Smelling TNT: Trends of the Terminal Nerve

There is very little knowledge regarding the terminal nerve, from its implications in the involvement and pathogenesis of certain conditions, to its embryological origin. With this review, we try to summarize the most important evidence on the terminal nerve, aiming to clarify its anatomy and the various functions attributed to it, to better interpret its potential involvement in pathological processes. Recent studies have also suggested its potential role in the control of human reproductive functions and behaviors. It has been hypothesized that it plays a role in the unconscious perception of specific odors that influence autonomic and reproductive hormonal systems through the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. We used the PubMed database and found different articles which were then selected independently by three authors. We found 166 articles, of which, after careful selection, only 21 were analyzed. The terminal nerve was always thought to be unimportant in our body. It was well studied in different types of animals, but few studies have been completed in humans. For this reason, its function remains unknown. Studies suggest a possible implication in olfaction due to the anatomical proximity with the olfactive nerve. Others suggest a more important role in reproduction and sexual behaviors. New emerging information suggests a possible role in Kallmann syndrome and COVID-19.

Serum Lipocalin-2 Levels as a Biomarker in Pre- and Post-Pubertal Klinefelter Syndrome Patients: A Pilot Study

Klinefelter syndrome (KS) is a male genetic disease caused by the presence of an extra X chromosome, causing endocrine disorders mainly responsible for a high rate of infertility and metabolic disorders in adulthood. Scientific research is interested in identifying new biomarkers that can be predictive or prognostic of alterations strictly connected to KS. Lipocalin-2 (LCN-2, also known as NGAL) is a small protein initially identified within neutrophils as a protein related to innate immunity. Serum LCN-2 estimation seems to be a useful tool in predicting the metabolic complications caused by several pathological conditions. However, little is known about its potential role in infertility conditions. The present pilot study aims to investigate the presence of LCN-2 in the serum of a group of pre-pubertal and post-pubertal children affected by KS, compared to healthy controls. We demonstrated for the first time the presence of elevated levels of LCN-2 in the serum of KS patients, compared to controls. This increase was accompanied, in pre-pubertal KS patients, by the loss of correlation with LH and HDL, which instead was present in the healthy individuals. Moreover, in all KS individuals, a positive correlation between LCN-2 and inhibin B serum concentration was found. Despite the limited size of the sample analyzed, our preliminary data encourage further studies to confirm the findings and to extend the study to KS adult patients, to verify the predictive/prognostic value of LCN-2 as new biomarker for metabolic diseases and infertility associated with the pathology.

Malignant and Benign Head and Neck Tumors of the Pediatric Age: A Narrative Review

Malignant tumors of the head and neck are rare in children, but it is important to know these lesions and identify them early in order to have a good outcome for these patients. Benign lesions of the head and neck are much more frequent and have an excellent prognosis. For this reason, it is necessary to recognize the warning signs and symptoms and understand when to refer the patient to a reference center for the treatment of these pathologies. The clinical presentation of both benign and malignant lesions in children may be similar as usually, both categories have compressive effects. This confirms the fact that the clinical diagnosis is not sufficient and always requires instrumental investigations and biopsies. In this narrative review, we analyzed both malignant lesions such as lymphoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, thyroid tumors, salivary gland tumors, neuroblastoma, and nasopharyngeal carcinoma, and benign ones such as cystic dermoid teratoma, hemangioma, juvenile angiofibroma and fibrosis dysplasia. Indeed, we set out to discuss the most common lesions of this site by evaluating their characteristics to highlight the differentiation of malignant tumors from benign lesions and their correct clinical-therapeutic management. A literature search was carried out in the PubMed and Google Scholar databases to identify all narrative reviews addressing malignant and benign head and neck tumors of the pediatric age. In conclusion, the care of children affected by head and neck benign lesions and malignancy must be combined and multidisciplinary. It is essential to recognize the diseases early in order to differentiate and intervene as soon as possible for the correct clinical-therapeutic management.

The Impact of ROS and NGF in the Gliomagenesis and their Emerging Implications in the Glioma Treatment

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are highly reactive molecules derived from molecular oxygen (O2). ROS sources can be endogenous, such as cellular organelles and inflammatory cells, or exogenous, such as ionizing radiation, alcohol, food, tobacco, chemotherapeutical agents and infectious agents. Oxidative stress results in damage of several cellular structures (lipids, proteins, lipoproteins, and DNA) and is implicated in various disease states such as atherosclerosis, diabetes, cancer, neurodegeneration, and aging. A large body of studies showed that ROS plays an important role in carcinogenesis. Indeed, increased production of ROS causes accumulation in DNA damage leading to tumorigenesis. Various investigations demonstrated the involvement of ROS in gliomagenesis. The most common type of primary intracranial tumor in adults is represented by glioma. Furthermore, there is growing attention on the role of the Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) in brain tumor pathogenesis. NGF is a growth factor belonging to the family of neurotrophins. It is involved in neuronal differentiation, proliferation and survival. Studies were conducted to investigate NGF pathogenesis's role as a pro- or anti-tumoral factor in brain tumors. It has been observed that NGF can induce both differentiation and proliferation in cells. The involvement of NGF in the pathogenesis of brain tumors leads to the hypothesis of a possible implication of NGF in new therapeutic strategies. Recent studies have focused on the role of neurotrophin receptors as potential targets in glioma therapy. This review provides an updated overview of the role of ROS and NGF in gliomagenesis and their emerging role in glioma treatment.

Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma Vaccine: Current Landscape and Perspectives

The treatment of unresectable or metastatic Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma (HNSCC) has traditionally relied on chemotherapy or radiotherapy, yielding suboptimal outcomes. The introduction of immunotherapy has significantly improved HNSCC treatment, even if the long-term results cannot be defined as satisfactory. Its mechanism of action aims to counteract the blockade of tumor immune escape. This result can also be obtained by stimulating the immune system with vaccines. This review scope is to comprehensively gather existing evidence and summarize ongoing clinical trials focused on therapeutic vaccines for HNSCC treatment. The current landscape reveals numerous promising drugs in the early stages of experimentation, along with a multitude of trials that have been suspended or abandoned for years. Nonetheless, there are encouraging results and ongoing experiments that instill hope for potential paradigm shifts in HNSCC therapy.

The RNA-Binding Function of Ribosomal Proteins and Ribosome Biogenesis Factors in Human Health and Disease

The ribosome is a macromolecular complex composed of RNA and proteins that interact through an integrated and interconnected network to preserve its ancient core activities. In this review, we emphasize the pivotal role played by RNA-binding proteins as a driving force in the evolution of the current form of the ribosome, underscoring their importance in ensuring accurate protein synthesis. This category of proteins includes both ribosomal proteins and ribosome biogenesis factors. Impairment of their RNA-binding activity can also lead to ribosomopathies, which is a group of disorders characterized by defects in ribosome biogenesis that are detrimental to protein synthesis and cellular homeostasis. A comprehensive understanding of these intricate processes is essential for elucidating the mechanisms underlying the resulting diseases and advancing potential therapeutic interventions.

