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Argyle PA, Rhodes LL, Smith KF, Harwood DT, Halafihi T, Marsden ID. Diversity and distribution of benthic dinoflagellates in Tonga include the potentially harmful genera Gambierdiscus and Fukuyoa. Harmful Algae 2023; 130:102524. [PMID: 38061817 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2023.102524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 10/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023]
Abstract
Benthic dinoflagellates that can cause illness, such as ciguatera poisoning (CP), are prevalent around the Pacific but are poorly described in many locations. This study represents the first ecological assessment of benthic harmful algae species in the Kingdom of Tonga, a country where CP occurs regularly. Surveys were conducted in June 2016 in the Tongatapu island group, and in June 2017 across three island groups: Ha'apai, Vava'u, and Tongatapu. Shallow subtidal coastal habitats were investigated by measuring water quality parameters and conducting quadrat surveys. Microalgae samples were collected using either macrophyte collection or the artificial substrate method. Benthic dinoflagellates (Gambierdiscus and/or Fukuyoa, Ostreopsis, and Prorocentrum) were counted using light microscopy, followed by molecular analyses (real-time PCR in 2016 and high throughput sequencing (metabarcoding) in 2017) to identify Gambierdiscus and Fukuyoa to species level. Six species were detected from the Tongatapu island group in 2016 (G. australes, G. carpenteri, G. honu, G. pacificus, F. paulensis, and F. ruetzleri) using real-time PCR. Using the metabarcoding approach in 2017, a total of eight species (G. australes, G. carpenteri, G. honu, G. pacificus, G. cheloniae, G. lewisii, G. polynesiensis, and F. yasumotoi) were detected. Species were detected in mixed assemblages of up to six species, with G. pacificus and G. carpenteri being the most frequently observed. Ha'apai had the highest diversity with eight species detected, which identifies this area as a Gambierdiscus diversity 'hotspot'. Vava'u and Tongatapu had three and six species found respectively. Gambierdiscus polynesiensis, a described ciguatoxin producer and proposed causative agent of CP was found only in Ha'apai and Vava'u in 2017, but not in Tongatapu in either year. Ostreopsis spp. and Prorocentrum spp. were also frequently observed, with Prorocentrum most abundant at the majority of sites. In 2016, the highest number of Gambierdiscus and/or Fukuyoa cells were observed on seagrass (Halodule uninervis) from Sopu, Tongatapu. In 2017, the highest numbers of Gambierdiscus and/or Fukuyoa from artificial substrate samples were recorded in the Halimeda dominant habitat at Neiafu Tahi, Vava'u, a low energy site. This raised the question of the effect of wave motion or currents on abundance measurements from artificial substrates. Differences in detection were noticed between macrophytes and artificial substrates, with higher numbers of species found on artificial substrates. This study provides a baseline of benthic dinoflagellate distributions and diversity for Tonga that may be used for future studies and the development of monitoring programmes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phoebe A Argyle
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, 20 Kirkwood Ave, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand; Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, 98 Halifax St East, Nelson 7042, New Zealand; Ministry of Marine Resources, PO Box 85, Moss Rd, Avarua, Rarotonga, Cook Islands.
| | - Lesley L Rhodes
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, 98 Halifax St East, Nelson 7042, New Zealand
| | - Kirsty F Smith
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, 98 Halifax St East, Nelson 7042, New Zealand
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, 98 Halifax St East, Nelson 7042, New Zealand
| | | | - Islay D Marsden
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, 20 Kirkwood Ave, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand
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Finch SC, Webb NG, Boundy MJ, Harwood DT, Munday JS, Sprosen JM, Somchit C, Broadhurst RB. A Sub-Acute Dosing Study of Saxitoxin and Tetrodotoxin Mixtures in Mice Suggests That the Current Paralytic Shellfish Toxin Regulatory Limit Is Fit for Purpose. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:437. [PMID: 37505706 PMCID: PMC10467072 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15070437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish poisoning is a worldwide problem induced by shellfish contaminated with paralytic shellfish toxins. To protect human health, a regulatory limit for these toxins in shellfish flesh has been adopted by many countries. In a recent study, mice were dosed with saxitoxin and tetrodotoxin mixtures daily for 28 days showing toxicity at low concentrations, which appeared to be at odds with other work. To further investigate this reported toxicity, we dosed groups of mice with saxitoxin and tetrodotoxin mixtures daily for 21 days. In contrast to the previous study, no effects on mouse bodyweight, food consumption, heart rate, blood pressure, grip strength, blood chemistry or hematology were observed. Furthermore, no histological findings were associated with dosing in this trial. The dose rates in this study were 2.6, 3.8 and 4.9 times greater, respectively, than the highest dose of the previous study. As rapid mortality in three out of five mice was observed in the previous study, the deaths are likely to be due to the methodology used rather than the shellfish toxins. To convert animal data to that used in a human risk assessment, a 100-fold safety factor is required. After applying this safety factor, the dose rates used in the current study were 3.5, 5.0 and 6.5 times greater, respectively, than the acute reference dose for each toxin type set by the European Union. Furthermore, it has previously been proposed that tetrodotoxin be included in the paralytic shellfish poisoning suite of toxins. If this were done, the highest dose rate used in this study would be 13 times the acute reference dose. This study suggests that the previous 28-day trial was flawed and that the current paralytic shellfish toxin regulatory limit is fit for purpose. An additional study, feeding mice a diet laced with the test compounds at higher concentrations than those of the current experiment, would be required to comment on whether the current paralytic shellfish toxin regulatory limit should be modified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C. Finch
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (C.S.); (R.B.B.)
| | - Nicola G. Webb
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (C.S.); (R.B.B.)
| | - Michael J. Boundy
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand; (M.J.B.); (D.T.H.)
| | - D. Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand; (M.J.B.); (D.T.H.)
| | - John S. Munday
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
| | - Jan M. Sprosen
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (C.S.); (R.B.B.)
| | - Chanatda Somchit
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (C.S.); (R.B.B.)
| | - Ric B. Broadhurst
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (C.S.); (R.B.B.)
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Finch SC, Boundy MJ, Webb NG, Harwood DT. The Effect of Experimental Protocol on the Toxicity of Saxitoxin in Mice. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:290. [PMID: 37104228 PMCID: PMC10146210 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15040290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Regulatory limits for toxins in shellfish are required to ensure the health of consumers. However, these limits also impact the profitability of shellfish industries making it critical that they are fit for purpose. Since human toxicity data is rarely available, the setting of regulatory limits is dependent on animal data which can then be extrapolated for use in the assessment of human risk. The dependence on animal data to keep humans safe means that it is critical that the toxicity data used is robust and of high quality. Worldwide, the protocols used in toxicity testing are varied, making it hard to compare results and adding confusion over which results better reflect the true toxicity. In this study, we look at the effect of mouse gender, i.p. dose volume, mouse body weight and feeding protocols (both acute and sub-acute) on the toxicity of saxitoxin. This allowed the effect of different variables used in toxicity testing to be understood and showed that the feeding protocol used in both acute and sub-acute studies greatly influenced the toxicity of saxitoxin in mice. Therefore, the adoption of a standard protocol for the testing of shellfish toxins is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C. Finch
- AgResearch Ltd. Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand;
| | - Michael J. Boundy
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand; (M.J.B.); (D.T.H.)
| | - Nicola G. Webb
- AgResearch Ltd. Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand;
| | - D. Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand; (M.J.B.); (D.T.H.)
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Turner AD, Dean KJ, Dhanji-Rapkova M, Dall’Ara S, Pino F, McVey C, Haughey S, Logan N, Elliott C, Gago-Martinez A, Leao JM, Giraldez J, Gibbs R, Thomas K, Perez-Calderon R, Faulkner D, McEneny H, Savar V, Reveillon D, Hess P, Arevalo F, Lamas JP, Cagide E, Alvarez M, Antelo A, Klijnstra MD, Oplatowska-Stachowiak M, Kleintjens T, Sajic N, Boundy MJ, Maskrey BH, Harwood DT, González Jartín JM, Alfonso A, Botana L. Interlaboratory Evaluation of Multiple LC-MS/MS Methods and a Commercial ELISA Method for Determination of Tetrodotoxin in Oysters and Mussels. J AOAC Int 2023; 106:356-369. [PMID: 36617186 PMCID: PMC9978588 DOI: 10.1093/jaoacint/qsad006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Given the recent detection of tetrodotoxin (TTX) in bivalve molluscs but the absence of a full collaborative validation study for TTX determination in a large number of shellfish samples, interlaboratory assessment of method performance was required to better understand current capabilities for accurate and reproducible TTX quantitation using chemical and immunoassay methods. OBJECTIVE The aim was to conduct an interlaboratory study with multiple laboratories, using results to assess method performance and acceptability of different TTX testing methods. METHODS Homogenous and stable mussel and oyster materials were assessed by participants using a range of published and in-house detection methods to determine mean TTX concentrations. Data were used to calculate recoveries, repeatability, and reproducibility, together with participant acceptability z-scores. RESULTS Method performance characteristics were good, showing excellent sensitivity, recovery, and repeatability. Acceptable reproducibility was evidenced by HorRat values for all LC-MS/MS and ELISA methods being less than the 2.0 limit of acceptability. Method differences between the LC-MS/MS participants did not result in statistically different results. Method performance characteristics compared well with previously published single-laboratory validated methods and no statistical difference was found in results returned by ELISA in comparison with LC-MS/MS. CONCLUSION The results from this study demonstrate that current LC-MS/MS methods and ELISA are on the whole capable of sensitive, accurate, and reproducible TTX quantitation in shellfish. Further work is recommended to expand the number of laboratories testing ELISA and to standardize an LC-MS/MS protocol to further improve interlaboratory precision. HIGHLIGHTS Multiple mass spectrometric methods and a commercial ELISA have been successfully assessed through an interlaboratory study, demonstrating excellent performance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Karl J Dean
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Barrack Rd, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK
| | - Monika Dhanji-Rapkova
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Barrack Rd, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK
| | - Sonia Dall’Ara
- Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine, Viale A. Vespucci, 2, 47042 Kleintjens FC, Italy
| | - Florella Pino
- Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine, Viale A. Vespucci, 2, 47042 Kleintjens FC, Italy
| | - Claire McVey
- Queen’s University Belfast, Institute for Global Food Security, 19 Chlorine Gdns, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK
| | - Simon Haughey
