Implementing systematic melanoma risk assessment and risk-tailored surveillance in a skin cancer focussed dermatology clinic: A qualitative study of feasibility and acceptability to patients and clinic staff

BACKGROUND

International bodies recommend that melanoma risk assessment should be integrated into skin cancer care provision, but evidence to support implementation is lacking.

AIM

To explore the acceptability and feasibility of implementing personalised melanoma risk assessment and tailored patient education and skin surveillance within routine clinical care.

METHODS

This prospective qualitative implementation study was informed by the Theoretical Framework of Acceptability (TFA). Personalised, systematic melanoma risk assessment was implemented in the dermatology clinic at the Melanoma Institute Australia, Sydney, Australia February-May 2021. Pre- and post-implementation observations and semi-structured interviews with patients and staff were conducted (September 2020-March 2021). Observational notes and interview transcript data were analysed thematically using the TFA as a classifying framework.

RESULTS

A total of 37 h of observations were made, and 29 patients and 12 clinic staff were interviewed. We found that the delivery of personalised melanoma risk estimates did not impact on patient flow through the clinic. Dermatologists reported that the personalised risk information enhanced their confidence in assessing patient risk and recommending tailored surveillance schedules. Most patients reported that the risk assessment and tailored information were a beneficial addition to their care. Among patients whose risk deviated from their expectations, some reported feeling worried, confused or mistrust in the risk information, including those at lower risk who were recommended to decrease surveillance frequency.

CONCLUSIONS

It is feasible and acceptable to patients and clinic staff to calculate and deliver personalised melanoma risk information and tailored surveillance as part of routine clinical care within dermatology clinics.

Parallel Sequencing Reveals Campylobacter spp. in Commercial Meat Chickens Less than 8 Days Old

Campylobacter from contaminated poultry meat is a major source of human gastroenteritis worldwide. To date, attempts to control this zoonotic infection with on-farm biosecurity measures have been inconsistent in outcome. A cornerstone of these efforts has been the detection of chicken infection with microbiological culture, where Campylobacter is generally not detectable until birds are at least 21 days old. Using parallel sequence-based bacterial 16S profiling analysis and targeted sequencing of the porA gene, Campylobacter was identified at very low levels in all commercial flocks at less than 8 days old that were tested from the United Kingdom, Switzerland, and France. These young chicks exhibited a much greater diversity of porA types than older birds testing positive for Campylobacter by culture or quantitative PCR (qPCR). This suggests that as the bacteria multiply sufficiently to be detected by culture methods, one or two variants, as indicated by porA type, dominate the infection. The findings that (i) most young chicks carry some Campylobacter and (ii) not all flocks become Campylobacter positive by culture suggest that efforts to control infection, and therefore avoid contamination of poultry meat, should concentrate on how to limit Campylobacter to low levels by the prevention of the overgrowth of single strains. IMPORTANCE Our results demonstrate the presence of Campylobacter DNA among fecal samples from a range of commercially reared meat chicks that are less than 8 days of age, consistent across 3 European countries. The recently developed, sensitive detection method indicates that infection occurs on commercial farms much earlier and more widely than previously thought, which opens up new opportunities to control Campylobacter contamination at the start of the food chain and reduce the unacceptably high levels of human disease.

Bromodomain and extraterminal (BET) protein inhibitor, apabetalone, reduces ACE2 expression and attenuates SARS-CoV-2 infection in vitro

Background/Introduction

SARS-CoV-2 causes life threatening COVID-19 complications including acute coronary syndrome, venous thromboembolism, hyperinflammation and damage in multiple tissues. The SARS-CoV-2 “spike protein” binds cell surface receptors including angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) for entry into host cells to initiate infection. Host cell dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4 / CD26) is implicated as a cofactor in uptake. Recent evidence indicates expression of factors involved in SARS-CoV-2 uptake into host cells is regulated by BET proteins, epigenetic readers modulating gene expression. Apabetalone, the most clinically advanced BET inhibitor (BETi), is in phase 3 trials for cardiovascular disease (CVD) (a,b). In cultured human cardiomyocytes, apabetalone suppressed infection with SARS-CoV-2 and prevented dysfunction of cardiac organoids induced by the cytokine-storm that arises in patients with severe symptoms (c). However, anti-viral properties of apabetalone in other cell types are not known.

Purpose

To examine effects of apabetalone on SARS-CoV-2 infection in cell culture via downregulated expression of cell surface receptors involved in viral entry. Cell systems used mimic initial sites of infection in the lung as well as cell types contributing to complications in late stages of infection.

Methods

Gene expression was measured by real-time PCR, protein levels by immunoblot or flow cytometry, and binding of recombinant SARS-CoV-2 spike protein by flow cytometry. Infection with SARS-CoV-2 was determined in a BSL3 facility. Infectivity was quantified by determining levels of viral spike protein amongst total cells via imaging on an Operetta CLS.

Results

In Calu-3, a human bronchial epithelial cell line, apabetalone dose-dependently downregulated ACE2 gene expression (up to 98%), reduced ACE2 protein levels (up to 84%) and diminished binding of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (up to 77%, p<0.001 for all parameters). Further, apabetalone abolished infection of Calu-3 cells with live SARS-CoV-2, which was comparable to other antiviral agents. Apabetalone-driven ACE2 downregulation was also observed in extrapulmonary cell types including HepG2, Huh-7 or primary hepatocytes (up to 90%, p<0.001 for all cell types), and Vero E6, a monkey kidney epithelial cell line (up to 38%, p<0.05). DPP4/CD26, a potential cofactor for SARS-CoV-2 uptake, was also downregulated by apabetalone in Calu-3 cells (mRNA ∼65% and protein ∼40%, p<0.001), which may be synergistic with ACE2 reductions to impede SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Conclusions

Apabetalone, an investigational drug for CVD, reduced cell surface receptors (ACE2 and DPP4) involved in SARS-CoV-2 uptake into host cells and dramatically attenuated SARS-CoV-2 infection/propagation in vitro. Our results suggest apabetalone can mitigate SARS-CoV-2 replication in multiple organs, which together with an established safety profile supports clinical evaluation of apabetalone to treat

Funding Acknowledgement

Type of funding sources: Public Institution(s). Main funding source(s): COVID-19 Rapid Response Grant from the College of Medicine at the University of Nebraska Medical Center (to DE and SPMR), and by University of Nebraska Medical Center start-up funds (to DE).