Biomarkers of Neurological Damage: From Acute Stage to Post-Acute Sequelae of COVID-19

Background: Neurological symptoms (NS) in COVID-19 are related to both acute stage and long-COVID. We explored levels of brain injury biomarkers (NfL and GFAP) and myeloid activation marker (sCD163) and their implications on the CNS. Materials and Methods: In hospitalized COVID-19 patients plasma samples were collected at two time points: on hospital admission (baseline) and three months after hospital discharge (Tpost). Patients were stratified according to COVID-19 severity based on acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) onset (severe and non-severe groups). A further stratification according to the presence of NS (with and without groups) at baseline (requiring a puncture lumbar for diagnostic purposes) and according to NS self-referred at Tpost was performed. Finally, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples were collected from patients with NS present at baseline. Results: We enrolled 144 COVID-19 patients (62 female/82 male; median age [interquartile range, IQR]): 64 [55-77]) and 53 heathy donors (HD, 30 female/23 male; median age [IQR]: 64 [59-69]). At baseline, higher plasma levels of NfL, GFAP and sCD163 in COVID-19 patients compared to HD were observed (p < 0.0001, p < 0.0001 and p < 0.0001, respectively), especially in those with severe COVID-19 (p < 0.0001, p < 0.0001 and p < 0.0001, respectively). Patients with NS showed higher plasma levels of NfL, GFAP and sCD163 compared to those without (p = 0.0023, p < 0.0001 and 0.0370, respectively). At baseline, in COVID-19 patients with NS, positive correlations between CSF levels of sCD163 and CSF levels of NfL (ρ = 0.7536, p = 0.0017) and GFAP were observed (ρ = 0.7036, p = 0.0045). At Tpost, the longitudinal evaluation performed on 77 COVID-19 patients showed a significant reduction in plasma levels of NfL, GFAP and sCD163 compared to baseline (p < 0.0001, p < 0.0001 and p = 0.0413, respectively). Finally, at Tpost, in the severe group, higher plasma levels of sCD163 in patients with NS compared to those without were reported (p < 0.0001). Conclusions: High plasma levels of NfL, GFAP and sCD163 could be due to a proinflammatory systemic and brain response involving microglial activation and subsequent CNS damage. Our data highlight the association between myeloid activation and CNS perturbations.

Antioxidant Use after Diagnosis of Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma (HNSCC): A Systematic Review of Application during Radiotherapy and in Second Primary Cancer Prevention

Approximately 5-20% of HNSCC patients experience second primary cancers within the first 5 years of treatment, contributing to high mortality rates. Epidemiological evidence has linked a low dietary intake of antioxidants to an increased risk of cancer, especially squamous cell carcinoma, prompting research into their potential in neoplasm chemoprevention. Cigarette smoking is the primary risk factor for HNSCC, and a diet rich in antioxidants offers protective effects against head and neck cancer. Paradoxically, smokers, who are at the highest risk, tend to consume fewer antioxidant-rich fruits and vegetables. This has led to the hypothesis that integrating antioxidants into the diet could play a role in both primary and secondary prevention for at-risk individuals. Furthermore, some HNSCC patients use antioxidant supplements during chemotherapy or radiotherapy to manage side effects, but their impact on cancer outcomes remains uncertain. This systematic review explores the evidence for the potential use of antioxidants in preventing second primary cancers in HNSCC patients. In conclusion, none of the antioxidants tested so far (α-tocopherol, β-carotene, JP, Isotretinoin, interferon α-2a, vitamin E, retinyl palmitate, N-acetylcysteine) was effective in preventing second primary tumors in HNSCC patients, and they could only be used in reducing the side effects of radiotherapy. Further research is needed to better understand the interplay between antioxidants and cancer outcomes in this context.

Oxidative Stress in Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome: Putative Pathways to Hearing System Impairment

INTRODUCTION

OSAS is a disease that affects 2% of men and 4% of women of middle age. It is a major health public problem because untreated OSAS could lead to cardiovascular, metabolic, and cerebrovascular complications. The more accepted theory relates to oxidative stress due to intermittent hypoxia, which leads, after an intense inflammatory response through multiple pathways, to endothelial damage. The objective of this study is to demonstrate a correlation between OSAS and hearing loss, the effect of the CPAP on hearing function, and if oxidative stress is also involved in the damaging of the hearing system.

METHODS

A review of the literature has been executed. Eight articles have been found, where seven were about the correlation between OSAS and the hearing system, and only one was about the CPAP effects. It is noted that two of the eight articles explored the theory of oxidative stress due to intermittent hypoxia.

RESULTS

All studies showed a significant correlation between OSAS and hearing function (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Untreated OSAS affects the hearing system at multiple levels. Oxidative stress due to intermittent hypoxia is the main pathogenetic mechanism of damage. CPAP has no effects (positive or negative) on hearing function. More studies are needed, with the evaluation of extended high frequencies, the execution of vocal audiometry in noisy environments, and the evaluation of potential biomarkers due to oxidative stress.

Neurofilament Expression as a Biomarker of Post-COVID-19 Sudden Sensorineural Hearing Loss

Sudden sensorineural hearing loss (SSHL) affects a patient's quality of life and requires rapid treatment. The etiology is viral, vascular, and autoimmune, even though, in most cases, it remains idiopathic SSHL. Since 2019, several different complications have been identified following COVID-19 infection. The post-COVID-19 ENT manifestations reported in the literature are sore throat, headache, pharyngeal erythema, nasal obstruction, rhinorrhea, upper respiratory tract infection, and tonsil enlargement. Cases of SSHL, vestibular neuronitis, and audio-vestibular disorders (such as tinnitus, dizziness, and vertigo) have also been reported, albeit in a smaller percentage of patients. We reported our experience of a case of post-COVID-19 SSHL in the absence of any other type of post-COVID symptoms or brain and internal auditory canal magnetic resonance imaging and magnetic resonance angiography modifications. We aimed to identify a serological biomarker of sudden sensorineural hearing loss, and we also dosed and monitored the value of the serum neurofilament light (NfL). the best of our knowledge, this is the first report that associates SSHL and the serological increase in NfL as a potential biomarker of neuronal-disease-related damage.