- Queen’s University Belfast, Institute for Global Food Security, 19 Chlorine Gdns, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK
| | - Natasha Logan
- Queen’s University Belfast, Institute for Global Food Security, 19 Chlorine Gdns, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK
| | - Christopher Elliott
- Queen’s University Belfast, Institute for Global Food Security, 19 Chlorine Gdns, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK
| | - Ana Gago-Martinez
- University of Vigo, Department of Chemistry, Bloque E, Planta 2, Despacho 17, As Lagoas, Marcosende, 36310 Vigo, Spain
| | - Jose Manuel Leao
- University of Vigo, Department of Chemistry, Bloque E, Planta 2, Despacho 17, As Lagoas, Marcosende, 36310 Vigo, Spain
| | - Jorge Giraldez
- University of Vigo, Department of Chemistry, Bloque E, Planta 2, Despacho 17, As Lagoas, Marcosende, 36310 Vigo, Spain
| | - Ryan Gibbs
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 1992 Agency Dr, Dartmouth, NS B3B 1Y9, Canada
| | - Krista Thomas
- National Research Council of Canada, Biotoxin Metrology, 1411 Oxford St, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Ruth Perez-Calderon
- National Research Council of Canada, Biotoxin Metrology, 1411 Oxford St, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Dermot Faulkner
- Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Veterinary Sciences Division, Stoney Rd, Belfast BT4 3SD, UK
| | - Hugh McEneny
- Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Veterinary Sciences Division, Stoney Rd, Belfast BT4 3SD, UK
| | | | | | | | - Fabiola Arevalo
- Instituto Tecnoloxico para o Control do Medio Mariño de Galicia, Peirao de Vilaxoan, s/n, 36611 Vilagarcia de Arousa, Pontevedra, Spain
| | - J Pablo Lamas
- Instituto Tecnoloxico para o Control do Medio Mariño de Galicia, Peirao de Vilaxoan, s/n, 36611 Vilagarcia de Arousa, Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Eva Cagide
- Laboratorio Cifga, Avenida Benigno Rivera, No. 56, 27003 Lugo, Spain
| | - Mercedes Alvarez
- Laboratorio Cifga, Avenida Benigno Rivera, No. 56, 27003 Lugo, Spain
| | - Alvaro Antelo
- Laboratorio Cifga, Avenida Benigno Rivera, No. 56, 27003 Lugo, Spain
| | - Mirjam D Klijnstra
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University and Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708WB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Tim Kleintjens
- R-Biopharm Nederland B.V., Beijerinckweg 18, 6827 BN Arnhem, The Netherlands
| | - Nermin Sajic
- R-Biopharm Nederland B.V., Beijerinckweg 18, 6827 BN Arnhem, The Netherlands
| | - Michael J Boundy
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax St East, Nelson 7010, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand
| | | | | | - Jesús M González Jartín
- Universidade De Santiago De Compostela, Deparamento de Farmacologa, Facultad de Veterinaria, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Amparo Alfonso
- Universidade De Santiago De Compostela, Deparamento de Farmacologa, Facultad de Veterinaria, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Luis Botana
- Universidade De Santiago De Compostela, Deparamento de Farmacologa, Facultad de Veterinaria, 27002 Lugo, Spain
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Murray JS, Finch SC, Mudge EM, Wilkins AL, Puddick J, Harwood DT, Rhodes LL, van Ginkel R, Rise F, Prinsep MR. Structural Characterization of Maitotoxins Produced by Toxic Gambierdiscus Species. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20070453. [PMID: 35877746 PMCID: PMC9324523 DOI: 10.3390/md20070453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Identifying compounds responsible for the observed toxicity of the Gambierdiscus species is a critical step to ascertaining whether they contribute to ciguatera poisoning. Macroalgae samples were collected during research expeditions to Rarotonga (Cook Islands) and North Meyer Island (Kermadec Islands), from which two new Gambierdiscus species were characterized, G. cheloniae CAWD232 and G. honu CAWD242. Previous chemical and toxicological investigations of these species demonstrated that they did not produce the routinely monitored Pacific ciguatoxins nor maitotoxin-1 (MTX-1), yet were highly toxic to mice via intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection. Bioassay-guided fractionation of methanolic extracts, incorporating wet chemistry and chromatographic techniques, was used to isolate two new MTX analogs; MTX-6 from G. cheloniae CAWD232 and MTX-7 from G. honu CAWD242. Structural characterization of the new MTX analogs used a combination of analytical chemistry techniques, including LC–MS, LC–MS/MS, HR–MS, oxidative cleavage and reduction, and NMR spectroscopy. A substantial portion of the MTX-7 structure was elucidated, and (to a lesser extent) that of MTX-6. Key differences from MTX-1 included monosulfation, additional hydroxyl groups, an extra double bond, and in the case of MTX-7, an additional methyl group. To date, this is the most extensive structural characterization performed on an MTX analog since the complete structure of MTX-1 was published in 1993. MTX-7 was extremely toxic to mice via i.p. injection (LD50 of 0.235 µg/kg), although no toxicity was observed at the highest dose rate via oral administration (155.8 µg/kg). Future research is required to investigate the bioaccumulation and likely biotransformation of the MTX analogs in the marine food web.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Sam Murray
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7040, New Zealand; (J.P.); (D.T.H.); (L.L.R.); (R.v.G.)
- New Zealand Food Safety Science and Research Centre, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
- School of Science, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (A.L.W.); (M.R.P.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +64-3-548-2319
| | - Sarah C. Finch
- AgResearch, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand;
| | - Elizabeth M. Mudge
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada;
| | - Alistair L. Wilkins
- School of Science, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (A.L.W.); (M.R.P.)
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, Blindern, P.O. Box 1033, NO-0315 Oslo, Norway;
| | - Jonathan Puddick
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7040, New Zealand; (J.P.); (D.T.H.); (L.L.R.); (R.v.G.)
| | - D. Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7040, New Zealand; (J.P.); (D.T.H.); (L.L.R.); (R.v.G.)
- New Zealand Food Safety Science and Research Centre, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
| | - Lesley L. Rhodes
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7040, New Zealand; (J.P.); (D.T.H.); (L.L.R.); (R.v.G.)
| | - Roel van Ginkel
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7040, New Zealand; (J.P.); (D.T.H.); (L.L.R.); (R.v.G.)
| | - Frode Rise
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, Blindern, P.O. Box 1033, NO-0315 Oslo, Norway;
| | - Michèle R. Prinsep
- School of Science, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (A.L.W.); (M.R.P.)
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Boundy MJ, Harwood DT, Tommasi E, Burger E, van Ginkel R, Waugh C, Selwood AI, Finch S. Acute toxicity of decarbamoyl gonyautoxin 1&4 to mice by various routes of administration. Toxicon 2021; 204:56-63. [PMID: 34742781 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2021.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Saxitoxin and its derivatives, the paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), are well known to be toxic to humans, and maximum permitted levels in seafood have been established by regulatory authorities in many countries. Monitoring of PSTs is typically performed using chemical methods which quantify the concentration of the individual PST analogues, of which there are many. However, since the toxicities of analogues are different, they do not equally contribute to the overall toxicity of the sample. To account for these differences, toxicity equivalency factors (TEFs) need to be determined for each analogue and applied. Currently there are no established TEFs for decarbamoyl gonyautoxin 1&4 (dcGTX1&4), which occurs in some clam species such as Mactra chinensis contaminated with PSTs due to metabolism within the shellfish. In this study the median lethal dose of purified, equilibrated epimeric mixture of dcGTX1&4 has been determined by intraperitoneal injection (i.p.) (4.75 μmol/kg) and by feeding (34.9 μmol/kg). The most relevant route of exposure is orally with feeding being more representative of human consumption and more reliable than gavage. Based on the median lethal dose by feeding, a TEF of 0.1 is recommended for dcGTX1&4. Receptor binding activity and i.p. toxicity results showed dcGTX1&4 to be much less toxic than STX (140-170-fold). However, by feeding a much smaller difference in toxicity was observed with dcGTX1&4 being only 11-fold less toxic than STX. Analysis of the gut contents of mice dosed with dcGTX1&4 showed the presence of decarbamoyl gonyautoxin 2&3, decarbamoyl saxitoxin and decarbamoyl neosaxitoxin, all of which are of greater toxicity. This conversion of dcGTX1&4 within the digestive track to more toxic congeners may explain the high relative toxicity of dcGTX1&4 by feeding compared to that determined by i.p. and by sodium channel activity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | - Elena Tommasi
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | - Emillie Burger
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | - Roel van Ginkel
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | - Craig Waugh
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | | | - Sarah Finch
- AgResearch Limited, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand
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Nishimura T, Murray JS, Boundy MJ, Balci M, Bowers HA, Smith KF, Harwood DT, Rhodes LL. Update of the Planktonic Diatom Genus Pseudo-nitzschia in Aotearoa New Zealand Coastal Waters: Genetic Diversity and Toxin Production. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:637. [PMID: 34564641 PMCID: PMC8473122 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13090637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Domoic acid (DA) is produced by almost half of the species belonging to the diatom genus Pseudo-nitzschia and causes amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP). It is, therefore, important to investigate the diversity and toxin production of Pseudo-nitzschia species for ASP risk assessments. Between 2018 and 2020, seawater samples were collected from various sites around Aotearoa New Zealand, and 130 clonal isolates of Pseudo-nitzschia were established. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of partial large subunit ribosomal DNA and/or internal transcribed spacer regions revealed that the isolates were divided into 14 species (Pseudo-nitzschia americana, Pseudo-nitzschia arenysensis, Pseudo-nitzschia australis, Pseudo-nitzschia calliantha, Pseudo-nitzschia cuspidata, Pseudo-nitzschia delicatissima, Pseudo-nitzschia fraudulenta, Pseudo-nitzschia galaxiae, Pseudo-nitzschia hasleana, Pseudo-nitzschia multiseries, Pseudo-nitzschia multistriata, Pseudo-nitzschia plurisecta, Pseudo-nitzschia pungens, and Pseudo-nitzschia cf. subpacifica). The P. delicatissima and P. hasleana strains were further divided into two clades/subclades (I and II). Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was used to assess the production of DA and DA isomers by 73 representative strains. The analyses revealed that two (P. australis and P. multiseries) of the 14 species produced DA as a primary analogue, along with several DA isomers. This study is the first geographical distribution record of P. arenysensis, P.cuspidata, P. galaxiae, and P. hasleana in New Zealand coastal waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiro Nishimura
- Cawthron Institute, Nelson 7010, New Zealand; (J.S.M.); (M.J.B.); (K.F.S.); (D.T.H.)
| | - J. Sam Murray
- Cawthron Institute, Nelson 7010, New Zealand; (J.S.M.); (M.J.B.); (K.F.S.); (D.T.H.)
| | - Michael J. Boundy
- Cawthron Institute, Nelson 7010, New Zealand; (J.S.M.); (M.J.B.); (K.F.S.); (D.T.H.)
| | - Muharrem Balci
- Biology Department, Faculty of Science, Istanbul University, Istanbul 34134, Turkey;
| | - Holly A. Bowers
- Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, Moss Landing, CA 95039, USA;
| | - Kirsty F. Smith
- Cawthron Institute, Nelson 7010, New Zealand; (J.S.M.); (M.J.B.); (K.F.S.); (D.T.H.)
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - D. Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Nelson 7010, New Zealand; (J.S.M.); (M.J.B.); (K.F.S.); (D.T.H.)
| | - Lesley L. Rhodes
- Cawthron Institute, Nelson 7010, New Zealand; (J.S.M.); (M.J.B.); (K.F.S.); (D.T.H.)