Examination of the short-range structure of molten salts: ThF4, UF4, and related alkali actinide fluoride systems

The short-range structures of LiF-ThF₄, NaF-AnF₄, KF-AnF₄, and Cs-AnF₄ (An = Th, U), were probed using in situ high temperature Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) spectroscopy. Signally, the EXAFS spectra of pure molten ThF₄ and UF₄ were measured for the first time. The data were interpreted with the aid of Molecular Dynamics (MD) and standard fitting of the EXAFS equation. As in related studies, a speciation distribution dominated by [AnF_x]^4-x (x = 7, 8, 9) coordination complexes was observed. The average coordination number was found to decrease with the increasing size of the alkali cation, and increase with AnF₄ content. An average coordination number close to 6, which had not been detected before in melts of alkali actinide fluorides, was seen when CsF was used as solvent.

Expression of perforin, granzyme A and Fas ligand mRNA in caecal tissues upon Eimeria tenella infection of naïve and immune chickens

Cytotoxic cells of the immune system may kill infected or transformed host cells via the perforin/granzyme or the Fas ligand (FasL) pathways. The purpose of this study was to determine mRNA expression of perforin, granzyme A and FasL in Eimeria tenella-infected tissues at primary infection and infection of immune chickens as an indirect measure of cytotoxic cell activity. Chickens were rendered immune by repeated E. tenella infections, which were manifested as an absence of clinical signs or pathological lesions and significantly reduced oocyst production upon challenge infection. During primary E. tenella infection, perforin, granzyme A and FasL mRNA expression in caecal tissue was significantly increased at 10 days after infection, compared to uninfected birds. In contrast, at infection of immune birds, perforin and granzyme A mRNA expression in caecal tissue was significantly increased during the early stages of E. tenella challenge infection, days 1-4, which coincided with a substantial reduction of parasite replication in these birds. These results indicate the activation of cytotoxic pathways in immune birds and support a role for cytotoxic T cells in the protection against Eimeria infections.

The use of a mini bypass system (Cobe Synergy) without venous and cardiotomy reservoir in a mitral valve repair: a case report

The use of mini cardiopulmonary bypass circuits is an emerging technology. The venous and cardiotomy reservoir have been excluded from the circuit. This results in a reduction of the blood contact surface area and of the priming volume.

Entrainment of venous air, however, remains a drawback in the widespread acceptance of using these mini circuits.

The technique described resolves this problem by automatic removal of venous air, and explains how this mini cardiopulmonary bypass circuit was utilized on a 64-year-old female presented for a mitral valve repair.

In the absence of a cardiotomy reservoir, an autotrans-fusion cell separator was used to process shed blood and, after CPB, the residual pump blood.

This mini bypass circuit, with the safety feature to remove automatically venous air, provided an additional degree of protection.

In our experience, mini bypass circuits allow us safely to perform cardiopulmonary bypass during valve procedures.

Viral Reservoirs in Lymph Nodes of FIV-Infected Progressor and Long-Term Non-Progressor Cats during the Asymptomatic Phase

Background

Examination of a cohort of cats experimentally infected with feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) for 5.75 years revealed detectable proviral DNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) harvested during the asymptomatic phase, undetectable plasma viral RNA (FIV gag), and rarely detectable cell-associated viral RNA. Despite apparent viral latency in peripheral CD4+ T cells, circulating CD4+ T cell numbers progressively declined in progressor animals. The aim of this study was to explore this dichotomy of peripheral blood viral latency in the face of progressive immunopathology. The viral replication status, cellular immunophenotypes, and histopathologic features were compared between popliteal lymph nodes (PLNs) and peripheral blood. Also, we identified and further characterized one of the FIV-infected cats identified as a long-term non-progressor (LTNP).

Results

PLN-derived leukocytes from FIV-infected cats during the chronic asymptomatic phase demonstrated active viral gag transcription and FIV protein translation as determined by real-time RT-PCR, Western blot and in situ immunohistochemistry, whereas viral RNA in blood leukocytes was either undetectable or intermittently detectable and viral protein was not detected. Active transcription of viral RNA was detectable in PLN-derived CD4+ and CD21+ leukocytes. Replication competent provirus was reactivated ex vivo from PLN-derived leukocytes from three of four FIV-infected cats. Progressor cats showed a persistent and dramatically decreased proportion and absolute count of CD4+ T cells in blood, and a decreased proportion of CD4+ T cells in PLNs. A single long-term non-progressor (LTNP) cat persistently demonstrated an absolute peripheral blood CD4+ T cell count indistinguishable from uninfected animals, a lower proviral load in unfractionated blood and PLN leukocytes, and very low amounts of viral RNA in the PLN.

Conclusion

Collectively our data indicates that PLNs harbor important reservoirs of ongoing viral replication during the asymptomatic phase of infection, in spite of undetectable viral activity in peripheral blood. A thorough understanding of tissue-based lentiviral reservoirs is fundamental to medical interventions to eliminate virus or prolong the asymptomatic phase of FIV infection.

Establishing a clinic-based pancreatic cancer and periampullary tumour research registry in Quebec

BACKGROUND

Enrolling patients in studies of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (pdac) is challenging because of the high fatality of the disease. We hypothesized that a prospective clinic-based study with rapid ascertainment would result in high participation rates. Using that strategy, we established the Quebec Pancreas Cancer Study (qpcs) to investigate the genetics and causes of pdac and other periampullary tumours (pats) that are also rare and underrepresented in research studies.

