The COX-2 inhibitor NS-398 causes T-cell developmental disruptions independent of COX-2 enzyme inhibition

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) inhibit the function of cyclooxygenases, COX-1 and COX-2, which catalyze the first step in the synthesis of inflammatory mediators (PGE2). We sought to understand the roles of cyclooxygenases and NSAIDs in T-cell development. Our data show no significant defects in T-cell development in fetal thymic organ cultures of mice disrupted in both or either COX genes or in mice disrupted in either EP-1 or EP-2 receptor genes. On the other hand, NSAIDs reproducibly caused thymocyte developmental defects. However, the specific effects of the COX-2 inhibitors were not correlated with their potency for inhibition of COX-2 activity. We focused on the NS-398 COX-2 inhibitor and showed that its effects could not be reversed by exogenous PGE2. Furthermore, NS-398 was inhibitory even when its target, COX-2, was absent. These data show that the T-cell developmental effects of NS-398 are COX-2 and PGE2 independent.

Notch1 regulates maturation of CD4+ and CD8+ thymocytes by modulating TCR signal strength

Notch signaling regulates cell fate decisions in multiple lineages. We demonstrate in this report that retroviral expression of activated Notch1 in mouse thymocytes abrogates differentiation of immature CD4+CD8+ thymocytes into both CD4 and CD8 mature single-positive T cells. The ability of Notch1 to inhibit T cell development was observed in vitro and in vivo with both normal and TCR transgenic thymocytes. Notch1-mediated developmental arrest was dose dependent and was associated with impaired thymocyte responses to TCR stimulation. Notch1 also inhibited TCR-mediated signaling in Jurkat T cells. These data indicate that constitutively active Notch1 abrogates CD4+ and CD8+ maturation by interfering with TCR signal strength and provide an explanation for the physiological regulation of Notch expression during thymocyte development.

Loss of function of the homeobox gene Hoxa-9 perturbs early T-cell development and induces apoptosis in primitive thymocytes

Hox homeobox genes play a crucial role in specifying the embryonic body pattern. However, a role for Hox genes in T-cell development has not been explored. The Hoxa-9 gene is expressed in normal adult and fetal thymuses. Fetal thymuses of mice homozygous for an interruption of the Hoxa-9 gene are one eighth normal size and have a 25-fold decrease in the number of primitive thymocytes expressing the interleukin-2 receptor (IL-2R, CD25). Progression to the double positive (CD4+CD8+) stage is dramatically retarded in fetal thymic organ cultures. This aberrant development is associated with decreased amounts of intracellular CD3 and T-cell receptor beta (TCRbeta) and reduced surface expression of IL-7R and E-cadherin. Mutant thymocytes show a significant increase in apoptotic cell death and premature downregulation of bcl-2 expression. A similar phenotype is seen in primitive thymocytes from adult Hoxa-9-/- mice and from mice transplanted with Hoxa-9-/- marrow. Hoxa-9 appears to play a previously unsuspected role in T-cell ontogeny by modulating cell survival of early thymocytes and by regulating their subsequent differentiation.

Mice bearing a targeted interruption of the homeobox gene HOXA9 have defects in myeloid, erythroid, and lymphoid hematopoiesis

Several homeobox genes of the HOXA and HOXB clusters are expressed in primitive blood cells, suggesting a role for HOX genes in normal hematopoiesis. The HOXA9 gene is expressed in CD34+ marrow cells and in developing lymphocytes. We examined blood-forming organs of mice homozygous for an interrupted HOXA9 allele to determine if loss of HOX gene function is deleterious to hematopoiesis. HOXA9-/- mice have approximately 30% to 40% reductions in total leukocytes and lymphocytes (P < .001) and a blunted granulocytic response to granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF). Homozygous mice have significantly smaller spleens and thymuses. Myeloid/erythroid and pre-B progenitors in the marrow are significantly reduced, but no significant decreases are noted in mixed colonies, day 12 colony-forming units-spleen (CFU-S), or long-term culture-initiating cells (LTC-IC), suggesting little or no perturbation in earlier progenitors. Heterozygous animals display no hematopoietic defects. The abnormalities in leukocyte production are transplantable, indicating that the defect resides in the hematopoietic cells. These studies demonstrate a physiologic role for a HOX gene in blood cell differentiation, with the greatest apparent influence of HOXA9 at the level of the committed progenitor.