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Finch SC, Webb NG, Boundy MJ, Harwood DT, Munday JS, Sprosen JM, Cave VM, Broadhurst RB, Nicolas J. Sub-Acute Feeding Study of Saxitoxin to Mice Confirms the Effectiveness of Current Regulatory Limits for Paralytic Shellfish Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13090627. [PMID: 34564631 PMCID: PMC8473220 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13090627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulatory limits for shellfish toxins are required to protect human health. Often these limits are set using only acute toxicity data, which is significant, as in some communities, shellfish makes up a large proportion of their daily diet and can be contaminated with paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) for several months. In the current study, feeding protocols were developed to mimic human feeding behaviour and diets containing three dose rates of saxitoxin dihydrochloride (STX.2HCl) were fed to mice for 21 days. This yielded STX.2HCl dose rates of up to 730 µg/kg bw/day with no effects on food consumption, growth, blood pressure, heart rate, motor coordination, grip strength, blood chemistry, haematology, organ weights or tissue histology. Using the 100-fold safety factor to extrapolate from animals to humans yields a dose rate of 7.3 µg/kg bw/day, which is well above the current acute reference dose (ARfD) of 0.5 µg STX.2HCl eq/kg bw proposed by the European Food Safety Authority. Furthermore, to reach the dose rate of 7.3 µg/kg bw, a 60 or 70 kg human would have to consume 540 or 630 g of shellfish contaminated with PSTs at the current regulatory limit (800 µg/kg shellfish flesh), respectively. The current regulatory limit for PSTs therefore seems appropriate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C. Finch
- AgResearch Ltd. Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (V.M.C.); (R.B.B.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Nicola G. Webb
- AgResearch Ltd. Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (V.M.C.); (R.B.B.)
| | - Michael J. Boundy
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand; (M.J.B.); (D.T.H.)
| | - D. Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand; (M.J.B.); (D.T.H.)
| | - John S. Munday
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
| | - Jan M. Sprosen
- AgResearch Ltd. Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (V.M.C.); (R.B.B.)
| | - Vanessa M. Cave
- AgResearch Ltd. Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (V.M.C.); (R.B.B.)
| | - Ric B. Broadhurst
- AgResearch Ltd. Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; (N.G.W.); (J.M.S.); (V.M.C.); (R.B.B.)
| | - Jeane Nicolas
- Ministry for Primary Industries–Manatu Ahu Matua, P.O. Box 2526, Wellington 6021, New Zealand;
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9
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Clarke MR, Jones B, Squires CLM, Imhoff FM, Harwood DT, Rhodes L, Selwood AI, McNabb PS, Baird SK. Cyclic Imine Pinnatoxin G is Cytotoxic to Cancer Cell Lines via Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor-Driven Classical Apoptosis. J Nat Prod 2021; 84:2035-2042. [PMID: 34170700 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.1c00418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Pinnatoxin G is a cyclic imine neurotoxin produced by dinoflagellates that has been reported in shellfish. Like other members of the pinnatoxin family, it has been shown to have its effects via antagonism of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, with preferential binding to the α7 subunit often upregulated in cancer. Because increased activity of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors contributes to increased growth and resistance to apoptosis, the effect of pinnatoxin G on cancer cell viability was tested. In a panel of six cancer cell lines, all cell types lost viability, but HT29 colon cancer and LN18 and U373 glioma cell lines were more sensitive than MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, PC3 prostate cancer cells, and U87 glioma cells, correlating with expression levels of α7, α4, and α9 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Some loss of cell viability could be attributed to cell cycle arrest, but significant levels of classical apoptosis were found, characterized by caspase activity, phosphatidylserine exposure, mitochondrial membrane permeability, and fragmented DNA. Intracellular Ca2+ levels also dropped immediately upon pinnatoxin G treatment, which may relate to antagonism of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-mediated Ca2+ inflow. In conclusion, pinnatoxin G can decrease cancer cell viability, with both cytostatic and cytotoxic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell R Clarke
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Ben Jones
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Chloe L M Squires
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Floriane M Imhoff
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7040, New Zealand
| | - Lesley Rhodes
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7040, New Zealand
| | | | - Paul S McNabb
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7040, New Zealand
| | - Sarah K Baird
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
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10
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Murray JS, Harwood DT, Rhodes LL. Ciguatera poisoning and confirmation of ciguatoxins in fish imported into New Zealand. N Z Med J 2021; 134:100-104. [PMID: 34140716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Ciguatera poisoning has caused illnesses in New Zealand through the consumption of contaminated reef fish imported from Pacific Islands. In May 2020 five people became ill and one was hospitalised following the consumption of Fiji Kawakawa (camouflage grouper; Epinephelus polyphekadion). The fish was purchased in New Zealand but imported from Fiji. The meal remnants were analysed for ciguatoxins, the causative compounds of ciguatera poisoning, and showed the presence of the three main toxic fish metabolites. Other fish tested from the same shipment did not contain detectable levels of ciguatoxins, indicating they were likely not toxic.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Sam Murray
- Analytical Chemist, Research and Development Group, Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, PB 2, Nelson, New Zealand
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Seafood Safety Research Programme Leader; NZ Food Safety Science & Research Centre Deputy Director, Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, PB 2, Nelson, New Zealand
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11
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Murray JS, Finch SC, Puddick J, Rhodes LL, Harwood DT, van Ginkel R, Prinsep MR. Acute Toxicity of Gambierone and Quantitative Analysis of Gambierones Produced by Cohabitating Benthic Dinoflagellates. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13050333. [PMID: 34063025 PMCID: PMC8147941 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13050333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding the toxicity and production rates of the various secondary metabolites produced by Gambierdiscus and cohabitating benthic dinoflagellates is essential to unravelling the complexities associated with ciguatera poisoning. In the present study, a sulphated cyclic polyether, gambierone, was purified from Gambierdiscus cheloniae CAWD232 and its acute toxicity was determined using intraperitoneal injection into mice. It was shown to be of low toxicity with an LD50 of 2.4 mg/kg, 9600 times less toxic than the commonly implicated Pacific ciguatoxin-1B, indicating it is unlikely to play a role in ciguatera poisoning. In addition, the production of gambierone and 44-methylgambierone was assessed from 20 isolates of ten Gambierdiscus, two Coolia and two Fukuyoa species using quantitative liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Gambierone was produced by seven Gambierdiscus species, ranging from 1 to 87 pg/cell, and one species from each of the genera Coolia and Fukuyoa, ranging from 2 to 17 pg/cell. The production of 44-methylgambierone ranged from 5 to 270 pg/cell and was ubiquitous to all Gambierdiscus species tested, as well as both species of Coolia and Fukuyoa. The relative production ratio of these two secondary metabolites revealed that only two species produced more gambierone, G. carpenteri CAWD237 and G. cheloniae CAWD232. This represents the first report of gambierone acute toxicity and production by these cohabitating benthic dinoflagellate species. While these results demonstrate that gambierones are unlikely to pose a risk to human health, further research is required to understand if they bioaccumulate in the marine food web.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Sam Murray
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand; (J.P.); (L.L.R.); (D.T.H.); (R.v.G.)
- New Zealand Food Safety Science and Research Centre, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
- School of Science, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand;
- Correspondence:
| | - Sarah C. Finch
- AgResearch, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand;
| | - Jonathan Puddick
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand; (J.P.); (L.L.R.); (D.T.H.); (R.v.G.)
| | - Lesley L. Rhodes
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand; (J.P.); (L.L.R.); (D.T.H.); (R.v.G.)
| | - D. Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand; (J.P.); (L.L.R.); (D.T.H.); (R.v.G.)
- New Zealand Food Safety Science and Research Centre, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
| | - Roel van Ginkel
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand; (J.P.); (L.L.R.); (D.T.H.); (R.v.G.)
| | - Michèle R. Prinsep
- School of Science, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand;
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12
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Satake M, Irie R, Holland PT, Harwood DT, Shi F, Itoh Y, Hayashi F, Zhang H. Brevisulcenals-A1 and A2, Sulfate Esters of Brevisulcenals, Isolated from the Red Tide Dinoflagellate Karenia brevisulcata. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13020082. [PMID: 33499131 PMCID: PMC7911007 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Two different types of polycyclic ether toxins, namely brevisulcenals (KBTs) and brevisulcatic acids (BSXs), produced by the red tide dinoflagellate Karenia brevisulcata, were the cause of a toxic incident that occurred in New Zealand in 1998. Four major components, KBT-F, -G, -H, and -I, shown to be cytotoxic and lethal in mice, were isolated from cultured K. brevisulcata cells, and their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic analyses. New analogues, brevisulcenal-A1 (KBT-A1) and brevisulcenal-A2 (KBT-A2), toxins of higher polarity than that of known KBTs, were isolated from neutral lipophilic extracts of bulk dinoflagellate culture extracts. The structures of KBT-A1 and KBT-A2 were elucidated as sulfated analogues of KBT-F and KBT-G, respectively, by NMR and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization tandem mass spectrometry (MALDI TOF/TOF), and by comparison with the spectra of KBT-F and KBT-G. The cytotoxicities of the sulfate analogues were lower than those of KBT-F and KBT-G.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayuki Satake
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-3-5841-4357
| | - Raku Irie
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan;
- Graduate School of Nanobioscience, Yokohama City University, Seto 22-2, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama 236-0027, Japan
| | - Patrick T. Holland
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7010, New Zealand; (P.T.H.); (D.T.H.); (F.S.)
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7010, New Zealand; (P.T.H.); (D.T.H.); (F.S.)
| | - Feng Shi
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7010, New Zealand; (P.T.H.); (D.T.H.); (F.S.)
| | - Yoshiyuki Itoh
- MS Business Unit, JEOL Ltd., Musashino, Akishima, Tokyo 196-8558, Japan;
| | - Fumiaki Hayashi
- NMR Science and Development Division, RIKEN SPring-8 Center, Suehiro-cho, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama 230-0045, Japan; (F.H.); (H.Z.)
| | - Huiping Zhang
- NMR Science and Development Division, RIKEN SPring-8 Center, Suehiro-cho, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama 230-0045, Japan; (F.H.); (H.Z.)
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13
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Boundy MJ, Harwood DT, Kiermeier A, McLeod C, Nicolas J, Finch S. Risk Assessment of Pectenotoxins in New Zealand Bivalve Molluscan Shellfish, 2009-2019. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12120776. [PMID: 33291341 PMCID: PMC7762269 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Pectenotoxins (PTXs) are produced by Dinophysis spp., along with okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin 1, and dinophysistoxin 2. The okadaic acid group toxins cause diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP), so are therefore regulated. New Zealand currently includes pectenotoxins within the DSP regulations. To determine the impact of this decision, shellfish biotoxin data collected between 2009 and 2019 were examined. They showed that 85 samples exceeded the DSP regulatory limit (0.45%) and that excluding pectenotoxins would have reduced this by 10% to 76 samples. The incidence (1.3%) and maximum concentrations of pectenotoxins (0.079 mg/kg) were also found to be low, well below the current European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) safe limit of 0.12 mg/kg. Inclusion within the DSP regulations is scientifically flawed, as pectenotoxins and okadaic acid have a different mechanism of action, meaning that their toxicities are not additive, which is the fundamental principle of grouping toxins. Furthermore, evaluation of the available toxicity data suggests that pectenotoxins have very low oral toxicity, with recent studies showing no oral toxicity in mice dosed with the PTX analogue PTX2 at 5000 µg/kg. No known human illnesses have been reported due to exposure to pectenotoxins in shellfish, a fact which combined with the toxicity data indicates that they pose negligible risk to humans. Regulatory policies should be commensurate with the level of risk, thus deregulation of PTXs ought to be considered, a stance already adopted by some countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Boundy
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Nelson 7010, New Zealand;
- Correspondence:
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Nelson 7010, New Zealand;
- New Zealand Food Safety Science and Research Centre, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
| | - Andreas Kiermeier
- Statistical Process Improvement Consulting and Training PTY Ltd., Gumeracha, SA 5233, Australia;
| | - Cath McLeod
- New Zealand Food Safety Science and Research Centre, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
| | - Jeane Nicolas
- Ministry for Primary Industries–Manatu Ahu Matua, P.O. Box 2526, Wellington 6140, New Zealand;
| | - Sarah Finch
- AgResearch Limited, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand;
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14
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Seger A, Hallegraeff G, Stone DAJ, Bansemer MS, Harwood DT, Turnbull A. Uptake of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins by Blacklip Abalone (Haliotis rubra rubra Leach) from direct exposure to Alexandrium catenella microalgal cells and toxic aquaculture feed. Harmful Algae 2020; 99:101925. [PMID: 33218447 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The Tasmanian abalone fishery represents the largest wild abalone resource in the world, supplying close to 25% of the annual wild-caught global harvest. Prompted by the need to manage Paralytic Shellfish Toxin (PST) contamination of Blacklip Abalone (Haliotis rubra rubra) from east coast Tasmania, the uptake of toxins by this species is investigated in a land-based, controlled aquaculture setting. Abalone were exposed to either live Alexandrium catenella microalgal cultures or PST contaminated feed pellets during a 28 day exposure period and toxins quantified in viscera, foot muscle and epipodium tissues. PST profiles of abalone foot tissues were dominated by saxitoxin and neosaxitoxin, whilst viscera more closely resembled those of the toxin source (A. catenella cells rich in gonyautoxin 1&4 and 2&3 or feed pellets containing A. catenella extracts rich in these analogues). This indicates direct uptake of PST in the viscera via browsing/grazing on the pellet and /or sedimented microalgal cells. After exposure to A. catenella cell culture, PST concentrations in the foot (muscle + epipodium) were on average 8 times higher than in the viscera. Higher toxicity of foot tissue was caused by higher PST content of the epipodium (up to 1,085 µg STX.2HCl equiv. kg-1), which despite its small contribution to total animal weight significantly added to the overall toxin burden. Higher PST levels in the abalone foot suggest that toxin monitoring programmes may not need to routinely analyse both foot and viscera, potentially allowing for a 50% reduction of analytical costs. This option is being further investigated with continuing field studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Seger
- South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI), Seafood Safety and Market Access, 2B Hartley Grove, Urrbrae, 5064, Australia; Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, 20 Castray Esplanade, Hobart, Tasmania, 7001, Australia.