METHODS

Patients diagnosed with pdac or pat were introduced to the study at their initial clinical encounter, with a strategy to enrol participants within 2 weeks of diagnosis. Patient self-referrals and referrals of unaffected individuals with an increased risk of pdac were also accepted. Family histories, epidemiologic and clinical data, and biospecimens were collected. Additional relatives were enrolled in families at increased genetic risk.

RESULTS

The first 346 completed referrals led to 306 probands being enrolled, including 190 probands affected with pdac, who represent the population focus of the qpcs. Participation rates were 88.4% for all referrals and 89.2% for pdac referrals. Family history, epidemiologic and clinical data, and biospecimens were ascertained from 91.9%, 54.6%, and 97.5% respectively of patients with pdac. Although demographics and trends in risk factors in our patients were consistent with published statistics for patients with pdac, the qpcs is enriched for families with French-Canadian ancestry (37.4%), a population with recurrent germ-line mutations in hereditary diseases.

CONCLUSIONS

Using rapid ascertainment, a pdac and pat research registry with high participation rates can be established. The qpcs is a valuable research resource and its enrichment with patients of French-Canadian ancestry provides a unique opportunity for studies of heredity in these diseases.

Structural investigation of Na3NpO4 and Na3PuO4 using X-ray diffraction and 237Np Mössbauer spectroscopy

The crystal structures of Na₃NpO₄ and Na₃PuO₄ have been solved for the first time ab initio, and the pentavalence of the neptunium cation has been confirmed using Mössbauer spectroscopy.

Force chains in monodisperse spherical particle assemblies: three-dimensional measurements using neutrons

The full triaxial stress state within individual particles in a monodisperse spherical granular assembly has been measured. This was made possible by neutron imaging and computed tomography combined with neutron diffraction strain measurement techniques and associated stress reconstruction. The assembly in question consists of 549 precision steel ball bearings under an applied axial load of 85 MPa in a cylindrical die. Clear evidence of force chains was observed in terms of both the shape of the probability distribution function for normal stresses and the network formed by highly loaded particles. An extensive analysis of the source and magnitude of uncertainty in these measurements is also presented.

Bacterial septicaemia in prerecruit edible crabs, Cancer pagurus L

Juvenile edible crabs, Cancer pagurus L., were surveyed from Mumbles Head and Oxwich Bay in South Wales, UK, and the number of heterotrophic bacteria and vibrios in the hemolymph was determined. The percentage of crabs with hemolymph containing bacteria was variable over the survey with higher numbers of animals affected in summer than in winter. Post-moult crabs contained significantly higher numbers of heterotrophic bacteria in the hemolymph than pre- and intermoult animals. Crabs with cuticular damage to the gills also had significantly higher numbers of bacteria in the hemolymph. Crabs were found to have a high prevalence of infection by the dinoflagellate, Hematodinium. Such animals had significantly fewer bacteria in the blood in comparison with Hematodinium-free animals. Of the 463 crabs surveyed, only 3 individuals had hemolymph containing 2000 + CFU mL(-1). Based on 16S rRNA gene sequences, two of these crabs contained a Vibrio pectenicida-like isolate, while the other had a mixed assemblage of vibrios. Although 59% of the crabs surveyed had culturable bacteria in the hemolymph, the majority only had small numbers (<2000 CFU mL(-1) ), suggesting that such infections may be of limited importance to the sustainability of the crab fishery in this region.

Neuroanatomical distribution of oxytocin and vasopressin 1a receptors in the socially monogamous coppery titi monkey (Callicebus cupreus)

The coppery titi monkey (Callicebus cupreus) is a socially monogamous New World primate that has been studied in the field and the laboratory to investigate the behavioral neuroendocrinology of primate pair bonding and parental care. Arginine vasopressin has been shown to influence male titi monkey pair-bonding behavior, and studies are currently underway to examine the effects of oxytocin on titi monkey behavior and physiology. Here, we use receptor autoradiography to identify the distribution of arginine vasopressin 1a receptor (AVPR1a) and oxytocin receptors (OXTR) in hemispheres of titi monkey brain (n=5). AVPR1a are diffuse and widespread throughout the brain, but the OXTR distribution is much more limited, with the densest binding being in the hippocampal formation (dentate gyrus, CA1 field) and the presubiculum (layers I and III). Moderate OXTR binding was detected in the nucleus basalis of Meynert, pulvinar, superior colliculus, layer 4C of primary visual cortex, periaqueductal gray (PAG), pontine gray, nucleus prepositus, and spinal trigeminal nucleus. OXTR mRNA overlapped with OXTR radioligand binding, confirming that the radioligand was detecting OXTR protein. AVPR1a binding is present throughout the cortex, especially in cingulate, insular, and occipital cortices, as well as in the caudate, putamen, nucleus accumbens, central amygdala, endopiriform nucleus, hippocampus (CA4 field), globus pallidus, lateral geniculate nucleus, infundibulum, habenula, PAG, substantia nigra, olivary nucleus, hypoglossal nucleus, and cerebellum. Furthermore, we show that, in the titi monkey brain, the OXTR antagonist ALS-II-69 is highly selective for OXTR and that the AVPR1a antagonist SR49059 is highly selective for AVPR1a. Based on these results and the fact that both ALS-II-69 and SR49059 are non-peptide, small-molecule antagonists that should be capable of crossing the blood-brain barrier, these two compounds emerge as excellent candidates for the pharmacological manipulation of OXTR and AVPR1a in future behavioral experiments in titi monkeys and other primate species.