The Impact of Alcohol Consumption and Oral Microbiota on Upper Aerodigestive Tract Carcinomas: A Pilot Study

Alcohol consumption is associated with oxidative stress and an increased risk of carcinoma of the upper aero-digestive tract (UADT). Recently, it has been found that some microorganisms in the human oral cavity may locally metabolize ethanol, forming acetaldehyde, a carcinogenic metabolite of alcohol. In a cohort of patients first visited for UADT cancers, we estimated their alcohol consumption by measuring Ethyl Glucuronide/EtG (a long-lasting metabolite of ethanol) in the hair and carbohydrate-deficient transferrin/CDT (short-term index of alcohol intake) in the serum. Moreover, we analyzed, by culture-based methods, the presence of Neisseria subflava, Streptococcus mitis, Candida albicans, and glabrata (microorganisms generating acetaldehyde) in the oral cavity. According to the EtG values, we correlated drinking alcohol with endogenous oxidative stress and the investigated microorganism's presence. We found that 55% of heavy drinkers presented microorganisms generating acetaldehyde locally. Moreover, we found that the presence of oral acetaldehyde-producing bacteria correlates with increased oxidative stress compared to patients without such bacteria. As for the study of alcohol dehydrogenase gene polymorphisms (the enzyme that transforms alcohol to acetaldehyde), we found that only the "CGTCGTCCC" haplotype was more frequent in the general population than in carcinoma patients. This pilot study suggests the importance of estimating alcohol consumption (EtG), the presence of bacteria producing acetaldehyde, and oxidative stress as risk factors for the onset of oral carcinomas.

Post-COVID-19 Anosmia and Therapies: Stay Tuned for New Drugs to Sniff Out

Background: Anosmia is defined as the complete absence of olfactory function, which can be caused by a variety of causes, with upper respiratory tract infections being among the most frequent causes. Anosmia due to SARS-CoV-2 infection has attracted attention given its main role in symptomatology and the social impact of the pandemic. Methods: We conducted systematic research in a clinicaltrials.gov database to evaluate all active clinical trials worldwide regarding drug therapies in adult patients for anosmia following SARS-CoV-2 infection with the intention of identifying the nearby prospects to treat Anosmia. We use the following search terms: "Anosmia" AND "COVID-19" OR "SARS-CoV-2" OR "2019 novel coronavirus". Results: We found 18 active clinical trials that met our criteria: one phase 1, one phase 1-2, five phases 2, two phases 2-3, three phases 3, and six phases 4 studies were identified. The drug therapies that appear more effective and promising are PEA-LUT and Cerebrolysin. The other interesting drugs are 13-cis-retinoic acid plus aerosolized Vitamin D, dexamethasone, and corticosteroid nasal irrigation. Conclusions: COVID-19 has allowed us to highlight how much anosmia is an important and debilitating symptom for patients and, above all, to direct research to find a therapy aimed at curing the symptom, whether it derives from SARS-CoV-2 infection or other infections of the upper airways. Some of these therapies are very promising and are almost at the end of experimentation. They also provide hope in this field, which not addressed until recently.

Blood Biomarkers from the Emergency Department Disclose Severe Omicron COVID-19-Associated Outcomes

Background: Since its outbreak, Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), a life-threatening respiratory illness, has rapidly become a public health emergency with a devastating social impact. Lately, the Omicron strain is considered the main variant of concern. Routine blood biomarkers are, indeed, essential for stratifying patients at risk of severe outcomes, and a huge amount of data is available in the literature, mainly for the previous variants. However, only a few studies are available on early routine biochemical blood biomarkers for Omicron-afflicted patients. Thus, the aim and novelty of this study were to identify routine blood biomarkers detected at the emergency room for the early prediction of severe morbidity and/or mortality. Methods: 449 COVID-19 patients from Sapienza University Hospital of Rome were divided into four groups: (1) the emergency group (patients with mild forms who were quickly discharged); (2) the hospital ward group (patients that after the admission in the emergency department were hospitalized in a COVID-19 ward); (3) the intensive care unit (ICU) group (patients that after the admission in the emergency department required intensive assistance); (4) the deceased group (patients that after the admission in the emergency department had a fatal outcome). Results: ANOVA and ROC data showed that high-sensitivity troponin-T (TnT), fibrinogen, glycemia, C-reactive protein, lactate dehydrogenase, albumin, D-dimer myoglobin, and ferritin for both men and women may predict lethal outcomes already at the level of the emergency department. Conclusions: Compared to previous Delta COVID-19 parallel emergency patterns of prediction, Omicron-induced changes in TnT may be considered other early predictors of severe outcomes.

Investigating Biomarkers for COVID-19 Morbidity and Mortality

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

This retrospective study aims to disclose further early parameters of COVID-19 morbidity and mortality.

METHODS

Three hundred and eighty-two COVID-19 patients, recruited between March and April 2020, were divided into three groups according to their outcome: (1) hospital ward group (patients who entered the hospital wards and survived); (2) intensive care unit (ICU) group (patients who attended the ICU and survived); (3) the deceased group (patients admitted to ICU with a fatal outcome). We investigated routine laboratory parameters such as albumin, glycemia, hemoglobin amylase, lipase, AST, ALT, GGT, LDH, CK, MGB, TnT-hs, IL-6, ferritin, CRP, PCT, WBC, RBC, PLT, PT, INR, APTT, FBG, and D-dimer. Blood withdrawal was carried out at the beginning of the hospitalization period.

RESULTS

ANOVA and ROC data evidenced that the concomitant presence of alterations in albumin, lipase, AST, ALT, LDH, MGB, CK, IL-6, ferritin in women, CRP and D-dimer is an early sign of fatal outcomes.

CONCLUSION

The present study confirms and extends the validity of routine laboratory biomarkers (i.e., lipase, AST, ALT, LDH, CK, IL-6, ferritin in women, CRP and D-dimer) as indicators of COVID-19 morbidity and mortality. Furthermore, the investigation suggests that both gross changes in albumin and MGB, markers of liver and heart damage, may early disclose COVID-19 fatal outcomes.

COVID-19 Affects Serum Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Neurofilament Light Chain in Aged Men: Implications for Morbidity and Mortality

BACKGROUND AND METHODS

Severe COVID-19 is known to induce neurological damage (NeuroCOVID), mostly in aged individuals, by affecting brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) 2 and 9 and the neurofilament light chain (NFL) pathways. Thus, the aim of this pilot study was to investigate BDNF, MMP-2, MMP-9, and NFL in the serum of aged men affected by COVID-19 at the beginning of the hospitalization period and characterized by different outcomes, i.e., attending a hospital ward or an intensive care unit (ICU) or with a fatal outcome. As a control group, we used a novelty of the study, unexposed age-matched men. We also correlated these findings with the routine blood parameters of the recruited individuals.

RESULTS

We found in COVID-19 individuals with severe or lethal outcomes disrupted serum BDNF, NFL, and MMP-2 presence and gross changes in ALT, GGT, LDH, IL-6, ferritin, and CRP. We also confirmed and extended previous data, using ROC analyses, showing that the ratio MMPs (2 and 9) versus BDNF and NFL might be a useful tool to predict a fatal COVID-19 outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

Serum BDNF and NFL and/or their ratios with MMP-2 and MMP-9 could represent early predictors of NeuroCOVID in aged men.