| | - Gustaaf Hallegraeff
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, 20 Castray Esplanade, Hobart, Tasmania, 7001, Australia
| | - David A J Stone
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, Aquatic Sciences, 2 Hamra Avenue, West Beach, 5024, Australia
| | - Matthew S Bansemer
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, Aquatic Sciences, 2 Hamra Avenue, West Beach, 5024, Australia; Primary Industries and Regions South Australia, Fisheries and Aquaculture, 25 Grenfell Street, Adelaide, 5000, Australia
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
| | - Alison Turnbull
- South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI), Seafood Safety and Market Access, 2B Hartley Grove, Urrbrae, 5064, Australia; Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, 20 Castray Esplanade, Hobart, Tasmania, 7001, Australia
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15
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Murray JS, Nishimura T, Finch SC, Rhodes LL, Puddick J, Harwood DT, Larsson ME, Doblin MA, Leung P, Yan M, Rise F, Wilkins AL, Prinsep MR. The role of 44-methylgambierone in ciguatera fish poisoning: Acute toxicity, production by marine microalgae and its potential as a biomarker for Gambierdiscus spp. Harmful Algae 2020; 97:101853. [PMID: 32732047 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Revised: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) is prevalent around the tropical and sub-tropical latitudes of the world and impacts many Pacific island communities intrinsically linked to the reef system for sustenance and trade. While the genus Gambierdiscus has been linked with CFP, it is commonly found on tropical reef systems in microalgal assemblages with other genera of toxin-producing, epiphytic and/or benthic dinoflagellates - Amphidinium, Coolia, Fukuyoa, Ostreopsis and Prorocentrum. Identifying a biomarker compound that can be used for the early detection of Gambierdiscus blooms, specifically in a mixed microalgal community, is paramount in enabling the development of management and mitigation strategies. Following on from the recent structural elucidation of 44-methylgambierone, its potential to contribute to CFP intoxication events and applicability as a biomarker compound for Gambierdiscus spp. was investigated. The acute toxicity of this secondary metabolite was determined by intraperitoneal injection using mice, which showed it to be of low toxicity, with an LD50 between 20 and 38 mg kg-1. The production of 44-methylgambierone by 252 marine microalgal isolates consisting of 90 species from 32 genera across seven classes, was assessed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. It was discovered that the production of this secondary metabolite was ubiquitous to the eight Gambierdiscus species tested, however not all isolates of G. carpenteri, and some species/isolates of Coolia and Fukuyoa.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Sam Murray
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand; New Zealand Food Safety Science and Research Centre, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; School of Science, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
| | | | - Sarah C Finch
- AgResearch, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand
| | | | | | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand; New Zealand Food Safety Science and Research Centre, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
| | - Michaela E Larsson
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, P.O. Box 123 Broadway, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Martina A Doblin
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, P.O. Box 123 Broadway, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Priscilla Leung
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, China
| | - Meng Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, China
| | - Frode Rise
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1033, Blindern, NO-0315 Oslo, Norway
| | - Alistair L Wilkins
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1033, Blindern, NO-0315 Oslo, Norway
| | - Michèle R Prinsep
- School of Science, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand
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16
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Verma A, Hughes DJ, Harwood DT, Suggett DJ, Ralph PJ, Murray SA. Functional significance of phylogeographic structure in a toxic benthic marine microbial eukaryote over a latitudinal gradient along the East Australian Current. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:6257-6273. [PMID: 32724512 PMCID: PMC7381561 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Genetic diversity in marine microbial eukaryotic populations (protists) drives their ecological success by enabling diverse phenotypes to respond rapidly to changing environmental conditions. Despite enormous population sizes and lack of barriers to gene flow, genetic differentiation that is associated with geographic distance, currents, and environmental gradients has been reported from planktonic protists. However, for benthic protists, which have reduced dispersal opportunities, phylogeography and its phenotypic significance are little known. In recent years, the East Australian Current (EAC) has intensified its southward flow, associated with the tropicalization of temperate waters. Benthic harmful algal species have been increasingly found in south-eastern Australia. Yet little is known about the potential of these species to adapt or extend their range in relation to changing conditions. Here, we examine genetic diversity and functional niche divergence in a toxic benthic dinoflagellate, Ostreopsis cf. siamensis, along a 1,500 km north-south gradient in southeastern Australia. Sixty-eight strains were established from eight sampling sites. The study revealed long-standing genetic diversity among strains established from the northern-most sites, along with large phenotypic variation in observed physiological traits such as growth rates, cell volume, production of palytoxin-like compounds, and photophysiological parameters. Strains from the southern populations were more uniform in both genetic and functional traits, and have possibly colonized their habitats more recently. Our study reports significant genetic and functional trait variability in a benthic harmful algal species, indicative of high adaptability, and a possible climate-driven range extension. The observed high trait variation may facilitate development of harmful algal blooms under dynamic coastal environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjun Verma
- Climate Change ClusterUniversity of Technology SydneyUltimoNSWAustralia
| | - David J. Hughes
- Climate Change ClusterUniversity of Technology SydneyUltimoNSWAustralia
| | | | - David J. Suggett
- Climate Change ClusterUniversity of Technology SydneyUltimoNSWAustralia
| | - Peter J. Ralph
- Climate Change ClusterUniversity of Technology SydneyUltimoNSWAustralia
| | - Shauna A. Murray
- Climate Change ClusterUniversity of Technology SydneyUltimoNSWAustralia
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17
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Yan M, Leung PTY, Gu J, Lam VTT, Murray JS, Harwood DT, Wai TC, Lam PKS. Hemolysis associated toxicities of benthic dinoflagellates from Hong Kong waters. Mar Pollut Bull 2020; 155:111114. [PMID: 32469761 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Revised: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Benthic dinoflagellates produce a diverse range of phycotoxins, which are responsible for intoxication events in marine fauna. This study assessed the hemolysis associated toxicities of six species of benthic dinoflagellates from the genera Coolia, Fukuyoa, Amphidinium and Prorocentrum. Results demonstrated that Amphidinium carterae, Coolia tropicalis and Fukuyoa ruetzleri were the three most toxic species, while Prorocentrum cf. lima did not have significant hemolytic effect. Grouper samples (Cephalopholis boenak) were more tolerant to the hemolytic algae than the blackhead seabream (Acanthopagrus schlegelii), with decreased heart rate and blood flow being observed in medaka larvae after exposure to toxic algal extracts. LC-MS/MS analysis detected a gambierone analogue called 44-methylgambierone produced by the C. tropicalis isolate. This analogue was also detected in the F. ruetzleri isolate. This study provided new information on the hemolysis associated toxicities of local toxic benthic dinoflagellates, which contributes to better understanding of their emerging threats to marine fauna and reef systems in Hong Kong.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, China
| | - Priscilla T Y Leung
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, China.
| | - Jiarui Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Veronica T T Lam
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - J Sam Murray
- Cawthron Institute, Nelson, New Zealand; New Zealand Food Safety Science and Research Centre, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Nelson, New Zealand; New Zealand Food Safety Science and Research Centre, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Tak-Cheung Wai
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, China
| | - Paul K S Lam
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, China; Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
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Dorantes-Aranda JJ, Hayashi A, Turnbull AR, Jolley JYC, Harwood DT, Hallegraeff GM. Detection of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Southern Rock Lobster Jasus edwardsii Using the Qualitative Neogen™ Lateral Flow Immunoassay: Single-Laboratory Validation. J AOAC Int 2020; 103:784-791. [PMID: 33241374 DOI: 10.1093/jaocint/qsz029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Paralytic shellfish toxins (PST) are a significant problem for the Tasmanian shellfish and Southern Rock Lobster (Jasus edwardsii) industries, and the introduction of a rapid screening test in the monitoring program could save time and money. OBJECTIVE The aim was to perform a single-laboratory validation of the Neogen rapid test for PST in the hepatopancreas of Southern Rock Lobster. METHODS The AOAC INTERNATIONAL guidelines for the validation of qualitative binary chemistry methods were followed. Three different PST profiles (mixtures) were used, of which two were commonly found in naturally contaminated lobster hepatopancreas (high in gonyautoxin 2&3 and saxitoxin), and the third toxin profile was observed in a few select animals (high in gonyautoxin 1&4). RESULTS The Neogen test consistently returned negative results for non-target toxins (selectivity). The probability of detection (POD) of PST in the lobster hepatopancreas using the Neogen test increased with increasing PST concentrations. POD values of 1.0 were obtained at ≥0.57 mg STX-diHCl eq/kg in mixtures 1 and 2, and 0.95 and 1.0 for mixture 3 at 0.79 and 1.21 mg STX-diHCl eq/kg, respectively, with a fitted POD of 0.98 for 0.80 mg STX-diHCl eq/kg. The performance of the Neogen test when using four different production lots (ruggedness) showed no significant differences. CONCLUSIONS The results of the validation study were satisfactory and the Neogen test is being trialed within the Tasmanian PST monitoring program of Southern Rock Lobster. HIGHLIGHTS The Neogen rapid kit was successfully validated for the detection of PST in Southern Rock Lobster hepatopancreas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan José Dorantes-Aranda
- University of Tasmania, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, Private Bag 129, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Aiko Hayashi
- University of Tasmania, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, Private Bag 129, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Alison R Turnbull
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, 2b Hartley Grv, Urrbrae, SA 5064, Australia
| | - Jessica Y C Jolley
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, 2b Hartley Grv, Urrbrae, SA 5064, Australia
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax St, Nelson 7010, New Zealand
| | - Gustaaf M Hallegraeff
- University of Tasmania, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, Private Bag 129, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
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Turnbull AR, Harwood DT, Boundy MJ, Holland PT, Hallegraeff G, Malhi N, Quilliam MA. Paralytic shellfish toxins - Call for uniform reporting units. Toxicon 2020; 178:59-60. [PMID: 32250748 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2019] [Revised: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alison R Turnbull
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, GPO Box 397, Adelaide, South Australia, 5001, Australia; Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 129, Hobart, Tasmania, 7001, Australia.