Physiological effects of housing density on C57BL/6J mice over a 9-month period

The NRC has consistently recommended floor space for animals used in science and agriculture. For mice, the recommended floor space is 77.4 cm(2) (12 in(2)) for a 15- to 25-g mouse. The NRC noted that its recommendations were based on "best professional judgment" and encouraged alternatives that were data driven. As part of a continual effort of The Jackson Laboratory to ensure the health and well-being of production and research mice, while promoting cost-effective, state-of-the-art research, several density-driven studies have been conducted by lab researchers. The objectives of this study were to determine the effect of housing density on variables related to mouse physiology and air quality in cages and assess the value of specific measured variables in such studies. In the present study, we monitored C57BL/6J mice in individually ventilated cages from weaning until 9 mo of age. Housing densities were equivalent to 66.4 or 36.8 cm(2) per mouse (10.3 or 5.7 in(2)). Clinical physiological variables representing general health and well-being were measured. Hematological traits, plasma lipids, and glucose, growth, bone mineral density, and percent body fat did not differ between housing densities. In the more densely housed mice, however, adrenal glands were significantly smaller, heart rates were significantly less, and food consumption was less. Cage air microenvironment was evaluated for ammonia, carbon dioxide, temperature, and humidity in cages changed weekly or every 2 wk. The cage microenvironment remained within acceptable limits at the higher density of mice at both cage-changing frequencies. The results suggest that mice housed for as long as 9 mo at up to twice the density currently recommended by NRC show no measurable adverse effects. Continued re-evaluation of the recommendation by measuring additional relevant variables of health and general well-being, and studying additional strains of mice is warranted.

The miR-106b-25 cluster targets Smad7, activates TGF-β signaling, and induces EMT and tumor initiating cell characteristics downstream of Six1 in human breast cancer

The role of TGF-β signaling in tumorigenesis is paradoxical: it can be tumor suppressive or tumor promotional, depending on context. The metastatic regulator, Six1, was recently shown to mediate this switch, providing a novel means to explain this elusive “TGF-β paradox”. Herein, we identify a mechanism by which Six1 activates the tumor promotional arm of TGF-β signaling, via its ability to upregulate the miR-106b-25 microRNA cluster, and further identify a novel function for this cluster of microRNAs. While expression of the miR-106b-25 cluster is known to overcome TGF-β-mediated growth suppression via targeting p21 and BIM, we demonstrate for the first time that this same cluster can additionally target the inhibitory Smad7 protein, resulting in increased levels of the TGF-β type I receptor (TβRI) and downstream activation of TGF-β signaling. We further show that the miR-106b-25 cluster is sufficient to induce an epithelial to mesenchymal transition and a tumor initiating cell phenotype, and that it is required downstream of Six1 to induce these phenotypes. Finally, we demonstrate a significant correlation between miR-106b, Six1, and activated TGF-β signaling in human breast cancers, and further show that high levels of miR-106b and miR-93 in breast tumors significantly predicts shortened time to relapse. These findings expand the spectrum of oncogenic functions of miR-106b-25, and may provide a novel molecular explanation, through the Six1 regulated miR-106b-25 cluster, by which TGF-β signaling shifts from tumor suppressive to tumor promoting.

Reprogramming of mesenchymal stem cells by the synovial sarcoma-associated oncogene SYT-SSX2

Cell identity is determined by its gene expression programs. The ability of a cell to change its identity and produce cell types outside its lineage is achieved by the activity of transcription controllers capable of reprogramming differentiation gene networks. The synovial sarcoma (SS)-associated protein, SYT-SSX2, reprograms myogenic progenitors and human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMMSCs) by dictating their commitment to a pro-neural lineage. It fulfills this function by directly targeting an extensive array of neural-specific genes as well as genes of developmental pathway mediators. Concomitantly, the ability of both myoblasts and BMMSCs to differentiate into their normal myogenic and adipogenic lineages was compromised. SS is believed to arise in mesenchymal stem cells where formation of the t(X/18) translocation product, SYT-SSX, constitutes the primary event in the cancer. SYT-SSX is therefore believed to initiate tumorigenesis in its target stem cell. The data presented here allow a glimpse at the initial events that likely occur when SYT-SSX2 is first expressed, and its dominant function in subverting the nuclear program of the stem cell, leading to its aberrant differentiation, as a first step toward transformation. In addition, we identified the fibroblast growth factor receptor gene, Fgfr2, as one occupied and upregulated by SYT-SSX2. Knockdown of FGFR2 in both BMMSCs and SS cells abrogated their growth and attenuated their neural phenotype. These results support the notion that the SYT-SSX2 nuclear function and differentiation effects are conserved throughout sarcoma development and are required for its maintenance beyond the initial phase. They also provide the stem cell regulator, FGFR2, as a promising candidate target for future SS therapy.

Sub-clinical infection with Salmonella in chickens differentially affects behaviour and welfare in three inbred strains

1. Much evidence exists detailing how animals respond to pathogen challenge, yet information explaining how the various behavioural, immunological, and physiological systems in chickens interplay during such challenges remains limited. 2. To gain an understanding of this interplay while controlling for genetic variation, the current study collected a variety of behavioural, physiological and immunological measures from three inbred lines (P, O and N) of laying hens before and after a sub-clinical infection with Salmonella enterica Typhimurium at 56 d of age. For comparison, an equal number of control birds were inoculated with a Salmonella-free broth. To identify an underlying profile, which might result in reduced susceptibility to infection, data were also collected in the pre-infection period. Post-infection blood and faeces were collected at 1-d post infection (dpi) and faeces again at 8 dpi. Animals were killed 15 d after infection and faeces, caecal contents, and spleen were examined for the presence of Salmonella. 3. Statistical analysis was performed to identify pre- and post-infection differences between genetic lines, changes in bird behavioural patterns between the two periods, and associations between a positive test for Salmonella and the various response measures. 4. Tissues from Line P birds were more often negative for Salmonella than those from birds of other lines, though this was inconsistent and tissue-dependent. The P line was also characterised by relatively greater serum concentrations of immunoglobulins at 1 dpi and α(1)-acid glycoprotein at 15 dpi. In addition, P line birds were more timid and their growth was reduced during the pre-infection period suggesting the possibility of a profile with reduced susceptibility to the bacterial challenge. 5. The current work has identified correlations between attributes of chicken strains and improved clearance. Future work using hypothesis-based testing will be required to determine whether the identified correlations are causally related.