Expression of tyrosine kinase gene in mouse thymic stromal cells

Amongst the most important signal transduction molecules involved in regulating growth and differentiation are the protein tyrosine kinases (PTK). Since T cell development is a consequence of interactions between thymic stromal cells (TSC) and thymocytes, identification of the PTK in both compartments is required to dissect the mechanisms that control this process. Here we report a search for PTK in mouse TSC, using RT-PCR to survey the repertoire of PTK mRNAs expressed in a freshly isolated TSC preparation. We identified 10 different PTK cDNAs among the 216 cDNAs sequenced, and demonstrate that transcripts of three of those (ufo, fyn and fer) are widely expressed among a large panel of immortalized thymic epithelial cell lines (TEC) and in primary cultures of TSC. Of the other seven, none were expressed in established TEC lines but, instead, displayed distinct expression patterns in cell types likely to have contaminated the fresh TSC preparation, i.e., macrophages, B cells, T cells and fibroblasts. Among the three PTK expressed in TEC lines, only one, ufo, exhibited expression exclusively in cells of non-hemopoietic origin. Although expression of ufo (also known as tyro 7, axl or ark) is not thymic-specific, in that it is also expressed in cell types of mesodermal origin in other tissues, its presence in TEC suggests a role for ufo in differentiation of the TSC compartment. Consistent with this notion, high-level expression of this receptor PTK at the protein level could be documented in every TEC line investigated, as well as in fresh thymus tissue sections. These data provide the first example of a receptor PTK in TSC and open new approaches to study the regulation of TSC differentiation.

Identification and functional analysis of Ly-6A/E as a thymic and bone marrow stromal antigen

We recently described an mAb (MTS23) reactive with a membrane Ag expressed on a subset of thymic medullary stromal cells. This Ag is also constitutively expressed at high levels on peripheral B cells, macrophages, and thymic and splenic dendritic cells of C57BL/6 mice. A number of stromal cell lines derived from thymus and bone marrow also stain with MTS23, but thymocytes and peripheral T cells only weakly express the Ag detected by MTS23. Here we show that the molecule detected by MTS23 is a member of the Ly-6 family of phosphatidylinositol-anchored membrane proteins. Treatment of stromal cells with phosphatidylinositol-phospholipase C before staining completely abolished expression. Using transient expression of 293T cells and a cDNA library of a stromal cell line cloned into the pEF-BOS vector, a cDNA encoding the MTS23-target Ag was isolated. Partial sequencing and restriction enzyme mapping revealed that it represents the Ly-6A/E protein. While the physiologic significance of the presence of Ly-6 molecules on stromal cells is not clear, it has been known for some time that, at least in lymphocytes, cellular activation events can be induced upon Ly-6 engagement. We now demonstrate that Ly-6 also functions as a signal transduction molecule on stromal cells, in that granulocyte-macrophage CSF can be produced by a variety of stromal cell lines upon mAb-mediated cross-linking of Ly-6. Together with the dramatic up-regulation of Ly-6 expression on stromal cells upon IFN-gamma treatment, this is the first indication of a biologic function of an Ly-6 gene product on nonhemopoietic cells. The results suggest that Ly-6 may play a role in the cross-talk between lymphocyte precursors and stromal cells.

Identification and functional analysis of Ly-6A/E as a thymic and bone marrow stromal antigen

We recently described an mAb (MTS23) reactive with a membrane Ag expressed on a subset of thymic medullary stromal cells. This Ag is also constitutively expressed at high levels on peripheral B cells, macrophages, and thymic and splenic dendritic cells of C57BL/6 mice. A number of stromal cell lines derived from thymus and bone marrow also stain with MTS23, but thymocytes and peripheral T cells only weakly express the Ag detected by MTS23. Here we show that the molecule detected by MTS23 is a member of the Ly-6 family of phosphatidylinositol-anchored membrane proteins. Treatment of stromal cells with phosphatidylinositol-phospholipase C before staining completely abolished expression. Using transient expression of 293T cells and a cDNA library of a stromal cell line cloned into the pEF-BOS vector, a cDNA encoding the MTS23-target Ag was isolated. Partial sequencing and restriction enzyme mapping revealed that it represents the Ly-6A/E protein. While the physiologic significance of the presence of Ly-6 molecules on stromal cells is not clear, it has been known for some time that, at least in lymphocytes, cellular activation events can be induced upon Ly-6 engagement. We now demonstrate that Ly-6 also functions as a signal transduction molecule on stromal cells, in that granulocyte-macrophage CSF can be produced by a variety of stromal cell lines upon mAb-mediated cross-linking of Ly-6. Together with the dramatic up-regulation of Ly-6 expression on stromal cells upon IFN-gamma treatment, this is the first indication of a biologic function of an Ly-6 gene product on nonhemopoietic cells. The results suggest that Ly-6 may play a role in the cross-talk between lymphocyte precursors and stromal cells.