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax St East, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
| | - Michael J Boundy
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax St East, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
| | | | - Gustaaf Hallegraeff
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 129, Hobart, Tasmania, 7001, Australia
| | - Navreet Malhi
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, GPO Box 397, Adelaide, South Australia, 5001, Australia
| | - Michael A Quilliam
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 3Z1, Canada
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20
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Biessy L, Boundy MJ, Smith KF, Harwood DT, Hawes I, Wood SA. Tetrodotoxin in marine bivalves and edible gastropods: A mini-review. Chemosphere 2019; 236:124404. [PMID: 31545201 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2019] [Revised: 07/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin responsible for countless human intoxications and deaths around the world. The distribution of TTX and its analogues is diverse and the toxin has been detected in organisms from both marine and terrestrial environments. Increasing detections seafood species, such as bivalves and gastropods, has drawn attention to the toxin, reinvigorating scientific interest and regulatory concerns. There have been reports of TTX in 21 species of bivalves and edible gastropods from ten countries since the 1980's. While TTX is structurally dissimilar to saxitoxin (STX), another neurotoxin detected in seafood, it has similar sodium channel blocking action and potency and both neurotoxins have been shown to have additive toxicities. The global regulatory level for the STX group toxins applied to shellfish is 800 μg/kg. The presence of TTX in shellfish is only regulated in one country; The Netherlands, with a regulatory level of 44 μg/kg. Due to the recent interest surrounding TTX in bivalves, the European Food Safety Authority established a panel to assess the risk and regulation of TTX in bivalves, and their final opinion was that a concentration below 44 μg of TTX per kg of shellfish would not result in adverse human effects. In this article, we review current knowledge on worldwide TTX levels in edible gastropods and bivalves over the last four decades, the different methods of detection used, and the current regulatory status. We suggest research needs that will assist with knowledge gaps and ultimately allow development of robust monitoring and management protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Biessy
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand; New Zealand Food Safety Science & Research Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand.
| | | | - Kirsty F Smith
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand.
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand; New Zealand Food Safety Science & Research Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand.
| | - Ian Hawes
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand.
| | - Susanna A Wood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand.
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Verma A, Kazandjian A, Sarowar C, Harwood DT, Murray JS, Pargmann I, Hoppenrath M, Murray SA. Morphology and Phylogenetics of Benthic Prorocentrum Species (Dinophyceae) from Tropical Northwestern Australia. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11100571. [PMID: 31574958 PMCID: PMC6833055 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11100571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2019] [Revised: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Approximately 70 species of Prorocentrum are known, of which around 30 species are associated with benthic habitats. Some produce okadaic acid (OA), dinophysistoxin (DTX) and their derivatives, which are involved in diarrhetic shellfish poisoning. In this study, we isolated and characterized Prorocentrum concavum and P. malayense from Broome in north Western Australia using light and scanning electron microscopy as well as molecular sequences of large subunit regions of ribosomal DNA, marking the first record of these species from Australian waters. The morphology of the motile cells of P. malayense was similar to P. concavum in the light microscopy, but differed by the smooth thecal surface, the pore pattern and the production of mucous stalk-like structures and a hyaline sheath around the non-motile cells. P. malayense could also be differentiated from other closely related species, P. leve and P. foraminosum, despite the similarity in thecal surface and pore pattern, by its platelet formula and morphologies. We tested the production of OA and DTXs from both species, but found that they did not produce detectable levels of these toxins in the given culturing conditions. This study aids in establishing more effective monitoring of potential harmful algal taxa in Australian waters for aquaculture and recreational purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjun Verma
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia.
| | - Aniuska Kazandjian
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia.
- Laboratorio de Sistemática Molecular, Centro de Biodiversidad Marina, Universidad Simón Bolívar, Caracas 89000, Venezuela.
| | | | - D Tim Harwood
- Seafood Safety Research Programme, Cawthron Institute, Nelson 7010, New Zealand.
| | - J Sam Murray
- Seafood Safety Research Programme, Cawthron Institute, Nelson 7010, New Zealand.
| | - Insa Pargmann
- Institut für Biologie und Umweltwissenschaften, Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, D-26129 Oldenburg; Germany.
| | - Mona Hoppenrath
- Institut für Biologie und Umweltwissenschaften, Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, D-26129 Oldenburg; Germany.
- Senckenberg am Meer, German Centre for Marine Biodiversity Research (DZMB), D-26382 Wilhelmshaven, Germany.
| | - Shauna A Murray
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia.
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22
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Verma A, Kohli GS, Harwood DT, Ralph PJ, Murray SA. Transcriptomic investigation into polyketide toxin synthesis in Ostreopsis (Dinophyceae) species. Environ Microbiol 2019; 21:4196-4211. [PMID: 31415128 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.14780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2018] [Revised: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
In marine ecosystems, dinoflagellates can become highly abundant and even dominant at times, despite their comparatively slow growth. Their ecological success may be related to their production of complex toxic polyketide compounds. Ostreopsis species produce potent palytoxin-like compounds (PLTX), which are associated with human skin and eye irritations, and illnesses through the consumption of contaminated seafood. To investigate the genetic basis of PLTX-like compounds, we sequenced and annotated transcriptomes from two PLTX-producing Ostreopsis species; O. cf. ovata, O. cf. siamensis, one non-PLTX producing species, O. rhodesae and compared them to a close phylogenetic relative and non-PLTX producer, Coolia malayensis. We found no clear differences in the presence or diversity of ketosynthase and ketoreductase transcripts between PLTX producing and non-producing Ostreopsis and Coolia species, as both groups contained >90 and > 10 phylogenetically diverse ketosynthase and ketoreductase transcripts, respectively. We report for the first-time type I single-, multi-domain polyketide synthases (PKSs) and hybrid non-ribosomal peptide synthase/PKS transcripts from all species. The long multi-modular PKSs were insufficient by themselves to synthesize the large complex polyether backbone of PLTX-like compounds. This implies that numerous PKS domains, including both single and multi-, work together on the biosynthesis of PLTX-like and other related polyketide compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjun Verma
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, New South Wales, 2007, Australia
| | - Gurjeet S Kohli
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, New South Wales, 2007, Australia.,Alfred-Wegener-Institute Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, 27515, Germany
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, 98, Halifax Street East, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
| | - Peter J Ralph
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, New South Wales, 2007, Australia
| | - Shauna A Murray
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, New South Wales, 2007, Australia
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Biessy L, Smith KF, Harwood DT, Boundy MJ, Hawes I, Wood SA. Spatial variability and depuration of tetrodotoxin in the bivalve Paphies australis from New Zealand. Toxicon X 2019; 2:100008. [PMID: 32550565 PMCID: PMC7286059 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2019.100008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Revised: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin responsible for many human intoxications globally. Despite its potency and widespread occurrence in taxonomically diverse species, the primary source of TTX remains uncertain. Paphies australis, an endemic clam found in New Zealand, has been found to contain TTX in several locations. However, it is unknown if this represents endogenous production or accumulation from an external source. To address this question, the concentrations of TTX in whole P. australis and dissected organs (siphons, foot, digestive gland and the ‘rest’) from thirteen sites around New Zealand were determined using liquid chromatography-tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry analysis (LC-MS/MS). Depuration rate of TTX was also investigated by harvesting and measuring concentrations in P. australis maintained in captivity on a toxin-free diet every three to 15 days for 150 days. The LC-MS/MS analyses of the spatial samples showed that TTX was present in P. australis from all regions tested, with significantly (p < 0.001) higher concentrations (15–50 μg kg−1) observed at lower latitudes of the North Island compared with trace levels (0.5–3 μg kg−1) in the South Island of New Zealand. Tetrodotoxin was detected in all the dissected organs but the siphons contained the highest concentrations of TTX at all sites analysed. A linear model of the depuration data identified a significant (p < 0.001) decline in total TTX concentrations in P. australis over the study period. The siphons maintained the highest amount of TTX across the entire depuration study. The digestive glands contained low concentrations at the start of the experiment, but this depurated rapidly and only traces remained after 21 days. These results provide evidence to suggest that P. australis does not produce TTX endogenously but obtains the neurotoxin from an exogenous source (e.g., diet) with the source more prevalent in warmer northern waters. The association of higher TTX concentrations in shellfish with warmer environments raises concerns that this toxin's distribution and abundance could become an increasing human health issue with global warming. TTX-containing Paphies australis were maintained in captivity for 150 days and significantly depurated the toxin. Thirteen populations of Paphies australis from around New Zealand were collected and tested for TTX. All populations tested contained TTX but a significant latitudinal gradient was observed. This study provides further evidence of an exogenous source of TTX in marine bivalves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Biessy
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand
- New Zealand Food Safety Science & Research Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
- Corresponding author. Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand.
| | - Kirsty F. Smith
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
| | - D. Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
- New Zealand Food Safety Science & Research Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
| | | | - Ian Hawes
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand
| | - Susanna A. Wood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
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Desai R, Harwood DT, Handelsman DJ. Simultaneous measurement of 18 steroids in human and mouse serum by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry without derivatization to profile the classical and alternate pathways of androgen synthesis and metabolism. Clin Mass Spectrom 2019; 11:42-51. [PMID: 34841072 PMCID: PMC8620903 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinms.2018.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Revised: 12/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The recently identified alternate, or backdoor, pathway of DHT synthesis provides important novel information on androgen biosynthesis beyond the classical pathway. We report a rapid and versatile liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method to simultaneously and accurately quantify key steroids in human or mouse serum involved in either the classical or backdoor androgen synthesis pathways. METHODS Serum (200 µL) fortified with isotopically labelled internal standards underwent liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) with MTBE and extracts were analysed on a LC-MS/MS. The targeted steroids for quantification were testosterone (T), dihydrotestosterone (DHT), 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α diol), 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (3β diol), dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), androstenedione (A4), androsterone (AD), estradiol (E2), estrone (E1), progesterone (P4), pregnenolone (P5), androstenediol (Adiol), 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP4) and 17-hydroxypregnenolone (17-OHP5), corticosterone (B), cortisol (F), allopregnanolone (Allo-P5) and dihydroprogesterone (DHP). RESULTS The limits of quantification (LOQ) were 5 pg/mL for E2 and E1, 25 pg/mL for T, 50 pg/mL for A4 and 0.10 ng/mL for DHT, 17OHP5, P4, P5, AD, Adiol, DHEA, AlloP5 and 0.20 ng/mL for 17OHP4, 3α diol, 3β diol, DHP, 0.25 ng/mL for B and 1 ng/mL for F. Accuracy, precision, reproducibility and recovery were within acceptable limits for bioanalytical method validation. The method is illustrated in human and mouse, male and female serum. CONCLUSIONS The presented method is sufficiently sensitive, specific and reproducible to meet the quality criteria for routine laboratory application for accurate quantitation of 18 steroid concentrations in male and female serum from humans or mice for the purpose of profiling androgen synthesis and metabolism pathways.