Robotic radical hysterectomy. A literature review

Advanced laparoscopic procedures are increasingly being used as an alternative to laparotomy in gynecologic surgery. Several reviews have been completed that examine the advantages and drawbacks of this technique. Robotic technology offers the promise of overcoming many of the shortcomings of laparoscopy, while preserving classic operative techniques. This review article summarizes some of the most recent literature provided in the arena of robotic assisted radical hysterectomy for the treatment of cervical or endometrial cancer.

A literature review of different pressure ulcer models from 1942-2005 and the development of an ideal animal model

The literature from 1942-2005 was reviewed in order to determine an inexpensive animal model which can closely mimic pressure ulcers seen in humans of varying ages, without the need for surgical procedures. Two animal models for producing pressure ulcers were found to be inexpensive: pigs to mimic pressure ulcers in young humans due to their fixed skin, and rats to mimic pressure ulcers in the elderly due to their loose skin. The methods which were found to be inexpensive, reproducible, non-invasive and easy to carry out without the need of a surgeon or specialist were the use of magnets for rat models and the use of a cast placed over a bony prominence for pig models.

Sympatric speciation by allochrony in a seabird

The importance of sympatric speciation (the evolution of reproductive isolation between codistributed populations) in generating biodiversity is highly controversial. Whereas potential examples of sympatric speciation exist for plants, insects, and fishes, most theoretical models suggest that it requires conditions that are probably not common in nature, and only two possible cases have been described for tetrapods. One mechanism by which it could occur is through allochronic isolation-separation of populations by breeding time. Oceanodroma castro (the Madeiran or band-rumped storm-petrel) is a small seabird that nests on tropical and subtropical islands throughout the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In at least five archipelagos, different individuals breed on the same islands in different seasons. We compared variation in five microsatellite loci and the mitochondrial control region among 562 O. castro from throughout the species' range. We found that sympatric seasonal populations differ genetically within all five archipelagos and have ceased to exchange genes in two. Population and gene trees all indicate that seasonal populations within four of the archipelagos are more closely related to each other than to populations from the same season from other archipelagos; divergence of the fifth sympatric pair is too ancient for reliable inference. Thus, seasonal populations appear to have arisen sympatrically at least four times. This is the first evidence for sympatric speciation by allochrony in a tetrapod, and adds to growing indications that population differentiation and speciation can occur without geographic barriers to gene flow.

Differentiation of sympatric populations of the band-rumped storm-petrel in the Galapagos Islands: an examination of genetics, morphology, and vocalizations

In each of at least two locations within the Galapagos Islands, breeding band-rumped storm-petrels (Oceanodroma castro) form two distinct populations that use the same colony site at separate times of the year for reproduction. Temporal segregation of these populations raises the possibility that they are reproductively isolated and represent cryptic species. We examined variation in mitochondrial DNA, morphology, and vocalizations of storm-petrel populations nesting 6 months apart on the islet of Plaza Norte in the Galapagos. Seasonal populations displayed low but significant levels of differentiation in the mitochondrial control region, five morphological variables, and one feature of male vocalizations. Breeding populations appear to have been separated for approximately 1700 years. Given the recent divergence date and relatively high effective population sizes (4000-5600 females each), seasonal populations are unlikely to be in genetic equilibrium. As a result, the low divergence estimate probably reflects historical association and not contemporary genetic exchange. These populations are not sufficiently differentiated to be considered cryptic species. However, they are probably in the early stages of divergence. Consequently, we recommend that cool- and hot season populations on Plaza Norte be recognized as separate management units.

Cross-reactive cellular and humoral immune responses to Salmonella enterica serovars Typhimurium and Enteritidis are associated with protection to heterologous re-challenge

Chickens infected with Salmonella enterica serovars Typhimurium (ST) and Enteritidis (SE) still represent a major source of human food poisoning via consumption of contaminated meat and eggs. Vaccination represents a sustainable approach to control Salmonella in the chicken and the serovar specificity of immunity has the potential to impact on the need for multivalent vaccines. The issue of cross-reactive immune responses and cross-serovar protection was examined in these experiments. Cellular and humoral immune responses were measured by antigen-specific ELISA and splenocyte proliferation assays during primary infections (with ST and SE) and during a second challenge with homologous or heterologous serovars. Primary infection with ST or SE induced strong lymphocyte proliferation and high levels of specific antibody (IgM, IgG and IgA) responses with substantial serovar cross-reactivity. The occurrence of high levels of splenocyte proliferation and strong antibody responses corresponded to the initiation of clearance with both ST and SE. Re-challenge of ST and SE infection-primed chickens with either serovar resulted in significant levels of protection (assessed by bacterial numbers and rate of clearance) with little difference between homologous or heterologous challenge schedules. Relatively low levels of antigen-specific splenocyte proliferation were detected during secondary infection, which may be caused by splenic T cells exiting to the gut. In contrast, the more rapid specific antibody responses (compared with primary infection controls) indicate the development of a secondary antigen-specific adaptive response. The substantial level of cross-protection between serovars and the level of antigenic cross-reactivity indicates the potential for single serovar live vaccines to protect against both group B and D salmonellae.

Mouse allergen-specific immunoglobulin G4 and risk of mouse skin test sensitivity

BACKGROUND

High serum levels of cat-specific IgG and IgG4 are associated with protection against allergic sensitization to cat, but whether this association applies to other animal allergens remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To determine if high levels of mouse-specific IgG and IgG4 are associated with a decreased risk of mouse skin test sensitivity.

METHODS

Two hundred and sixty workers of a mouse facility underwent skin prick testing and completed a questionnaire. Serum levels of mouse-specific IgG and IgG4 were quantified by solid-phase antigen binding assays. Room air samples were collected and airborne Mus m 1 was quantified by ELISA.