The RNA-Binding Protein SMN as a Novel Player in Laryngeal Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) arises from the mucosal epithelium in the oral cavity, pharynx, sino-nasal region, and larynx. Laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC) represents one-third of all head and neck cancers. Dysregulated RNA-related pathways define an important molecular signature in this aggressive carcinoma. The Survival Motor Neuron (SMN) protein regulates fundamental aspects of the RNA metabolism but, curiously, its role in cancer is virtually unknown. For the first time, here, we focus on the SMN in the cancer context. We conducted a pilot study in a total of 20 patients with LSCC where the SMN was found overexpressed at both the protein and transcript levels. By a cellular model of human laryngeal carcinoma, we demonstrated that the SMN impacts cancer-relevant behaviors and perturbs key players of cell migration, invasion, and adhesion. Furthermore, in LSCC we showed a physical interaction between the SMN and the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), whose overexpression is an important feature in these tumors. This study proposes the SMN protein as a novel therapeutic target in LSSC and likely in the whole spectrum of HNSCC. Overall, we provide the first analysis of the SMN in human cancer.

Neuroimmune Dysregulation in Prepubertal and Adolescent Individuals Affected by Klinefelter Syndrome

BACKGROUND

The syndrome Klinefelter syndrome (KS) is a genetic disorder due to an extra X chromosome in males. Many cases remain undiagnosed until the onset of major manifestations, which include hypergonadotropic hypogonadism and infertility. This condition is associated with many comorbidities that involve the cardiovascular, endocrine, and immune systems. Last but not the least, individuals with KS show a high risk of developing psychiatric and mood disorders in adult age.

OBJECTIVE

While many studies are accessible on KS in adult individuals, the neuroinflammatory condition in adolescent and prepubertal KS individuals is not fully known.

METHODS

Our study aims to evaluate in prepubertal and adolescent KS individuals, for the first time, the levels of the serum of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), nerve growth factor (NGF), cytokines having subtle roles in oxidative processes, and neuroinflammation with respect to the levels of TNF-α, TGF-β, MCP-1, IL-1α, IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, and IL-12 and oxidative stress by employing free oxygen radicals defense and free oxygen radicals test.

RESULTS

We found no changes in NGF and oxidative stress parameters, but BDNF decreased compared to healthy children. Quite interestingly, our data showed reduced levels of IL-2, IL-1α, IL- 12, IL-10, and IL-6 in prepubertal KS children.

CONCLUSION

The present study discloses disrupted immune system and neurotrophin pathways in KS children.

Antioxidant Intervention to Improve Cognition in the Aging Brain: The Example of Hydroxytyrosol and Resveratrol

Both physiological and pathological aging processes induce brain alterations especially affecting the speed of processing, working memory, conceptual reasoning and executive functions. Many therapeutic approaches to reduce the impact of brain aging on cognitive functioning have been tested; unfortunately, there are no satisfactory results as a single therapy. As aging is partly contributed by free radical reactions, it has been proposed that exogenous antioxidants could have a positive impact on both aging and its associated manifestations. The aim of this report is to provide a summary and a subsequent review of the literature evidence on the role of antioxidants in preventing and improving cognition in the aging brain. Manipulation of endogenous cellular defense mechanisms through nutritional antioxidants or pharmacological compounds represents an innovative approach to therapeutic intervention in diseases causing brain tissue damage, such as neurodegeneration. Coherently with this notion, antioxidants, especially those derived from the Mediterranean diet such as hydroxytyrosol and resveratrol, seem to be able to delay and modulate the cognitive brain aging processes and decrease the occurrence of its effects on the brain. The potential preventive activity of antioxidants should be evaluated in long-term exposure clinical trials, using preparations with high bioavailability, able to bypass the blood-brain barrier limitation, and that are well standardized.

Morphological Characteristics of Malignancy in Circulating Tumor Cells (CTCs): A New Approach to Liquid Biopsies Utilizing Affordable Standard Cytology Techniques and the FDA Cleared Parsortix® System

Introduction/Objective

The process of metastasis is responsible for most cancer deaths. Identification of tumor cells circulating in blood (CTCs) has the potential to offer important information to patients and clinicians regarding disease status, longitudinal monitoring, remission status and assessment of patient prognosis, among others. However, currently CTC tests in the market are expensive and are not covered by medical insurance, making them unaffordable for most cancer patients. Legacy CTC technologies also require the use of expensive immunofluorescence microscopes and reagents, and are not easily implemented in standard clinical laboratory settings, thus preventing their use as standard of care. Onc-ADaPT™ Clinical Laboratories have explored a method to identify CTCs using the FDA cleared Parsortix® System (ANGLE plc, Guildford, UK) followed by standard cytology processing, staining and analysis, significantly reducing the cost of operations and increasing the likelihood of affordability to patients everywhere.

Methods/Case Report

The basic features of malignancy were listed by a Senior Cytologist (CT) and reviewed by another CT. Cancer cell lines were spiked into normal donor blood collected in Streck tubes. Non-spiked healthy volunteer blood was used to establish the background. The samples were then processed through the Parsortix® system producing 200µL suspension of separated cells. The harvest was then processed using Cytospin, stained with standard Pap Stain and reviewed with bright field microscopy by qualified CTs.

Results (if a Case Study enter NA)

Spiked tumor cells were identified and correctly categorized by the Cytologists. Non-spiked normal donor samples were negative for malignancy. Cells of interest were identified in the non-spiked HNV samples and classified as non-malignant (NOS). Using the training set, CTs later analyzed the available patient sample. The positive cancer patient sample showed cells with obvious characteristics of malignancy.

Conclusion

The basic characteristics of malignancy used for analysis of standard cytology specimens are adequate to identify CTCs using the established background to eliminate the NOS cells. CTC testing can be performed using the combination of Parsortix® System, standard cytology staining and analysis by qualified Cytologists.

Sudden Sensorineural Hearing Loss after Third Dose Booster of COVID-19 Vaccine Administration

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was declared a pandemic due to its rapid spread worldwide, and its vaccination campaign is considered one of the most historic public hygiene measures in modern medicine. Sudden sensorineural hearing loss (SSHL) is a common emergency that affects patient’s quality of life and requires rapid treatment with steroids. The etiology could be viral or vascular even though in most cases it remains unknown (idiopathic SSHL). During the SARS-CoV-2 vaccination campaign, several rare but serious adverse events have been reported including thrombosis with thrombocytopenia syndrome, myocarditis, and Guillain-Barré Syndrome. ENT adverse events after vaccination were reported too, including cases of sudden sensorineural hearing loss (SSHL), vestibular neuronitis and audio vestibular disorders (such as tinnitus, dizziness, and vertigo). For the first time here, we reported two cases of SSHL after third administration of COVID-19 mRNA vaccine. Even if there is not clear evidence of an association between SSHL and vaccination, adverse effects should be kept in mind since viral infection could be the etiology of SSHL.