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Key Words
- 17OHP4, 17-hydroxyprogesterone
- 17OHP5, 17hydroxypregnenolone
- 3α diol, 5α-androstane-3α17β-diol
- 3β diol, 5α-androstane-3β17β-diol
- A4, androstenedione
- AD, androsterone
- APPI, atmospheric pressure photoionization
- Adiol, androstenediol
- AlloP5, allopregnanolone
- Androgen
- B, corticosterone
- CSP, Charcoal Stripped Plasma
- DHEA, dehydroepiandrosterone
- DHP, dihydroprogesterone
- DHT, dihydrotestosterone
- Dihydrotestosterone
- E1, estrone
- E2, estradiol
- F, cortisol
- IS, internal standard
- LOD, lower limit of detection
- LOQ, lower limit of quantification
- Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry
- ME, matrix effect
- MTBE, methyl tert-butyl ether
- NMI, National Measurement Institute
- P4, progesterone
- P5, pregnenolone
- S/N, signal-to-noise ratio
- Steroidogenesis
- T, testosterone
- Testosterone
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Affiliation(s)
- Reena Desai
- ANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2139, Australia
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25
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Murray JS, Boundy MJ, Selwood AI, Harwood DT. Development of an LC-MS/MS method to simultaneously monitor maitotoxins and selected ciguatoxins in algal cultures and P-CTX-1B in fish. Harmful Algae 2018; 80:80-87. [PMID: 30502815 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2018] [Revised: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/05/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Ciguatera fish poisoning is a serious human health issue that is highly localized to tropical and sub-tropical coastal areas, affecting many of the indigenous island communities intrinsically linked to reef systems for sustenance and trade. It is caused by the consumption of reef fish contaminated with ciguatoxins and is reported as the most common cause of non-bacterial food poisoning. The causative toxins bioaccumulate up the food web, from small herbivorous fish that graze on microalgae of the genus Gambierdiscus into the higher trophic level omnivorous and carnivorous fish predating on them. The number of Gambierdiscus species being described is increasing rapidly and the role of other toxins produced by this microalgal genus in ciguatera intoxications, such as maitotoxin, remains unclear. Ciguatoxins and maitotoxin are among the most potent marine toxins known and there are currently no methods of analysis that can simultaneously monitor these toxins with a high degree of specificity. To meet this need a rapid and selective ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method has been developed to rapidly screen Gambierdiscus cultures and environmental sample device extracts for ciguatoxins and maitotoxins. A fast sample preparation method has also been developed to allow sensitive quantification of the potent ciguatoxin fish metabolite P-CTX-1B from fish extracts, and this method has been subjected to a small validation study. Novel aspects of this approach include the use of alkaline mobile phase for chromatographic separation and specific monitoring of the various toxins. This method has good potential to help evaluate ciguatera risk associated with Gambierdiscus and related microalgal species, and to help promote method development activities for this important and analytically challenging toxin class.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Sam Murray
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7010, New Zealand(1)
| | | | | | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7010, New Zealand(1).
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Finch SC, Boundy MJ, Harwood DT. The Acute Toxicity of Tetrodotoxin and Tetrodotoxin⁻Saxitoxin Mixtures to Mice by Various Routes of Administration. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E423. [PMID: 30360529 PMCID: PMC6266834 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10110423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Revised: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin associated with human poisonings through the consumption of pufferfish. More recently, TTX has been identified in bivalve molluscs from diverse geographical environments, including Europe, and is therefore recognised as an emerging threat to food safety. A recent scientific opinion of the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain recognised the need for further data on the acute oral toxicity of TTX and suggested that, since saxitoxin (STX) and TTX had similar modes of action, it was possible that their toxicities were additive so could perhaps be combined to yield one health-based guideline value. The present study determined the toxicity of TTX by various routes of administration. The testing of three different mixtures of STX and TTX and comparing the experimentally determined values to those predicted on the basis of additive toxicity demonstrated that the toxicities of STX and TTX are additive. This illustrates that it is appropriate to treat TTX as a member of the paralytic shellfish group of toxins. Since the toxicity of TTX was found to be the same as STX by feeding, a molar toxicity equivalence factor of 1.0 for TTX can be applied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C Finch
- AgResearch Limited, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
| | | | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand.
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Brooke DG, Cervin G, Champeau O, Harwood DT, Pavia H, Selwood AI, Svenson J, Tremblay LA, Cahill PL. Antifouling activity of portimine, select semisynthetic analogues, and other microalga-derived spirocyclic imines. Biofouling 2018; 34:950-961. [PMID: 30539667 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2018.1514461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
A range of natural products from marine invertebrates, bacteria and fungi have been assessed as leads for nature-inspired antifouling (AF) biocides, but little attention has been paid to microalgal-derived compounds. This study assessed the AF activity of the spirocyclic imine portimine (1), which is produced by the benthic mat-forming dinoflagellate Vulcanodinium rugosum. Portimine displayed potent AF activity in a panel of four macrofouling bioassays (EC50 0.06-62.5 ng ml-1), and this activity was distinct from that of the related compounds gymnodimine-A (2), 13-desmethyl spirolide C (3), and pinnatoxin-F (4). The proposed mechanism of action for portimine is induction of apoptosis, based on the observation that portimine inhibited macrofouling organisms at developmental stages known to involve apoptotic processes. Semisynthetic modification of select portions of the portimine molecule was subsequently undertaken. Observed changes in bioactivity of the resulting semisynthetic analogues of portimine were consistent with portimine's unprecedented 5-membered imine ring structure playing a central role in its AF activity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gunnar Cervin
- b Department of Marine Sciences-Tjärnö , University of Gothenburg , Strömstad , Sweden
| | | | | | - Henrik Pavia
- b Department of Marine Sciences-Tjärnö , University of Gothenburg , Strömstad , Sweden
| | | | - Johan Svenson
- c Department of Chemistry, Material and Surfaces , Research Institutes of Sweden , Borås , Sweden
| | - Louis A Tremblay
- a Cawthron Institute , Nelson , New Zealand
- d School of Biological Sciences , University of Auckland , Auckland , New Zealand
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Leung PTY, Yan M, Lam VTT, Yiu SKF, Chen CY, Murray JS, Harwood DT, Rhodes LL, Lam PKS, Wai TC. Phylogeny, morphology and toxicity of benthic dinoflagellates of the genus Fukuyoa (Goniodomataceae, Dinophyceae) from a subtropical reef ecosystem in the South China Sea. Harmful Algae 2018; 74:78-97. [PMID: 29724345 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Species of Fukuyoa, recently revised from the globular Gambierdiscus, are toxic benthic dinoflagellates associated with ciguatera. In this study, a total of ten strains of Fukuyoa collected from Hong Kong waters were characterized using morphological and phylogenetic analyses. Results from both analyses showed that one of the strains is a putative new species, namely Fukuyoa sp. HK Type 1 (plate formula Po, 3', 7″, 6c, 7s, 5‴, 1p and 2'‴ with a distinctive small and narrow cell shape, narrow Po plate, high Po pore density, large and broad Plate 1' but small and round Po pore size, small and narrow Plate 2', long and narrow Plates 2'‴ and 1p), and the others were F. ruetzleri. This is the first report of these two species of Fukuyoa in the South China Sea and Asia-Pacific region. Phylogenies on 18S, 28S D1/D3 and D8/D10 ribosomal DNA sequences strongly support that Fukuyoa sp. HK Type 1 is currently the most divergent species in the genus Fukuyoa. The diagrammatic plots on the p-distance matrices of 18S, 28S D1/D3 and D8/D10 and ITS regions resolved that the species of Fukuyoa were separated into three main groups, i.e., Fukuyoa sp. HK Type 1, F. paulensis and a group consisting of F. ruetzleri, F. yasumotoi and F. cf. yasumotoi, while Fukuyoa sp. HK Type 1 was always the most distant from the other two groups. Additionally, the pairwise p-distance values calculated based on the ITS region have always been the highest for pairs between Fukuyoa sp. HK Type 1 and other Fukuyoa species, ranging from 0.142 to 0.150. Our molecular results suggested that Fukuyoa sp. HK Type 1 is a putative new species. Both morphological and molecular data of more strains from different localities should be, however, collected to address its intraspecific variability and further evaluate its taxonomic status. A bioassay analysis demonstrated that algal lysates extracted from F. ruetzleri and Fukuyoa sp. HK Type 1 were lethal to brine shrimp larvae, indicating that both species were toxic. Bulk cultures were tested for Pacific ciguatoxins (P-CTXs) and maitotoxins (MTXs) by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). All isolates of Fukuyoa produced neither P-CTXs nor MTX-1, but isolates of F. ruetzleri produced a compound putatively assigned as MTX-3. This study has updated the current biodiversity and distribution of the toxic benthic dinoflagellates Fukuyoa, and thus contributes to the understanding of their emerging threats to the sub-tropical reef systems locally and regionally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscilla T Y Leung
- State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, China
| | - Meng Yan
- State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, China
| | - Veronica T T Lam
- State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Sam K F Yiu
- State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Chia-Yun Chen
- State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | | | | | | | - Paul K S Lam
- State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, China; Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Tak-Cheung Wai
- State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, China.
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Turnbull A, Malhi N, Tan J, Harwood DT, Madigan T. Fate of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Southern Rock Lobster ( Jasus edwardsii) during Cooking: Concentration, Composition, and Distribution. J Food Prot 2018; 81:240-245. [PMID: 29356586 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-17-280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish toxin (PST) producing microalgal blooms have a significant economic impact on the Southern Rock Lobster ( Jasus edwardsii) fishery in Tasmania, Australia. The regulatory level of 0.8 mg of saxitoxin (STX) eq/kg in place for bivalve shellfish fisheries is applied to lobster hepatopancreas during blooms of toxic algae, resulting in harvest closures and ongoing risk management implications for the fishery. This cooking study was undertaken to inform a human health risk assessment, in conjunction with studies on the uptake and elimination of PST in J. edwardsii. Live lobsters in tanks were contaminated through consumption of PST-containing mussels harvested during an Alexandrium tamarense Group 1 bloom event. This resulted in a mean lobster hepatopancreas level of 2.83 ± 0.84 mg of STX·2HCl eq/kg. Other edible tissues contained negligible concentrations of toxin. PST concentrations in all tissues did not significantly change after boiling or steaming, although the amount of hepatopancreas available for consumption did decrease significantly with both cooking methods, because the tissue became more dispersed, resulting in an overall reduction in the toxin exposure per hepatopancreas consumed. The toxin profile was dominated by STX; gonyautoxin 2, 3; N-sulfocarbamoyl-gonyautoxin 2, 3 (C1,2); and gonyautoxin 5. No significant changes to the toxin profile were observed after either of the cooking methods. Pâté, bisque, and soufflé prepared from the hepatopancreas of toxic lobsters contained negligible levels of PST in each serving; on average, a serving of pâté contained 0.01 mg of STX·2HCl eq, whereas a serving of bisque or soufflé contained <0.01 mg of STX·2HCl eq. The findings of this study will inform a risk assessment of PST in J. edwardsii to determine risk management options for this fishery in Australia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Turnbull
- 1 South Australian Research and Development Institute, GPO Box 397, Adelaide 5000, Australia; and
| | - Navreet Malhi
- 1 South Australian Research and Development Institute, GPO Box 397, Adelaide 5000, Australia; and
| | - Jessica Tan
- 1 South Australian Research and Development Institute, GPO Box 397, Adelaide 5000, Australia; and
| | - D Tim Harwood
- 2 The Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand
| | - Thomas Madigan
- 1 South Australian Research and Development Institute, GPO Box 397, Adelaide 5000, Australia; and
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Cuddihy SL, Drake S, Harwood DT, Selwood AI, McNabb PS, Hampton MB. The marine cytotoxin portimine is a potent and selective inducer of apoptosis. Apoptosis 2018; 21:1447-1452. [PMID: 27738771 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-016-1302-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Portimine is a recently discovered member of a class of marine micro-algal toxins called cyclic imines. In dramatic contrast to related compounds in this toxin class, portimine has very low acute toxicity to mice but is highly cytotoxic to cultured cells. In this study we show that portimine kills human Jurkat T-lymphoma cells and mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), with LC50 values of 6 and 2.5 nM respectively. Treated cells displayed rapid caspase activation and phosphatidylserine exposure, indicative of apoptotic cell death. Jurkat cells overexpressing the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 or Bax/Bak knockout MEFs were completely protected from portimine. This protection was apparent even at high concentrations of portimine, with no evidence of necrotic cell death, indicating that portimine is a selective chemical inducer of apoptosis. Treatment of the Bcl-2-overexpressing cells with both portimine and the Bcl-2 inhibitor ABT-737 proved a powerful combination, causing >90 % death. We conclude that portimine is one of the most potent naturally derived inducers of apoptosis to be discovered, and it displays strong selectivity for the induction of apoptotic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L Cuddihy
- Department of Pathology, Centre for Free Radical Research, University of Otago Christchurch, PO Box 4345, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Sarah Drake
- Department of Pathology, Centre for Free Radical Research, University of Otago Christchurch, PO Box 4345, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, New Zealand
| | | | - Paul S McNabb
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, New Zealand
| | - Mark B Hampton
- Department of Pathology, Centre for Free Radical Research, University of Otago Christchurch, PO Box 4345, Christchurch, New Zealand.