RESULTS

Forty-nine participants had a positive skin prick test to mouse. Mouse-specific IgG was detected in 219 (84%) participants and IgG4 was detected in 72 (28%) participants. A detectable mouse-specific IgG4 level was associated with an increased risk of mouse skin test sensitivity (odds ratios (OR) 6.4, 95% confidence intervals (CI) 3.3-12.4). Mouse-specific IgG and IgG4 were both positively correlated with mouse allergen exposure (r(s)=0.31, P=0.0001, and r(s)=0.27, P=0.0006, respectively). The odds of skin test sensitivity peaked at moderate levels of IgG4, but decreased at the highest levels of mouse-specific IgG4. In contrast, the odds of skin test sensitivity increased monotonically with IgG levels.

CONCLUSIONS

A detectable level of mouse-specific IgG4 is associated with an increased risk of skin test sensitivity to mouse. However, the highest IgG4 levels appear to be associated with an attenuated risk of mouse skin test sensitivity, suggesting that induction of high levels of IgG4 through natural exposure may protect against the development of allergic sensitization.

Genetic identification of antigens protective against coccidia

The Eimeria species, causative agents of the disease coccidiosis, are genetically complex protozoan parasites endemic in livestock. Drug resistance remains commonplace among the Eimeria, and alternatives to chemotherapeutic control are being sought. Vaccines based upon live formulations of parasites are effective, but production costs are high, stimulating demand for a recombinant subunit vaccine. The identity of antigens suitable for inclusion in such vaccines remains elusive. Selection of immunoprotective antigens of the Eimeria species as vaccine candidates based upon recognition by the host immune system has been unsuccessful, obscured by the considerable number of molecules that are immunogenic but not immunoprotective. This is a common problem which characterizes work with most eukaryotic parasites. The identification of a selective criterion to directly access genetic loci that encode immunoprotective antigens of Eimeria maxima using a mapping strategy based upon parasite genetics, immune selection and DNA fingerprinting promises to revolutionize the process of antigen discovery. Linkage analyses of DNA markers amplified from populations of recombinant parasites defined by an ability to escape parent-specific deleterious selection by strain-specific immunity and chemotherapy has revealed four discrete regions within the E. maxima genome linked to escape from a protective immune response. These regions now form the basis of detailed study to identify antigens as candidates for inclusion in future vaccination strategies.

Mouse allergen-specific immunoglobulin G and immunoglobulin G4 and allergic symptoms in immunoglobulin E-sensitized laboratory animal workers

BACKGROUND

High levels of allergen-specific IgG have been associated with clinical efficacy in immunotherapy studies, but whether this antibody isotype is associated with clinical tolerance in the setting of environmental exposure remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To determine if mouse allergen-specific IgG (mIgG) and IgG4 (mIgG4) levels are associated with mouse-related symptoms among IgE-sensitized laboratory workers.

METHODS

Fifty-eight workers with either skin test or serologic evidence of IgE-mediated mouse sensitization were studied. Symptom data were obtained by a questionnaire. Serum levels of mouse-specific IgG, IgG4, and IgE were quantified by a solid-phase antigen-binding assay (IgG) and RAST (IgG4 and IgE), and the relationships between mouse-specific serologic responses and mouse-related symptoms were analysed.

RESULTS

Twenty-three (39.7%) participants reported mouse-related symptoms. Mouse-specific IgG and IgG4 levels were not associated with mouse-related symptoms among the study population as a whole. Among the 29 (50%) participants with detectable mouse-specific IgE (mIgE), higher mouse-specific IgG and IgG4 levels were associated with a decreased risk of symptoms, after adjusting for mIgE level (odds ratio (OR) 0.3, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.1-1.4, and OR 0.3, 95% CI: 0.04-2.6, respectively). Higher levels of mIgG and mIgG4 remained associated with a decreased risk of symptoms after additional adjustment for sex and handling of mice (OR 0.1, 95% CI: 0.02-0.7, and OR 0.2, 95% CI: 0.02-2.1, respectively). Higher mIgG : IgE and mIgG4 : IgE ratios were also associated with a decreased risk of symptoms after adjusting for these confounders (OR 0.1, 95% CI: 0.02-0.7, and OR 0.2, 95% CI: 0.02-0.92, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Among workers with detectable mIgE, higher mIgG and mIgG4 levels are associated with a decreased risk of mouse-related symptoms. High serum levels of mIgG or mIgG4 may be markers for clinical tolerance among laboratory mouse workers with detectable mIgE, but these findings need to be confirmed in larger, prospective studies.

Integrating genetics and genomics to identify new leads for the control ofEimeriaspp

Eimerian parasites display a biologically interesting range of phenotypic variation. In addition to a wide spectrum of drug-resistance phenotypes that are expressed similarly by many other parasites, theEimeriaspp. present some unique phenotypes. For example, unique lines ofEimeriaspp. include those selected for growth in the chorioallantoic membrane of the embryonating hens egg or for faster growth (precocious development) in the mature host. The many laboratory-derived egg-adapted or precocious lines also share a phenotype of a marked attenuation of virulence, the basis of which is different as a consequence of thein ovoorin vivoselection procedures used. Of current interest is the fact that some wild-type populations ofEimeria maximaare characterized by an ability to induce protective immunity that is strain-specific. The molecular basis of phenotypes that defineEimeriaspp. is now increasingly amenable to investigation, both through technical improvements in genetic linkage studies and the availability of a comprehensive genome sequence for the caecal parasiteE. tenella. The most exciting phenotype in the context of vaccination and the development of new vaccines is the trait of strain-specific immunity associated withE. maxima. Recent work in this laboratory has shown that infection of two inbred lines of White Leghorn chickens with the W strain ofE. maximaleads to complete protection to challenge with the homologous parasite, but to complete escape of the heterologous H strain, i.e. the W strain induces an exquisitely strain-specific protective immune response with respect to the H strain. This dichotomy of survival in the face of immune-mediated killing has been examined further and, notably, mating between a drug-resistant W strain and a drug-sensitive H strain leads to recombination between the genetic loci responsible for the specificity of protective immunity and resistance to the anticoccidial drug robenidine. Such a finding opens the way forward for genetic mapping of the loci responsible for the induction of protective immunity and integration with the genome sequencing efforts.