E2A proteins are required for proper B cell development and initiation of immunoglobulin gene rearrangements

E12 and E47 are two helix-loop-helix transcription factors that arise by alternative splicing of the E2A gene. Both have been implicated in the regulation of immunoglobulin gene expression. We have now generated E2A (-/-) mice by gene targeting. E2A-null mutant mice fail to generate mature B cells. The arrest of B cell development occurs at an early stage, since no immunoglobulin DJ rearrangements can be detected in homozygous mutant mice. While immunoglobulin germline I mu RAG-1, mb-1, CD19, and lambda 5 transcripts are dramatically reduced in fetal livers of E2A (-/-) mice, B29 and mu degrees transcripts are present, but at lower levels. In addition, we show that Pax-5 transcripts are significantly reduced in fetal livers of E2A (-/-) mice. These data suggest a crucial role for E2A products as central regulators in early B cell differentiation.

A molecule expressed on accessory cells, activated T cells, and thymic epithelium is a marker and promoter of T cell activation

T cell maturation results in part from direct cell-cell interactions between developing thymocytes and thymic stromal cells. Identification of the cell surface molecules involved in these interactions has been approached by production of mAbs reactive to thymic stromal cell surface Ags. A mAb against one such Ag, mouse thymic stroma (MTS) mAb MTS 23, stains a subset of thymic medullary epithelium by immunohistology. In addition, it was found to detect, by flow cytometry, an Ag constitutively expressed on peripheral B cells and macrophages as well as thymic and splenic dendritic cells. This Ag was also up-regulated on T cells and thymocytes within 24 to 48 h after activation. We then investigated whether the Ag identified by MTS 23 may represent a functional accessory molecule. MTS 23 was able to block up to 75% of T cell proliferation in soluble anti-CD3 and Ag-induced responses in a dose-dependent manner, but not under conditions in which no APCs were required. The molecule detected by this mAb has an apparent molecular mass of 120 kDa under reducing and nonreducing conditions. On the basis of these molecular properties and expression pattern, it is therefore postulated that MTS 23 may detect a novel accessory molecule important for T cell activation. Its expression on thymic epithelium is consistent with the notion that T cell development is not solely a consequence of unique molecular interactions, but also of signals arising from combinations of interactions involving molecules also expressed extrathymically.

A molecule expressed on accessory cells, activated T cells, and thymic epithelium is a marker and promoter of T cell activation

T cell maturation results in part from direct cell-cell interactions between developing thymocytes and thymic stromal cells. Identification of the cell surface molecules involved in these interactions has been approached by production of mAbs reactive to thymic stromal cell surface Ags. A mAb against one such Ag, mouse thymic stroma (MTS) mAb MTS 23, stains a subset of thymic medullary epithelium by immunohistology. In addition, it was found to detect, by flow cytometry, an Ag constitutively expressed on peripheral B cells and macrophages as well as thymic and splenic dendritic cells. This Ag was also up-regulated on T cells and thymocytes within 24 to 48 h after activation. We then investigated whether the Ag identified by MTS 23 may represent a functional accessory molecule. MTS 23 was able to block up to 75% of T cell proliferation in soluble anti-CD3 and Ag-induced responses in a dose-dependent manner, but not under conditions in which no APCs were required. The molecule detected by this mAb has an apparent molecular mass of 120 kDa under reducing and nonreducing conditions. On the basis of these molecular properties and expression pattern, it is therefore postulated that MTS 23 may detect a novel accessory molecule important for T cell activation. Its expression on thymic epithelium is consistent with the notion that T cell development is not solely a consequence of unique molecular interactions, but also of signals arising from combinations of interactions involving molecules also expressed extrathymically.

Flow cytometric analysis reveals unexpected shared antigens between histologically defined populations of thymic stromal cells

Utilizing flow cytometry, the expression of antigens recognized by six thymic stromal cell (TSC) reactive mAbs was investigated on fresh TSCs and TSC lines. It was found that some thymic epithelial cells and dendritic cells share antigenic phenotypes, and that most TSC reactive mAbs have a more extensive distribution than would have been predicted from immunohistology. While these findings illustrate the higher sensitivity of flow cytometric analysis, they more importantly emphasize the great complexity of TSC that direct T cell development. In order to identify the molecular parameters that define the various steps involved in T cell differentiation, TSC antigens (non-TCR/MHC/co-receptor) that are functional will have to be identified. This study represents the initial steps in characterizing such antigens.