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Larsson ME, Laczka OF, Harwood DT, Lewis RJ, Himaya SWA, Murray SA, Doblin MA. Toxicology of Gambierdiscus spp. (Dinophyceae) from Tropical and Temperate Australian Waters. Mar Drugs 2018; 16:md16010007. [PMID: 29301247 PMCID: PMC5793055 DOI: 10.3390/md16010007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2017] [Revised: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP) is a human illness caused by the consumption of marine fish contaminated with ciguatoxins (CTX) and possibly maitotoxins (MTX), produced by species from the benthic dinoflagellate genus Gambierdiscus. Here, we describe the identity and toxicology of Gambierdiscus spp. isolated from the tropical and temperate waters of eastern Australia. Based on newly cultured strains, we found that four Gambierdiscus species were present at the tropical location, including G. carpenteri, G. lapillus and two others which were not genetically identical to other currently described species within the genus, and may represent new species. Only G. carpenteri was identified from the temperate location. Using LC-MS/MS analysis we did not find any characterized microalgal CTXs (P-CTX-3B, P-CTX-3C, P-CTX-4A and P-CTX-4B) or MTX-1; however, putative maitotoxin-3 (MTX-3) was detected in all species except for the temperate population of G. carpenteri. Using the Ca2+ influx SH-SY5Y cell Fluorescent Imaging Plate Reader (FLIPR) bioassay we found CTX-like activity in extracts of the unidentified Gambierdiscus strains and trace level activity in strains of G. lapillus. While no detectable CTX-like activity was observed in tropical or temperate strains of G. carpenteri, all species showed strong maitotoxin-like activity. This study, which represents the most comprehensive analyses of the toxicology of Gambierdiscus strains isolated from Australia to date, suggests that CFP in this region may be caused by currently undescribed ciguatoxins and maitotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaela E Larsson
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, P.O. Box 123 Broadway, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia.
| | - Olivier F Laczka
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, P.O. Box 123 Broadway, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia.
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7010, New Zealand.
| | - Richard J Lewis
- Institute for Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - S W A Himaya
- Institute for Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Shauna A Murray
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, P.O. Box 123 Broadway, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia.
| | - Martina A Doblin
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, P.O. Box 123 Broadway, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia.
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Roué M, Darius HT, Viallon J, Ung A, Gatti C, Harwood DT, Chinain M. Application of solid phase adsorption toxin tracking (SPATT) devices for the field detection of Gambierdiscus toxins. Harmful Algae 2018; 71:40-49. [PMID: 29306395 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2017.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Revised: 11/26/2017] [Accepted: 11/26/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Ciguatera fish poisoning is a food-borne illness caused by the consumption of seafood contaminated with ciguatoxins (CTXs) produced by dinoflagellates in the Gambierdiscus genus. Since most surveillance programs currently rely on the survey of Gambierdiscus cell densities and species composition, supplementary toxin-based methods allowing the time- and spatially integrated sampling of toxins in ciguateric environments are needed for a more reliable assessment and management of the risks associated with Gambierdiscus proliferation. Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) filters use porous synthetic resins capable of adsorbing toxins directly from the water column. To assess the ability of these passive monitoring devices to retain Gambierdiscus toxins, SPATT bags filled with 10g of HP20 resin were deployed for 48h in two French Polynesian locations at high (Nuku Hiva Island) vs. low to moderate (Kaukura Atoll) risk of ciguatera. CTXs could be detected in SPATT bags extracts from Nuku Hiva Island, as assessed by the mouse neuroblastoma cell-based assay (CBA-N2a) and liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analyses. Results of in vitro experiments suggest that the saturation limit of CTXs on HP20 resin, for a deployment time of 48h, is ≃ 55ng P-CTX-3C equiv. g-1 resin. Despite the non detection of maitotoxin (MTX), LC-MS/MS analyses showed that two other compounds also produced by Gambierdiscus species were retained on SPATT bags, i.e. iso-P-CTX-3B/C and a putative MTX analogue, known as MTX-3. This study, the first to demonstrate the suitability of SPATT technology for the in situ monitoring of Gambierdiscus toxins, highlights the potential application of this tool for routine ciguatera risk assessment and management programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélanie Roué
- Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD) - UMR 241 EIO, PO Box 5 29, 98713 Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia.
| | - Hélène Taiana Darius
- Institut Louis Malardé (ILM), Laboratory of Toxic Microalgae - UMR 241 EIO, PO Box 30, 98713 Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia
| | - Jérôme Viallon
- Institut Louis Malardé (ILM), Laboratory of Toxic Microalgae - UMR 241 EIO, PO Box 30, 98713 Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia
| | - André Ung
- Institut Louis Malardé (ILM), Laboratory of Toxic Microalgae - UMR 241 EIO, PO Box 30, 98713 Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia
| | - Clémence Gatti
- Institut Louis Malardé (ILM), Laboratory of Toxic Microalgae - UMR 241 EIO, PO Box 30, 98713 Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
| | - Mireille Chinain
- Institut Louis Malardé (ILM), Laboratory of Toxic Microalgae - UMR 241 EIO, PO Box 30, 98713 Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia
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Satake M, Irie R, Hamamoto Y, Tachibana K, T. Holland P, Tim Harwood D, Shi F, Beuzenberg V, Itoh Y, Hayashi F, Zhang H. Brevisulcenal-G, -H, and –I, Polycyclic Ether Marine Toxins from the Dinoflagellate Karenia brevisulcata. HETEROCYCLES 2018. [DOI: 10.3987/com-18-14014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Dorantes-Aranda JJ, Tan JYC, Hallegraeff GM, Campbell K, Ugalde SC, Harwood DT, Bartlett JK, Campàs M, Crooks S, Gerssen A, Harrison K, Huet AC, Jordan TB, Koeberl M, Monaghan T, Murray S, Nimmagadda R, Ooms C, Quinlan RK, Shi F, Turner AD, Yakes BJ, Turnbull AR. Detection of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Mussels and Oysters Using the Qualitative Neogen Lateral-Flow Immunoassay: An Interlaboratory Study. J AOAC Int 2017; 101:468-479. [PMID: 28851479 DOI: 10.5740/jaoacint.17-0221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) in bivalve molluscs represent a public health risk and are controlled via compliance with a regulatory limit of 0.8 mg saxitoxin (STX)⋅2HCl equivalents per kilogram of shellfish meat (eq/kg). Shellfish industries would benefit from the use of rapid immunological screening tests for PSTs to be used for regulation, but to date none have been fully validated. An interlaboratory study involving 16 laboratories was performed to determine the suitability of the Neogen test to detect PSTs in mussels and oysters. Participants performed the standard protocol recommended by the manufacturer and a modified protocol with a conversion step to improve detection of gonyautoxin 1&4. The statistical analysis showed that the protocols had good homogeneity across all laboratories, with satisfactory repeatability, laboratory, and reproducibility variation near the regulatory level. The mean probability of detection (POD) at 0.8 mg STX⋅2HCl eq/kg using the standard protocol in mussels and oysters was 0.966 and 0.997, respectively, and 0.968 and 0.966 using the modified protocol. The estimated LOD in mussels was 0.316 mg STX⋅2HCl eq/kg with the standard and 0.682 mg STX⋅2HCl eq/kg with the modified protocol, and 0.710 and 0.734 mg STX⋅2HCl eq/kg for oysters, respectively. The Neogen test may be acceptable for regulatory purposes for oysters in accordance with European Commission directives in which the standard protocol provides, at the regulatory level, a probability of a negative response of 0.033 on 95% of occasions. Its use for mussels is less consistent at the regulatory level due to the wide prediction interval around the POD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan José Dorantes-Aranda
- University of Tasmania, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, Private Bag 129, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Jessica Y C Tan
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, 2b Hartley Grv., Urrbrae, SA 5064, Australia
| | - Gustaaf M Hallegraeff
- University of Tasmania, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, Private Bag 129, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Katrina Campbell
- Queen's University Belfast, School of Biological Sciences, Institute for Global Food Security, David Keir Building, Stranmillis Rd, Belfast, BT9 5AG, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah C Ugalde
- University of Tasmania, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, Private Bag 129, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax St, Nelson 7010, New Zealand
| | - Jill K Bartlett
- University of Canberra, Institute for Applied Ecology, ACT 2617, Australia
| | - Mònica Campàs
- IRTA, Carretera de Poble Nou, km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain
| | - Steven Crooks
- Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Veterinary Sciences Division, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Arjen Gerssen
- Wageningen University and Research, RIKILT, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Keith Harrison
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Barrack Rd, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Anne-Catherine Huet
- CER Groupe, Health Department, Rue du Point du Jour 8, 6900 Marloie, Belgium
| | - Timothy B Jordan
- Analytical Services Tasmania, 18 St Johns Ave, New Town, Hobart, TAS 7008, Australia
| | - Martina Koeberl
- National Measurement Institute, 1/153 Bertie St, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
| | - Tim Monaghan
- Cameron of Tasmania, 145-149 Arthur Hwy, Dunalley, TAS 7177, Australia
| | - Sam Murray
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax St, Nelson 7010, New Zealand
| | - Rama Nimmagadda
- Advanced Analytical Australia Pty Ltd, 11 Julius Ave, North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia
| | - Corinne Ooms
- Spring Bay Seafoods, 488 Freestone Point Rd, Triabunna, TAS 7190, Australia
| | - Rae K Quinlan
- University of Tasmania, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, Private Bag 129, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Feng Shi
- Advanced Analytical Australia Pty Ltd, 11 Julius Ave, North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia
| | - Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Barrack Rd, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Betsy Jean Yakes
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Regulatory Science, College Park, MD
| | - Alison R Turnbull
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, 2b Hartley Grv., Urrbrae, SA 5064, Australia
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Turnbull AR, Tan JYC, Ugalde SC, Hallegraeff GM, Campbell K, Harwood DT, Dorantes-Aranda JJ. Single-Laboratory Validation of the Neogen Qualitative Lateral Flow Immunoassay for the Detection of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Mussels and Oysters. J AOAC Int 2017; 101:480-489. [PMID: 28797318 DOI: 10.5740/jaoacint.17-0135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Detection of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) in bivalve shellfish by analytical methods is complicated and costly, requiring specific expertise and equipment. Following extensive blooms of Alexandrium tamarense Group 1 in Tasmania, Australia, an investigation was made into commercially available screening test kits suitable for use with the toxin profiles found in affected bivalves. The qualitative Neogen rapid test kit, with a modified protocol to convert gonyautoxins GTX1&4 and GTX2&3 into neosaxitoxin and saxitoxin (STX), respectively, with higher cross-reactivities, was the best fit-for-purpose. This validation study of the test kit and the modified protocol was undertaken following AOAC INTERNATIONAL guidelines for the validation of qualitative binary chemistry methods. The validation used four different PST profiles representing natural profiles found in Australia and in Europe: two in a mussel matrix and two in an oyster matrix. The test kit was shown to have appropriate selectivity of the toxin analogs commonly found in bivalve shellfish. The matrix and probability of detection (POD) study showed that the rapid test kit used with the modified protocol was able to consistently detect PST at the bivalve regulatory level of 0.8 mg STX⋅2HCl eq/kg, with a POD estimated via the binomial logistic regression of 1.0 at 0.8 mg STX⋅2HCl eq/kg in all tested profiles in both matrixes. The POD at 0.4 mg STX⋅2HCl eq/kg was 0.75 and 0.46 for the two toxin profiles in an oyster matrix and 0.96 and 1.0 for the two toxin profiles in a mussel matrix. No significant differences in the PODs of the PSTs at the regulatory level were found between production lots of the test kits. The results suggest the method is suitable to undergo a collaborative validation study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison R Turnbull
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, 2b Hartley Grove, Urrbrae, SA 5064, Australia
| | - Jessica Y C Tan
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, 2b Hartley Grove, Urrbrae, SA 5064, Australia
| | - Sarah C Ugalde
- University of Tasmania, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, Private Bag 129, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Gustaaf M Hallegraeff
- University of Tasmania, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, Private Bag 129, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Katrina Campbell
- Queen's University Belfast, School of Biological Sciences, Institute for Global Food Security, David Keir Building, Stranmillis Rd, Belfast BT9 5AG, United Kingdom
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax St, Nelson 7010, New Zealand
| | - Juan José Dorantes-Aranda
- University of Tasmania, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, Private Bag 129, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
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36
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Rhodes LL, Smith KF, Murray S, Harwood DT, Trnski T, Munday R. The Epiphytic Genus Gambierdiscus (Dinophyceae) in the Kermadec Islands and Zealandia Regions of the Southwestern Pacific and the Associated Risk of Ciguatera Fish Poisoning. Mar Drugs 2017; 15:md15070219. [PMID: 28696400 PMCID: PMC5532661 DOI: 10.3390/md15070219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Revised: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Species in the genus Gambierdiscus produce ciguatoxins (CTXs) and/or maitotoxins (MTXs), which may cause ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) in humans if contaminated fish are consumed. Species of Gambierdiscus have previously been isolated from macroalgae at Rangitahua (Raoul Island and North Meyer Islands, northern Kermadec Islands), and the opportunity was taken to sample for Gambierdiscus at the more southerly Macauley Island during an expedition in 2016. Gambierdiscus cells were isolated, cultured, and DNA extracted and sequenced to determine the species present. Bulk cultures were tested for CTXs and MTXs by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The species isolated were G. australes, which produced MTX-1 (ranging from 3 to 36 pg/cell), and G. polynesiensis, which produced neither MTX-1 nor, unusually, any known CTXs. Isolates of both species produced putative MTX-3. The risk of fish, particularly herbivorous fish, causing CFP in the Zealandia and Kermadec Islands region is real, although in mainland New Zealand the risk is currently low. Both Gambierdiscus and Fukuyoa have been recorded in the sub-tropical northern region of New Zealand, and so the risk may increase with warming seas and shift in the distribution of Gambierdiscus species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lesley L Rhodes
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand.