MicroRNA-Mediated Silencing Pathways in the Nervous System and Neurological Diseases

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs that play a prominent role in post-transcriptional gene regulation mechanisms in the brain tuning synaptic plasticity, memory formation, and cognitive functions in physiological and pathological conditions [...]

Serum NGF and BDNF in Long-COVID-19 Adolescents: A Pilot Study

COVID-19 (COronaVIrus Disease 19) is an infectious disease also known as an acute respiratory syndrome caused by the SARS-CoV-2. Although in children and adolescents SARS-CoV-2 infection produces mostly mild or moderate symptoms, in a certain percentage of recovered young people a condition of malaise, defined as long-COVID-19, remains. To date, the risk factors for the development of long-COVID-19 are not completely elucidated. Neurotrophins such as NGF (Nerve Growth Factor) and BDNF (Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor) are known to regulate not only neuronal growth, survival and plasticity, but also to influence cardiovascular, immune, and endocrine systems in physiological and/or pathological conditions; to date only a few papers have discussed their potential role in COVID-19. In the present pilot study, we aimed to identify NGF and BDNF changes in the serum of a small cohort of male and female adolescents that contracted the infection during the second wave of the pandemic (between September and October 2020), notably in the absence of available vaccines. Blood withdrawal was carried out when the recruited adolescents tested negative for the SARS-CoV-2 (“post-infected COVID-19”), 30 to 35 days after the last molecular test. According to their COVID-19 related outcomes, the recruited individuals were divided into three groups: asymptomatics, acute symptomatics and symptomatics that over time developed long-COVID-19 symptoms (“future long-COVID-19”). As a control group, we analyzed the serum of age-matched healthy controls that did not contract the infection. Inflammatory biomarkers (TNF-α, TGF-β), MCP-1, IL-1α, IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12) were also analyzed with the free oxygen radicals’ presence as an oxidative stress index. We showed that NGF serum content was lower in post-infected-COVID-19 individuals when compared to healthy controls; BDNF levels were found to be higher compared to healthy individuals only in post-infected-COVID-19 symptomatic and future long-COVID-19 girls, leaving the BDNF levels unchanged in asymptomatic individuals if compared to controls. Oxidative stress and inflammatory biomarkers were unchanged in male and female adolescents, except for TGF-β that, similarly to BDNF, was higher in post-infected-COVID-19 symptomatic and future long-COVID-19 girls. We predicted that NGF and/or BDNF could be used as early biomarkers of COVID-19 morbidity in adolescents.

Exploring Mitochondrial Localization of SARS-CoV-2 RNA by Padlock Assay: A Pilot Study in Human Placenta

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic dictated new priorities in biomedicine research. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative agent of COVID-19, is a single-stranded positive-sense RNA virus. In this pilot study, we optimized our padlock assay to visualize genomic and subgenomic regions using formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded placental samples obtained from a confirmed case of COVID-19. SARS-CoV-2 RNA was localized in trophoblastic cells. We also checked the presence of the virion by immunolocalization of its glycoprotein spike. In addition, we imaged mitochondria of placental villi keeping in mind that the mitochondrion has been suggested as a potential residence of the SARS-CoV-2 genome. We observed a substantial overlapping of SARS-CoV-2 RNA and mitochondria in trophoblastic cells. This intriguing linkage correlated with an aberrant mitochondrial network. Overall, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that provides evidence of colocalization of the SARS-CoV-2 genome and mitochondria in SARS-CoV-2 infected tissue. These findings also support the notion that SARS-CoV-2 infection can reprogram mitochondrial activity in the highly specialized maternal–fetal interface.

Early Routine Biomarkers of SARS-CoV-2 Morbidity and Mortality: Outcomes from an Emergency Section

Background. COVID-19 is a severe acute respiratory disease caused by SARS-CoV-2, a virus belonging to the Coronaviridae family. This disease has spread rapidly around the world and soon became an international public health emergency leading to an unpredicted pressure on the hospital emergency units. Early routine blood biomarkers could be key predicting factors of COVID-19 morbidity and mortality as suggested for C-reactive protein (CRP), IL-6, prothrombin and D-dimer. This study aims to identify other early routine blood biomarkers for COVID-19 severity prediction disclosed directly into the emergency section. Methods. Our research was conducted on 156 COVID-19 patients hospitalized at the Sapienza University Hospital “Policlinico Umberto I” of Rome, Italy, between March 2020 and April 2020 during the paroxysm’s initial phase of the pandemic. In this retrospective study, patients were divided into three groups according to their outcome: (1) emergency group (patients who entered the emergency room and were discharged shortly after because they did not show severe symptoms); (2) intensive care unit (ICU) group (patients who attended the ICU after admission to the emergency unit); (3) the deceased group (patients with a fatal outcome who attended the emergency and, afterward, the ICU units). Routine laboratory tests from medical records were collected when patients were admitted to the emergency unit. We focused on Aspartate transaminase (AST), Alanine transaminase (ALT), Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), Creatine kinase (CK), Myoglobin (MGB), Ferritin, CRP, and D-dimer. Results. As expected, ANOVA data show an age morbidity increase in both ICU and deceased groups compared with the emergency group. A main effect of morbidity was revealed by ANOVA for all the analyzed parameters with an elevation between the emergency group and the deceased group. Furthermore, a significant increase in LDH, Ferritin, CRP, and D-dimer was also observed between the ICU group and the emergency group and between the deceased group and ICU group. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses confirmed and extended these findings. Conclusions. This study suggests that the contemporaneous presence of high levels of LDH, Ferritin, and as expected, CRP, and D-dimer could be considered as potential predictors of COVID-19 severity and death.

Fine-Tuning of mTOR mRNA and Nucleolin Complexes by SMN

Increasing evidence points to the Survival Motor Neuron (SMN) protein as a key determinant of translation pathway. Besides its role in RNA processing and sorting, several works support a critical implication of SMN in ribosome biogenesis. We previously showed that SMN binds ribosomal proteins (RPs) as well as their encoding transcripts, ensuring an appropriate level of locally synthesized RPs. SMN impacts the translation machinery in both neural and non-neural cells, in agreement with the concept that SMN is an essential protein in all cell types. Here, we further assessed the relationship between SMN and translation-related factors in immortalized human fibroblasts. We focused on SMN-nucleolin interaction, keeping in mind that nucleolin is an RNA-binding protein, highly abundant within the nucleolus, that exhibits a central role in ribosomes production. Nucleolin may also affects translation network by binding the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) mRNA and promoting its local synthesis. In this regard, for the first time we provided evidence that SMN protein itself associates with mTOR transcript. Collectively, we found that: (1) SMN coexists with nucleolin-mTOR mRNA complexes at subcellular level; (2) SMN deficiency impairs nucleolar compartmentalization of nucleolin, and (3) this event correlates with the nuclear retention of mTOR mRNA. These findings suggest that SMN may regulate not only structural components of translation machinery, but also their upstream regulating factors.

