: 10/01/2017] [Accepted: 10/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of the B cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) family are pivotal arbiters of mitochondrially mediated apoptosis, a process of fundamental importance during tissue development, homeostasis, and disease. At the structural and mechanistic level, the mammalian members of the Bcl-2 family are increasingly well understood, with their interplay ultimately deciding the fate of a cell. Dysregulation of Bcl-2-mediated apoptosis underlies a plethora of diseases, and numerous viruses have acquired homologs of Bcl-2 to subvert host cell apoptosis and autophagy to prevent premature death of an infected cell. Here we review the structural biology, interactions, and mechanisms of action of virus-encoded Bcl-2 proteins, and how they impact on host-virus interactions to ultimately enable successful establishment and propagation of viral infections.
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48
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Abstract
Viral latency can be considered a metastable, nonproductive infection state that is capable of subsequent reactivation to repeat the infection cycle. Viral latent infections have numerous associated pathologies, including cancer, birth defects, neuropathy, cardiovascular disease, chronic inflammation, and immunological dysfunctions. The mechanisms controlling the establishment, maintenance, and reactivation from latency are complex and diversified among virus families, species, and strains. Yet, as examined in this review, common properties of latent viral infections can be defined. Eradicating latent virus has become an important but elusive challenge and will require a more complete understanding of the mechanisms controlling these processes.
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49
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Kim H, Iizasa H, Kanehiro Y, Fekadu S, Yoshiyama H. Herpesviral microRNAs in Cellular Metabolism and Immune Responses. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1318. [PMID: 28769892 PMCID: PMC5513955 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The microRNAs (miRNAs) function as a key regulator in many biological processes through post-transcriptional suppression of messenger RNAs. Recent advancements have revealed that miRNAs are involved in many biological functions of cells. Not only host cells, but also some viruses encode miRNAs in their genomes. Viral miRNAs regulate cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and the cell cycle to establish infection and produce viral progeny. Particularly, miRNAs encoded by herpes virus families play integral roles in persistent viral infection either by regulation of metabolic processes or the immune response of host cells. The life-long persistent infection of gamma herpes virus subfamilies, such as Epstein-Barr virus and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, induces host cells to malignant transformation. The unbalanced metabolic processes and evasion from host immune surveillance by viral miRNAs are induced either by direct targeting of key proteins or indirect regulation of multiple signaling pathways. We provide an overview of the pathogenic roles of viral miRNAs in cellular metabolism and immune responses during herpesvirus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyoji Kim
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Shimane UniversityShimane, Japan
| | - Hisashi Iizasa
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Shimane UniversityShimane, Japan
| | - Yuichi Kanehiro
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Shimane UniversityShimane, Japan
| | - Sintayehu Fekadu
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Shimane UniversityShimane, Japan
| | - Hironori Yoshiyama
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Shimane UniversityShimane, Japan
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50
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Price AM, Dai J, Bazot Q, Patel L, Nikitin PA, Djavadian R, Winter PS, Salinas CA, Barry AP, Wood KC, Johannsen EC, Letai A, Allday MJ, Luftig MA. Epstein-Barr virus ensures B cell survival by uniquely modulating apoptosis at early and late times after infection. eLife 2017; 6. [PMID: 28425914 PMCID: PMC5425254 DOI: 10.7554/elife.22509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Accepted: 04/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Latent Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is causally linked to several human cancers. EBV expresses viral oncogenes that promote cell growth and inhibit the apoptotic response to uncontrolled proliferation. The EBV oncoprotein LMP1 constitutively activates NFκB and is critical for survival of EBV-immortalized B cells. However, during early infection EBV induces rapid B cell proliferation with low levels of LMP1 and little apoptosis. Therefore, we sought to define the mechanism of survival in the absence of LMP1/NFκB early after infection. We used BH3 profiling to query mitochondrial regulation of apoptosis and defined a transition from uninfected B cells (BCL-2) to early-infected (MCL-1/BCL-2) and immortalized cells (BFL-1). This dynamic change in B cell survival mechanisms is unique to virus-infected cells and relies on regulation of MCL-1 mitochondrial localization and BFL-1 transcription by the viral EBNA3A protein. This study defines a new role for EBNA3A in the suppression of apoptosis with implications for EBV lymphomagenesis. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.22509.001 Over 90% of adults around the world are infected with the Epstein-Barr virus. Like other closely related viruses, such as those that cause chicken pox and cold sores, an infection lasts for the rest of the person’s life, although the virus generally remains in a latent or dormant state. However, under certain conditions the latent viruses can cause cancers to develop; in fact, it is estimated that such infections are responsible for nearly 2% of all cancer deaths worldwide. One way that healthy human cells prevent cancer is by triggering their own death in a process called apoptosis. The Epstein-Barr virus can block apoptosis, therefore making the cells more likely to become cancerous. Previous research identified one protein in the Epstein-Barr virus that promotes cancer by preventing infected cells from dying as normal. However, even in the absence of this protein, Epstein-Barr virus-infected cells remain resistant to apoptosis. This suggests that the virus has another way of blocking cell death. Price et al. have now used a technique that stresses living cells in a way that reveals which proteins prevent apoptosis to study human cells infected with the Epstein-Barr virus. This revealed that soon after infection, the virus could force the human cell to produce MCL-1, a protein that prevents cell death. Later, the Epstein-Barr virus enlisted a second human protein called BFL-1, which makes the infected cell further resistant to apoptosis. Price et al. discovered that a protein in the Epstein-Barr virus called EBNA3A controls the production of the MCL-1 and BFL-1 proteins. In the future, developing therapies that target these proteins may lead to new treatments for cancers caused by the Epstein-Barr virus. Such treatments would be likely to have fewer side effects for patients than traditional chemotherapies. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.22509.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander M Price
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Center for Virology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, United States
| | - Joanne Dai
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Center for Virology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, United States
| | - Quentin Bazot
- Molecular Virology, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Luv Patel
- Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, United States
| | - Pavel A Nikitin
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Center for Virology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, United States
| | - Reza Djavadian
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, United States.,Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, United States
| | - Peter S Winter
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University, Durham, United States.,Program in Genetics and Genomics, Duke University, Durham, United States
| | - Cristina A Salinas
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Center for Virology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, United States
| | - Ashley Perkins Barry
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Center for Virology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, United States
| | - Kris C Wood
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University, Durham, United States
| | - Eric C Johannsen
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, United States.,Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, United States
| | - Anthony Letai
- Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, United States
| | - Martin J Allday
- Molecular Virology, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Micah A Luftig
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Center for Virology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, United States
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