CD28-B7 interactions are not required for intrathymic clonal deletion

Activation of antigen specific T cells requires more than stimulation through the TCR-CD3 complex. A second or costimulatory signal is also required, and this second signal can be delivered by interactions between CD28 and B7, ligands expressed on T cells and antigen presenting cells respectively. We have examined the role of the CD28-B7 interaction in superantigen mediated T cell activation and intrathymic negative selection by blocking B7 molecules with a high affinity soluble ligand, CTLA4lg. In vitro T cell activation mediated by both virally encoded endogenous and exogenous bacterial superantigens was significantly blocked by the addition of CTL4Alg to cultures. However, intrathymic clonal deletion in vivo and in fetal thymic organ cultures was not inhibited by blocking B7 molecules. Therefore, although the CD28-B7 costimulation pathway is necessary for T cell activation, it does not appear to play a role in intrathymic clonal deletion.

T cell tolerance and antigen presenting cell function in the thymus

B7 expression appears much more extensive than previously recognized with anti-human B7 reagents on human leucocyte populations: it is extremely high on splenic and thymic DC, moderate on macrophages and activated B cells, and low on resting B cells. Additionally, B7 is entirely undetectable on any thymic epithelial cells belonging to a panel of transformed cell lines and T cells, but its expression on epithelial cells in situ is still under investigation. This expression pattern is consistent with the hierarchy of costimulatory signal activity among these cell types, with DC being the most effective, and epithelial cells (like other cells of non-hemopoietic origin) not at all. Future studies will investigate to which extent B7 is involved in clonal deletion, i.e., the selection process dependent on self-antigen presentation by DC and B cells.

The phenotypic heterogeneity of mouse thymic stromal cells

Sixteen monoclonal antibodies (mAb) were produced against mouse thymic stromal elements. These mAb fell into two groups of reactivity: (i) thymic epithelial markers (screened and presented according to the guidelines proposed in the 1989 Rolduc Thymic Epithelial Workshop); and (ii) non-epithelial thymic markers. Specificities of these mAb included extensive subpopulations of both epithelial and non-epithelial thymic stromal cells, as well as isolated stromal cells, demonstrating some of the complex microspecificities in existence within the thymic microenvironment. Furthermore, six of these mAb demonstrated shared antigenicity between thymocytes and thymic stromal cells, revealing greater similarities than previously recognized between these two components. Three mAb detected antigens illustrating three consecutive layers of the blood-thymus barrier: the vascular endothelium; connective tissue of the capsule and perivascular spaces; and the connective tissue associated with the basal laminae lining these regions. This study illustrates unequivocably that there are indeed complex and varied microenvironments existing within the thymus, and emphasizes the need for reclassification of these cells.

The cytoarchitecture of the human thymus detected by monoclonal antibodies

Seven monoclonal antibodies were produced against human thymic stromal cells. The monoclonal antibodies were put into two groups depending on whether the cells they detected were keratin-positive or -negative. Demonstrated in the keratin-negative group were a granular reticular meshwork, a stellate population predominantly in the medulla, and secretory cells associated with Hassall's corpuscles. In the keratin-positive group we showed two extensive epithelial networks, a trabecular and rare medullary epithelial population, and thymus-specific epithelium restricted to the subcapsule and the medulla. A novel finding was that some of the monoclonal antibodies and also OKM1 identified keratin-negative cells within Hassall's corpuscles, which implies that there are macrophages associated with these structures. The monoclonal antibodies should prove useful for separating and classifying subpopulations of stromal cells and also for monitoring changes in the thymic architecture in different thymic pathologies.

The myelopoietic inducing potential of mouse thymic stromal cells

The thymus has generally been considered as being solely involved in T cell maturation. In this study we have demonstrated that mouse thymic stroma can also support myelopoiesis. Bone marrow from mice treated with 5-fluorouracil was depleted of cells expressing Mac-1, CD4, and CD8 and incubated on lymphocyte-free monolayer cultures of adherent thymic stromal cells. After 7 days there was a marked increase in nonadherent cells, the majority of which were Mac-1+, FcR+, and HSA+. These proliferating bone marrow cells also expressed markers (MTS 17 and MTS 37) found on thymic stromal cells. Such cells were not found in thymic cultures alone, in bone marrow cultured alone, or on control adherent cell monolayers. Supernatants from the cultured thymic stroma, however, were able to induce these cell types in the bone marrow precursor population. Incubation of normal thymocytes with a monolayer of these in vitro cultivated Mac-1+, MTS 17+, MTS 37+ myeloid cells leads to selective phagocytosis of CD4+ CD8+ cells. Hence, this study demonstrates that the thymic adherent cells can induce myelopoiesis in bone marrow-derived precursor cells and provide a form of self-renewal for at least one population of thymic stromal cells. Furthermore, these induced cells are capable of selective phagocytosis of CD4+ CD8+ thymocytes and may provide one mechanism for the selective removal of such cells from the thymus.