Staying tuned for post-COVID-19 syndrome: looking for new research to sniff out

Post-COVID-19 syndrome was defined as a persistent and protracted illness, which follows acute COVID-19 infection. This condition continues for more than 12 weeks and cannot be attributed to other clinical situations. Researchers and clinicians are allied in unraveling the molecular pathogenetic mechanisms and the clinical development of this unexpected SARS-CoV-2 infectious evolution. Anosmia, dysgeusia, fatigue, dyspnea, and 'brain fog' are common symptoms observed in the Post-COVID-19 syndrome, depicting a multiorgan involvement associated with injuries involving mainly cardiovascular, pulmonary, musculoskeletal, and neuropsychiatric systems. This commentary analyzes the state of the art of Post-COVID-19 interdisciplinary studies, confirming that we are facing a truly intricate biomedicine story.

Mediterranean Diet, Brain and Muscle: Olive Polyphenols and Resveratrol Protection in Neurodegenerative and Neuromuscular Disorders

The Mediterranean diet is worldwide recognized as a good prototype of nutrition due to the conspicuous intake of olive oil, nuts, red wine, legumes, fruit, and vegetables, all fundamental elements rich in antioxidant substances and polyphenols. Polyphenols are a wide range of phytochemicals and/or synthetic chemical compounds with proven beneficial properties for human health. In the present review, we critically summarize the well-characterized antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of polyphenols contained in the olives and extra virgin olive oil and of resveratrol, a non-flavonoid phenolic compound. We discussed the potential use of these polyphenols as pharmaceutical formulations for the treatment of human diseases. We also show the emerging importance of their consumption in the prevention and management of crucial neurodegenerative conditions (alcohol-related brain disorders and aging) and in neuromuscular disorders (Spinal Muscular Atrophy and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy), where oxidative stress plays a predominant role.

Alzheimer's Disease: New Concepts on the Role of Autoimmunity and NLRP3 Inflammasome in the Pathogenesis of the Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD), recognized as the most common neurodegenerative disorder, is clinically characterized by the presence of extracellular beta-amyloid (Aβ) plaques and by intracellular neurofibrillary tau tangles, accompanied by glial activation and neuroinflammation. Increasing evidence suggests that self-misfolded proteins stimulate an immune response mediated by glial cells, inducing the release of inflammatory mediators and the recruitment of peripheral macrophages into the brain, which in turn aggravate AD pathology. The present review aims to update the current knowledge on the role of autoimmunity and neuroinflammation in the pathogenesis of the disease, indicating a new target for therapeutic intervention. We mainly focused on the NLRP3 microglial inflammasome as a critical factor in stimulating innate immune responses, thus sustaining chronic inflammation. Additionally, we discussed the involvement of the NLRP3 inflammasome in the gut-brain axis. Direct targeting of the NLRP3 inflammasome and the associated receptors could be a potential pharmacological strategy since its inhibition would selectively reduce AD neuroinflammation.

Cognitive Decline and Modulation of Alzheimer's Disease-Related Genes After Inhibition of MicroRNA-101 in Mouse Hippocampal Neurons

MicroRNAs have emerged as regulators of brain development and function. Reduction of miR-101 expression has been reported in rodent hippocampus during ageing, in the brain of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients and in AD animal models. In this study, we investigated the behavioral and molecular consequences of inhibition of endogenous miR-101 in 4-5-month-old C57BL/6J mice, infused with lentiviral particles expressing a miR-101 sponge (pLSyn-miR-101 sponge) in the CA1 field of the hippocampus. The sponge-infected mouse model showed cognitive impairment. The pLSyn-miR-101 sponge-infected mice were unable to discriminate either a novel object location or a novel object as assessed by object place recognition (OPR) and novel object recognition (NOR) tasks, respectively. Moreover, the sponge-infected mice evaluated for contextual memory in inhibitory avoidance task showed shorter retention latency compared to control pLSyn mice. These cognitive impairment features were associated with increased hippocampal expression of relevant miR-101 target genes, amyloid precursor protein (APP), RanBP9 and Rab5 and overproduction of amyloid beta (Aβ) 42 levels, the more toxic species of Aβ peptide. Notably, phosphorylation-dependent AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) hyperactivation is associated with AD pathology and age-dependent memory decline, and we found AMPK hyperphosphorylation in the hippocampus of pLSyn-miR-101 sponge mice. This study demonstrates that mimicking age-associated loss of miR-101 in hippocampal neurons induces cognitive decline and modulation of AD-related genes in mice.

Effects of capacitive and resistive electric transfer therapy in patients with painful shoulder impingement syndrome: a comparative study

Objective

Capacitive and resistive electric transfer therapy (CARE) reduces pain and improves quality of life for many orthopaedic degenerative and inflammatory disorders. The research aim was to determine the effects of CARE on painful shoulder. The outcomes were pain reduction and recovery of shoulder function.

Methods

A retrospective, observational case-control study was conducted. Participants were 46 patients (22 in the CARE group and 24 in the SHAM group). Clinical data, pain (visual analogic scale, VAS) and functional scale scores (Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand scale, and Constant–Murley Scale) were measured at baseline T0 (before treatment), T1 (after treatment) and follow-up T2 (2 months after the end of the treatment).

Results

VAS scores in the CARE group improved from 7.23 ± 1.11 at baseline to 2.68 ± 0.99 at follow-up. The SHAM group did not experience any improvement. Similarly, functional scale scores improved in the CARE group compared with the SHAM group.

Conclusion

Considering the small number of sessions needed, low cost and long-term benefits, CARE could be a useful therapeutic option for the conservative management of shoulder pain to restore pain-free and powerful movement to the shoulder joint.

Mediterranean diet and physical activity improve posture, fat mass and salivary pH

Many researchers have revealed that diet and physical activity influence metabolic function and posture in various stages of life. This paper aims to combine them and demonstrate how they could promote a healthy lifestyle. For this purpose, 14 healthy subjects followed a three-month protocol combining physical activity with dietary advice. At the end of the protocol, the results of the study underlined a significant reduction in fat mass, an improvement in salivary pH, and a realignment and rebalancing of body segments. .