QCM/HCC as a platform for detecting the binding of warfarin to an immobilized film of human serum albumin

Quartz crystal microbalance/heat conduction calorimetry (QCM/HCC) is a new measurement technology that has been used to monitor simultaneously the mass and motional resistance of a thin film in conjunction with the heat flow produced by a chemical change in the film initiated by reaction with a gas. In this work we examine the applicability of the QCM/HCC in detecting chemical changes at the solution/thin film interface. Human serum albumin (HSA) was bound to the gold electrode of a 5 MHz AT-cut quartz resonator using three types of linkers and then exposed to buffered solutions of the anticoagulant drug warfarin. Changes in resonator frequency and motional resistance as well as changes in heat flow produced by warfarin binding to HSA were monitored as a function of the warfarin concentration. Differences in frequency and motional resistance changes depend upon the linker and vary both in magnitude and sign, whereas the integrated heat signal is proportional to the concentration of warfarin and independent of the linker chemistry. Quartz crystal microbalance/heat conduction calorimetry can thus be a useful tool for studying protein-ligand interactions at the solution-surface interface, even though the quartz resonator does not behave as a microbalance.

Age at primary infection with Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium in the chicken influences persistence of infection and subsequent immunity to re-challenge

Salmonella enterica remains one of the most important food-borne pathogens of humans and is often acquired through consumption of infected poultry meat or eggs. Control of Salmonella infections in chicken is therefore an important public health issue. Infection with S. enterica serovar Typhimurium results in a persistent enteric infection without clinical disease in chickens of more than 3 days of age, and represents a source for contamination of carcass at slaughter and entry into the human food chain. Data presented indicate a profound effect of age at initial exposure on the persistence of infection and a lesser effect on the development of effective immunity to re-challenge. The percentage of birds positive for Salmonella was high until 8-9 weeks of age, regardless of the age at which the birds were infected (1, 3 or 6 weeks). The birds infected at 3 and 6 weeks of age produced a more rapid and higher antibody response (IgY and IgA) than those infected at 1 week of age, but in all cases infection persisted for a considerable period despite the presence of high antibody levels. Following a re-challenge infection with S. Typhimurium, all three previously-infected groups had fewer bacteria in the gut, spleen and liver compared with age-matched birds receiving a parallel primary infection. However, the birds primary infected at 3 and 6 weeks of age cleared infection more rapidly than those infected at a younger age. Interestingly older-primed birds had higher specific T lymphocyte proliferative responses and specific circulating levels of IgY antibody at time of re-challenge. Although birds initially infected at 1 week of age and those that were previously uninfected produced a stronger antibody response following re-challenge, they were slower to clear Salmonella from the gut than the older-primed groups which expressed a stronger T lymphocyte response. The data presented indicate that clearance of Salmonella from the gut is age-dependent and we propose that this relates to the increased competence of the enteric T cell response. The findings that Salmonella persists beyond 8-9 weeks, irrespective of age at exposure, has implications for the broiler sector and indicates the need to remain Salmonella free throughout the rearing period. Moreover, the re-challenge data demonstrates that infection at a young age is less effective in producing protective immunity than in older chickens. This feature of the development of protective immunity needs to be considered when developing vaccines for the broiler sector of the poultry industry.

Persistent Seoul virus infection in Lewis rats

Mechanistic studies of hantavirus persistence in rodent reservoirs have been limited by the lack of a versatile animal model. This report describes findings from experimental infection of inbred Lewis rats with Seoul virus strain 80-39. Rats inoculated with virus intraperitoneally at 6 days of age became persistently infected without clinical signs. Tissues from Seoul virus-inoculated 6-day-old rats were assessed at 6, 9, and 12 weeks post-inoculation for viral RNA by RT-PCR and in situ hybridization (ISH) and for infectious virus by inoculation of Vero E6 cells. Virus was isolated from lung and kidney of infected rats at 6 weeks and viral RNA was detected in lung, kidney, pancreas, salivary gland, brain, spleen, liver and skin at 6, 9 and 12 weeks. Rats inoculated with Seoul virus intraperitoneally at 10 or 21 days of age became infected without clinical signs but had low to undetectable levels of viral RNA in tissues at 6 weeks post-inoculation. ISH identified vascular smooth muscle and endothelial cells as common sites of persistent infection. Cultured rat smooth muscle cells and to a lesser extent cultured endothelial cells also were susceptible to Seoul virus infection. Pancreatic infection resulted in insulitis with associated hyperglycemia. These studies demonstrate that infant Lewis rats are uniformly susceptible to asymptomatic persistent Seoul virus infection. Additionally, they offer opportunities for correlative in vivo and in vitro study of Seoul virus interactions in host cell types that support persistent infection.

Temporal dynamics of the cellular, humoral and cytokine responses in chickens during primary and secondary infection withSalmonella entericaserovar Typhimurium

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) infections cause systemic disease in the young chick, whereas in the older chicken the infection is mainly restricted to the intestine. Chickens infected orally with S. Typhimurium (F98) at 6 weeks of age and re-infected 10 weeks later were monitored for antibody production, T-cell proliferation and production of selected cytokines (interferon-gamma, interleukin-1beta and transforming growth factor-beta(4)). A strong coordinated antigen-specific humoral and cellular immune response was temporally linked to resolution of the primary infection. Enhanced levels of mRNA encoding the cytokines, interleukin-1beta, transforming growth factor-beta(4) and interferon-gamma were also evident during early phases of primary infection. Secondary infection was restricted to the intestine and of shorter duration than primary infection. Splenic immune responses were not further enhanced by secondary infection; indeed, antigen-specific proliferation was significantly reduced at 1 day after secondary infection, which may be interpreted as the trafficking of reactive T cells from the spleen to the gut.