Clinical and radiological signs of ABPA associated with airways infection with Aspergillus in the absence of specific IgE

Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) is a hypersensitivity reaction to Aspergillus that mainly affects patients with asthma. For diagnosis, elevated serum IgE level are needed according to Greenberger and Patterson criteria. We report a case of 43 years-old woman who developed ABPA with productive cough, fever and radiological findings of multiple confluent areas of consolidation in both upper lobes. Laboratory tests showed elevated peripheral eosinophil counts (9.3 x 10(3)/ml). In bronchial washing A. galactomannans and A. Fumigatus were isolated, although we found normal levels of serum IgE, and the absence of serum IgG and IgE antibodies to Aspergillus and A. galactomannans. In conclusion, clinical and radiological signs of ABPA can be associated with Aspergillus infection also in the absence of a specific serum antibody reaction.

Selective inhibition of miR-92 in hippocampal neurons alters contextual fear memory

Post-transcriptional gene regulation mediated by microRNAs (miRNAs) is implicated in memory formation; however, the function of miR-92 in this regulation is uncharacterized. The present study shows that training mice in contextual fear conditioning produces a transient increase in miR-92 levels in the hippocampus and decreases several miR-92 gene targets, including: (i) the neuronal Cl(-) extruding K(+) Cl(-) co-transporter 2 (KCC2) protein; (ii) the cytoplasmic polyadenylation protein (CPEB3), an RNA-binding protein regulator of protein synthesis in neurons; and (iii) the transcription factor myocyte enhancer factor 2D (MEF2D), one of the MEF2 genes which negatively regulates memory-induced structural plasticity. Selective inhibition of endogenous miR-92 in CA1 hippocampal neurons, by a sponge lentiviral vector expressing multiple sequences imperfectly complementary to mature miR-92 under the control of the neuronal specific synapsin promoter, leads to up-regulation of KCC2, CPEB3 and MEF2D, impairs contextual fear conditioning, and prevents a memory-induced increase in the spine density. Taken together, the results indicate that neuronal-expressed miR-92 is an endogenous fine regulator of contextual fear memory in mice.

A lentiviral sponge for miR-101 regulates RanBP9 expression and amyloid precursor protein metabolism in hippocampal neurons

Neurodegeneration associated with amyloid β (Aβ) peptide accumulation, synaptic loss, and memory impairment are pathophysiological features of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Numerous microRNAs regulate amyloid precursor protein (APP) expression and metabolism. We previously reported that miR-101 is a negative regulator of APP expression in cultured hippocampal neurons. In this study, a search for predicted APP metabolism-associated miR-101 targets led to the identification of a conserved miR-101 binding site within the 3′ untranslated region (UTR) of the mRNA encoding Ran-binding protein 9 (RanBP9). RanBP9 increases APP processing by β-amyloid converting enzyme 1 (BACE1), secretion of soluble APPβ (sAPPβ), and generation of Aβ. MiR-101 significantly reduced reporter gene expression when co-transfected with a RanBP9 3′-UTR reporter construct, while site-directed mutagenesis of the predicted miR-101 target site eliminated the reporter response. To investigate the effect of stable inhibition of miR-101 both in vitro and in vivo, a microRNA sponge was developed to bind miR-101 and derepress its targets. Four tandem bulged miR-101 responsive elements (REs), located downstream of the enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP) open reading frame and driven by the synapsin promoter, were placed in a lentiviral vector to create the pLSyn-miR-101 sponge. Delivery of the sponge to primary hippocampal neurons significantly increased both APP and RanBP9 expression, as well as sAPPβ levels in the conditioned medium. Importantly, silencing of endogenous RanBP9 reduced sAPPβ levels in miR-101 sponge-containing hippocampal cultures, indicating that miR-101 inhibition may increase amyloidogenic processing of APP by RanBP9. Lastly, the impact of miR-101 on its targets was demonstrated in vivo by intrahippocampal injection of the pLSyn-miR-101 sponge into C57BL6 mice. This study thus provides the basis for studying the consequences of long-term miR-101 inhibition on the pathology of AD.

First-line chemotherapy with liposomal doxorubicin plus cyclofosfamide in metastatic breast cancer: a case report of early and prolonged response

The treatment choice for metastatic breast cancer should consider the appropriate balance between efficacy and toxicity of the therapy. We discuss a clinical case with an early response and prolonged to liposomal anthracyclines-based chemotherapy, without cardiotoxicity, enhancing the evidence of safety of liposomal formulation to prevent heart damage. Moreover, the case seems to be of interest for the role of 18F-FDG-PET in clinical response assessment: an early decrease of the standardized uptake value value, even before conventional imaging evaluation, is highly predictive for prolonged clinical response.

Neuroendocrine tumors diagnosed at the Antonio Cardarelli hospital (Naples, Italy) between 2006-2009: a single-institution analysis

Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) are rare, with an incidence of about 5 per 100,000 inhabitants. As no study on NETs has ever been specifically conducted on the population of Campania, we performed a retrospective analysis of all newly diagnosed NETs at the Antonio Cardarelli hospital between 2006-2009. A search of the registry of the Pathology Department of the Antonio Cardarelli hospital was carried out to retrieve available data on all newly diagnosed NET cases. Two hundred and ninety-nine NET tumors were diagnosed at our Institution from January, 2006 to December, 2009. Globally, 121 patients (40% of the population) had a lung NET, while 92 patients (30% of the population) presented a GEP-NET. The most common primary tumor site varied by sex, with female patients being more likely to have a primary NET in the lung, breast or colon, and male patients being more likely to have a primary tumor in the lung. Also, twenty-three cases of breast NETs were identified, and clinical information regarding therapy and response was available for 22 patients. Our study represents a pioneering effort to provide the medical community in Campania with basic information on a large number of patients with different types of NETs. The Antonio Cardarelli hospital could greatly benefit from cooperation with other hospitals in order to become a highly specialized center for NETs in the region and Southern Italy.

Post-transcriptional regulation of amyloid precursor protein by microRNAs and RNA binding proteins

Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) and its proteolytic product amyloid beta (Aβ) are critical in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease (AD). APP gene duplication and transcriptional upregulation are linked to AD. In addition, normal levels of APP appear to be required for some physiological functions in the developing brain. Several studies in mammalian cell lines and primary neuron cultures indicate that RNA binding proteins and microRNAs interacting with regulatory regions of the APP mRNA modulate expression of APP post-transcriptionally. However, when the various mechanisms of APP post-transcriptional regulation are recruited and which of them are acting in a synergistic fashion to balance APP protein levels, is unclear. Recent studies suggest that further investigation of the molecules and pathways involved in APP post-transcriptional regulation are warranted.

MicroRNA-101 regulates amyloid precursor protein expression in hippocampal neurons

The amyloid precursor protein (APP) and its proteolytic product amyloid beta (Abeta) are associated with both familial and sporadic forms of Alzheimer disease (AD). Aberrant expression and function of microRNAs has been observed in AD. Here, we show that in rat hippocampal neurons cultured in vitro, the down-regulation of Argonaute-2, a key component of the RNA-induced silencing complex, produced an increase in APP levels. Using site-directed mutagenesis, a microRNA responsive element (RE) for miR-101 was identified in the 3'-untranslated region (UTR) of APP. The inhibition of endogenous miR-101 increased APP levels, whereas lentiviral-mediated miR-101 overexpression significantly reduced APP and Abeta load in hippocampal neurons. In addition, miR-101 contributed to the regulation of APP in response to the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-1beta (IL-lbeta). Thus, miR-101 is a negative regulator of APP expression and affects the accumulation of Abeta, suggesting a possible role for miR-101 in neuropathological conditions.

MicroRNA-92 modulates K(+) Cl(-) co-transporter KCC2 expression in cerebellar granule neurons

MicroRNAs have been associated to fine-tuning spatial and temporal control of gene expression during neuronal development. The neuronal Cl(-) extruding, K(+)Cl(-) co-transporter 2 (KCC2) is known to play an important role in neuronal Cl(-) homeostasis and in determining the physiological response to activation of anion selective GABA receptors. Here we show that microRNA-92 is developmentally down-regulated during maturation of rat cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) in vitro. Computational predictions suggest several high-ranking targets for microRNA-92 including the KCC2 gene. Consistently, the KCC2 protein levels were up-regulated in mature CGN in vitro and a functional association between microRNA-92 and KCC2 3' untranslated region was established using luciferase assays. The generation of an inward directed Cl(-) electrochemical gradient, necessary for the hyperpolarizing effect of GABA, requires robust KCC2 expression in several neuronal types. Here we show that lentiviral-mediated microRNA-92 over-expression reduced KCC2 protein levels and positively shifted reversal potential of GABA induced Cl(-) currents in CGNs. In addition KCC2 re-expression reversed microRNA-92 electrophysiological phenotype. Consistently microRNA-92 inhibition induced both an increase of the level of KCC2 and a negative shift in GABA reversal potential. These findings introduce a new player in the developmental change of GABA from depolarization to hyperpolarization.

Thinking about RNA? MicroRNAs in the brain

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a recently discovered class of small RNA molecules implicated in a wide range of diverse gene regulatory mechanisms. Interestingly, numerous miRNAs are expressed in a spatially and temporally controlled manner in the nervous system. This suggests that gene regulation networks based on miRNA activities may be particularly relevant in neurons. Recent studies show the involvement of RNA-mediated gene silencing in neurogenesis, neural differentiation, synaptic plasticity, and neurologic and psychiatric diseases. This review focuses on the roles of miRNAs in the gene regulation of the nervous system.

Dicer expression and localization in post-mitotic neurons

RNA-mediated gene silencing is recently emerged as a fundamental mechanism of regulation of gene expression in many organisms and tissues, with special emphasis with respect to the nervous system. With the aim to study the components of RNA silencing machinery, we have investigated the expression profile and localization of dicer protein RNase III endonuclease in cultures of post-mitotic neurons. Dicer catalyzes the processing of double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs) into approximately 21-25 nucleotide-long small interfering (si)RNAs and micro (mi)RNAs, and it represents an essential step in the biogenesis of these small non-coding RNA molecules. We show that in rat primary neurons dicer is localized in the somatodendritic compartment, at the Golgi-reticulum area network level. This peculiar distribution was altered by brefeldin A treatment. Moreover the Golgi-reticulum dicer signal was observed also in primary astroglial cells. In addiction dicer was observed to be regulated during the embryogenesis and development in several tissues. In fact its expression is developmentally regulated in cultured cerebellar granule neurons. This is the first study in which dicer is shown preferentially distributed in the Golgi-reticulum area in post-mitotic terminally differentiated neuronal and glial cells and that its profile is modulated during maturation and development of in vitro cultured cerebellar granule neurons.

AMPA receptors are modulated by tachykinins in rat cerebellum neurons

The peptides of the tachykinin family are widely distributed within the mammalian peripheral and central nervous systems and play a well-recognized role as neuromodulators, although their direct action on cerebellum granule cells have not yet been demonstrated. We have examined the effect of the best known members of the family, substance P (SP), neurokinin A (NKA), and neurokinin B (NKB) on alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors from rat cerebellar granule cells in culture to assess the ability of these peptides to regulate the glutamatergic input. Both NKA and NKB, but not SP, produce a significant enhancement of ionic current through AMPA receptors activated by the agonist kainate in 53.5 and 46% of patched neurons, respectively. This effect was not observable in the presence of MEN 10,627 and Trp(7)betaAla(8), NKA and NKB competitive antagonist receptors, respectively, indicating that the current modulations were mediated by the respective receptors. NKB also produces a significant enhancement of ionic current through the AMPA receptors activated directly by its agonist AMPA and cyclothiazide, an allosteric modulator that selectively suppresses desensitization of AMPA receptors. The presence of NK3 receptors was demonstrated in these neurons by RT-PCR amplification of total RNA extracted from cerebellar granule cells, using NK3-specific primer pairs. Immunocytochemistry experiments, using a specific polyclonal antibody directed against NK3, also confirmed the presence of NK3 receptors and their co-localization with the GLUR2 AMPA subunit in about 54% of cerebellar granule neurons. This study adds the tachykinins to the list of neuromodulators capable of exerting a excitatory action on cerebellar granule cells.

Tachykinin neuropeptides in cerebellar granule neurons: an immunocytochemical study

We previously demonstrated that exogenously administered neurokinin A and neurokinin B, but not substance P, increased the sensitivity of cultured cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) to glutamate. In the present study, the presence of tachykinin neuropeptides in CGNs was tested by confocal-based immunofluorescence. We found that neurokinin A and neurokinin B are present in CGNs but absent in astrocytes while substance P is abundant in astrocytes but absent in CGNs. It is postulated that the different localization of tachykinin neuropeptides in CGNs and astroglial cells has a physiological role in the modulation of excitatory transmission.

Interaction of Tau with Fe65 links tau to APP

The beta-amyloid precursor protein APP and the microtubule-associated protein Tau play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the possible molecular events linking these two proteins are still unknown. Here, we show that Fe65, one of the ligands of the APP cytodomain, is associated with Tau in vivo and in vitro, as demonstrated by co-immunoprecipitation, co-localization, and FRET experiments. Deletion studies indicated that the N-terminal domain of Tau and the PTB1 domain of Fe65 are required for this association. This interaction is regulated by the phosphorylation of Tau at selected sites, by glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK3beta) and cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5), and requires an intact microtubule network. Furthermore, laser scanner microscopy and co-immunoprecipitation experiments provide preliminary evidence of possible complex(es) involving Tau, Fe65, APP. These findings open new perspectives for the study of the possible crosstalk between these proteins in the pathogenesis of AD.