Amplified fragment length polymorphism analyses of Eimeria spp.: an improved process for genetic studies of recombinant parasites

Application of the amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) technique to genetic mapping studies requires high quality DNA as a template. In the case of Eimeria spp., this has previously been in the form of chromosomal DNA obtained from purified sporozoites recovered from large numbers of oocysts (generally up to 2 x 10(8)). In order for the AFLP technique to be more easily applied to studies on the genetics of Eimeria maxima, for which only smaller numbers of oocysts are available, a simplified, more efficient method for the recovery of genomic DNA from small numbers of oocysts was developed. Our new method should also be useful for genetic analyses of other coccidial parasites and for the recovery of AFLP-quality DNA from other pathogens.

Chloramphenicol succinate kinetics in infants and young children

We sought to estimate the serum and urine pharmacokinetics of chloramphenicol succinate (CmS) and the effects of variation of these parameters on chloramphenicol (Cm) kinetics in 24 infants and young children ages two weeks to seven years. The mean T(1/2) of CmS was 0.40 hours; the mean body clearance was 0.72 liter/KG/hour; the mean apparent volume of distribution was 0.42 liter/kg. Variation in CmS T(1/2) did not correlate with significant variation in Cm T(1/2) (r2 = 0.002, P = 0.84). Urine collected during the dosing interval in nine patients contained 35% (mean) of the administered dose. Adjusting the infusion duration to 5 minutes or 120 minutes had no effect on the amount of CmS lost in the urine. The quantity of CmS lost in the urine affects the amount bioavailable, and secondarily the calculated volume of distribution and body clearance of Cm. We conclude that variation in urinary prodrug excretion affects the amount of Cm bioavailable to the patient, but variation in CmS T(1/2) has little effect on Cm T(1/2).

Ecological basis for fertility control in the house mouse (Mus domesticus) using immunocontraceptive vaccines

Laboratory studies confirm the potential for fertility control in the house mouse Mus domesticus using mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) as a vector for an immunocontraceptive vaccine. This article presents an overview of key results from research in Australia on enclosed and field populations of mice and the associated epidemiology of MCMV. The virus is geographically widespread in Australia. It also persists in low population densities of mice, although if population densities are low for at least a year, transmission of the virus is sporadic until a population threshold of approximately 40 mice ha(-1) is reached. The serological prevalence of MCMV was high early in the breeding season of four field populations. Enclosure studies confirm that MCMV has minimal impact on the survival and breeding performance of mice and that it can be transmitted to most adults within 10-12 weeks. Other enclosure studies indicate that about two-thirds of females would need to be sterilized to provide effective control of the rate of growth of mouse populations. If this level is not maintained for 20-25 weeks after the commencement of breeding, the mouse population can compensate through increased recruitment per breeding female. The findings from this series of descriptive and manipulative population studies of mice support the contention that MCMV would be a good carrier for an immunocontraceptive vaccine required to sustain female sterility levels at or above 65%.

Inhaled antibiotic therapy: What drug? What dose? What regimen? What formulation?

Early studies of the use of antibiotics in patients with cystic fibrosis suggested that they would be of benefit in preventing or reducing infection by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In seeking to optimize treatment, factors such as the drug used, the dose, the regimen and the formulation must be considered. Aminoglycosides are ideal for aerosolization because they have a long post-antibiotic effect and have an acceptable taste. Tobramycin is one of the aminoglycosides with the lowest systemic toxicity, which enables the aerosol delivery of doses high enough to overcome the antagonistic effects of the sputum. The most dramatic benefits from inhaled tobramycin have been shown to occur in the first 2-4 weeks of administration. Continual administration for longer periods can result in the development of resistance and loss of the improvement in lung function. However, this resistance is transient, and susceptibility to tobramycin returns after a short drug holiday. Optimal drug administration therefore consists of a 4-week on, 4-week off cycle. Such a cycle also helps to maintain patient compliance. Successful drug delivery also depends upon a formulation that does not provoke bronchoconstriction, which demands a formulation that is both preservative free, and osmotically and pH balanced. This research has enabled the development of a novel formulation of tobramycin optimized for use as an inhalation therapy in cystic fibrosis.

Paediatric liver transplantation [corrected] in Melbourne: the first 50 patients

To report the outcomes of the first 50 paediatric patients who have undergone liver transplantation (LT) at the Victorian Liver Transplant Unit, a retrospective review of case records was carried out. From December 1988 to December 2000, 108 patients 18 years or younger were referred for LT; 50 of these underwent a total of 53 transplants. The most common indications were biliary atresia (32%), metabolic disease (26%), and acute hepatic necrosis (26%). The majority of deaths (6/7) occurred in the 1st week after LT. The actuarial survival at 1 year was 88% (95% CI 75% to 94%) and at 10 years 85% (95% CI 71% to 93%). Survival rates were highest for children aged 3 to 14 years (95%) and lowest in those weighing less than 8 kg at the time of LT (66%). All 43 survivors are attending age-appropriate activities including kindergarten, school, and employment. The survival of patients undergoing LT in this unit compares favourably with those recorded by the Australia and New Zealand Transplant Registry and is commensurate with that reported by larger paediatric transplant programs overseas.

AMPA receptor subunit RNA transcripts and [(3)H]AMPA binding in the cerebellum of normal and pcd mutant mice: an in situ hybridization study combined with receptor autoradiography

The expression of AMPA receptor subunit mRNAs and the binding of [(3)H]AMPA were studied in the cerebellum of normal and "Purkinje cell degeneration" ( pcd) mutant mouse. In the pcd cerebellum, [(3)H]AMPA binding was decreased significantly in both the molecular and granule cell layers by 63% and 36%, respectively. In those mutants, GluRA, GluRB and GluRC mRNAs were not detected in the Purkinje cell layer, and the levels of GluRB and GluRD mRNAs were significantly decreased in the granule cell layer by 16% and 57%, respectively. Cerebellar grafts transplanted into the pcd cerebellum expressed only GluRB and GluRC mRNAs, suggesting that donor cells express the appropriate subunits normally expressed by Purkinje neurons. Our results, firstly, support the idea that the expression of the GluRA subunit in Golgi epithelial cells may depend upon the sustained interaction with adjacent Purkinje cells, and secondly, suggest that granule cells which are more resistant to transsynaptic death may express higher levels of GluRB mRNA.