| | - Kirsty F Smith
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand.
| | - Sam Murray
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand.
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand.
| | - Tom Trnski
- Auckland War Memorial Museum, Private Bag 92018, Victoria Street West, Auckland 1010, New Zealand.
| | - Rex Munday
- AgResearch, Ruakura Research Centre, 10 Bisley Road, Private Bag 3240, Hamilton 3214, New Zealand.
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Munday R, Murray S, Rhodes LL, Larsson ME, Harwood DT. Ciguatoxins and Maitotoxins in Extracts of Sixteen Gambierdiscus Isolates and One Fukuyoa Isolate from the South Pacific and Their Toxicity to Mice by Intraperitoneal and Oral Administration. Mar Drugs 2017; 15:md15070208. [PMID: 28665362 PMCID: PMC5532650 DOI: 10.3390/md15070208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2017] [Revised: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Ciguatoxins (CTXs), and possibly maitotoxins (MTXs), are responsible for Ciguatera Fish Poisoning, an important health problem for consumers of reef fish (such as inhabitants of islands in the South Pacific Ocean). The habitational range of the Gambierdiscus species is expanding, and new species are being discovered. In order to provide information on the potential health risk of the Gambierdiscus species, and one Fukuyoa species (found in the Cook Islands, the Kermadec Islands, mainland New Zealand, and New South Wales, Australia), 17 microalgae isolates were collected from these areas. Unialgal cultures were grown and extracts of the culture isolates were analysed for CTXs and MTXs by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), and their toxicity to mice was determined by intraperitoneal and oral administration. An isolate of G. carpenteri contained neither CTXs nor MTXs, while 15 other isolates (including G. australes, G. cheloniae, G. pacificus, G.honu, and F. paulensis) contained only MTX-1 and/or MTX-3. An isolate of G. polynesiensis contained both CTXs and MTX-3. All the extracts were toxic to mice by intraperitoneal injection, but those containing only MTX-1 and/or -3 were much less toxic by oral administration. The extract of G. polynesiensis was highly toxic by both routes of administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rex Munday
- AgResearch, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3240, Hamilton 3214, New Zealand.
| | - Sam Murray
- Cawthron Institute, Halifax Street Campus, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand.
| | - Lesley L Rhodes
- Cawthron Institute, Halifax Street Campus, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand.
| | - Michaela E Larsson
- Climate Change Cluster, School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, P.O. Box 123, Broadway, Sydney 2007, NSW, Australia.
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Halifax Street Campus, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand.
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Kohli GS, Haslauer K, Sarowar C, Kretzschmar AL, Boulter M, Harwood DT, Laczka O, Murray SA. Qualitative and quantitative assessment of the presence of ciguatoxin, P-CTX-1B, in Spanish Mackerel ( Scomberomorus commerson) from waters in New South Wales (Australia). Toxicol Rep 2017; 4:328-334. [PMID: 28959656 PMCID: PMC5615149 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2017.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Revised: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
P-CTX-1B in 84 Spanish Mackerel from NSW and QLD were quantified using LC–MS/MS. Liver & flesh from 6 fish and liver from 4 other fish were positive for P-CTX-1B. Liver had significantly higher concentration (∼6 times) of P-CTX-1B than flesh. No relationship was observed between length/weight of fish & detection of P-CTX-1B.
Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP) is a tropical disease caused by the consumption of fish contaminated with ciguatoxins (CTXs). Currently, the only feasible prevention methods for CFP are to avoid the consumption of fish of certain species from some regions, avoid larger fish of certain species, or avoid all fish caught from specific regions. Here, we quantified levels of P-CTX-1B in Spanish Mackerel (Scomberomorus commerson), which is the main fish species that causes CFP in New South Wales and Queensland, Australia, using LC–MS detection against a toxin standard. We found detectable P-CTX-1B in both flesh and liver tissues in fish from New South Wales (n = 71, 1.4% prevalence rate, with a confidence interval of 1%–4%, and 7% prevalence, 1%–12%, in flesh and liver, respectively). In the small sample of fish from Queensland, there was a 46% prevalence (19–73%, n = 13). Toxin levels found were 0.13 μg kg−1 to <0.1 μg kg−1 in flesh, and 1.39 μg kg−1 to <0.4 μg kg−1 in liver, indicating that liver tissue had a significantly higher concentration (∼5 fold) of P-CTX-1B. No apparent relationship was observed between the length or weight of S. commerson and the detection of P-CTX-1B in this study. Footnote
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Key Words
- CFP, Ciguatera Fish Poisoning
- CTX, Ciguatoxin
- Ciguatera fish poisoning
- Ciguatoxins
- Fish length
- LC–MS, Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry
- LC–MS/MS
- MTX, Maitotoxin
- NMR, Nuclear magnetic resonance
- NSW, New South Wales
- NT, Northern Territory
- P-CTX-1B, Pacific Ciguatoxin 1B
- QLD, Queensland
- RLB, Radio ligand binding
- SFM, Sydney Fish Market
- SIMS, The Sydney Institute for Marine Science
- Scomberomorus commerson
- Spanish Mackerel
- US-FDA, United States Food and Drug Administration
- WA, Western Australia
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Affiliation(s)
- Gurjeet S Kohli
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Kristina Haslauer
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Chowdhury Sarowar
- Sydney Institute of Marine Science, Chowder Bay Rd., Mosman, NSW 2088, Australia
| | - Anna Liza Kretzschmar
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Mark Boulter
- Sydney Fish Market, Pyrmont, NSW 2009, Australia
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Nelson 7010, New Zealand
| | - Olivier Laczka
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Shauna A Murray
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia.,Sydney Institute of Marine Science, Chowder Bay Rd., Mosman, NSW 2088, Australia
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Rhodes L, Smith KF, Verma A, Curley BG, Harwood DT, Murray S, Kohli GS, Solomona D, Rongo T, Munday R, Murray SA. A new species of Gambierdiscus (Dinophyceae) from the south-west Pacific: Gambierdiscus honu sp. nov. Harmful Algae 2017; 65:61-70. [PMID: 28526120 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2017.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2016] [Revised: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Two isolates of a new tropical, epiphytic dinoflagellate species, Gambierdiscus honu sp. nov., were obtained from macroalgae sampled in Rarotonga, Cook Islands, and from North Meyer Island, Kermadec Islands. Gambierdiscus honu sp. nov. had the common Gambierdiscus Kofoidian plate formula: Po, 3', 6″, 6C?, 6 or 7S, 5‴, 1p and 2⁗. The characteristic morphological features of this species were its relatively small short dorsoventral length and width and the shape of individual plates, in particular the combination of the hatchet-shaped 2' and pentagonal 3' plates and the length to width ratio of the antapical 1p plate. The combination of these characteristics plus the smooth thecal surface and equal sized 1⁗ and 2⁗ plates differentiated this species from other Gambierdiscus species. The phylogenetic analyses supported the unique description. Both isolates of G. honu produced the putative maitotoxin (MTX)-3 analogue, but neither produced ciguatoxin (CTX) or MTX. Extracts of G. honu were shown to be highly toxic to mice by intraperitoneal injection (0.2mg/kg), although less toxic by gavage. It is possible that toxins other than putative MTX-3 are produced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lesley Rhodes
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand.
| | - Kirsty F Smith
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand
| | - Arjun Verma
- Plant Functional Biology and Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway, New South Wales 2007, Australia
| | - Belinda G Curley
- Sydney Institute of Marine Sciences, Chowder Bay Rd, Mosman 2088, New South Wales, Australia
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand
| | - Sam Murray
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand
| | - Gurjeet S Kohli
- Plant Functional Biology and Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway, New South Wales 2007, Australia; Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Driver, SBS-01N-27, Singapore 637551, Singapore
| | - Dorothy Solomona
- Ministry of Marine Resources, Private Bag, Avarua, Rarotonga, Cook Islands
| | - Teina Rongo
- Climate Change Cook Islands, Office of the Prime Minister, Private Bag, Avarua, Rarotonga, Cook Islands
| | - Rex Munday
- AgResearch, Ruakura Research Centre, 10 Bisley Road, Private Bag 3240, Hamilton 3214, New Zealand
| | - Shauna A Murray
- Plant Functional Biology and Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway, New South Wales 2007, Australia; Sydney Institute of Marine Sciences, Chowder Bay Rd, Mosman 2088, New South Wales, Australia
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McLeod C, Dowsett N, Hallegraeff G, Harwood DT, Hay B, Ibbott S, Malhi N, Murray S, Smith K, Tan J, Turnbull A. Accumulation and depuration of paralytic shellfish toxins by Australian abalone Haliotis rubra : Conclusive association with Gymnodinium catenatum dinoflagellate blooms. Food Control 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Abstract
Phycotoxins, which are produced by harmful microalgae and bioaccumulate in the marine food web, are of growing concern for Australia. These harmful algae pose a threat to ecosystem and human health, as well as constraining the progress of aquaculture, one of the fastest growing food sectors in the world. With better monitoring, advanced analytical skills and an increase in microalgal expertise, many phycotoxins have been identified in Australian coastal waters in recent years. The most concerning of these toxins are ciguatoxin, paralytic shellfish toxins, okadaic acid and domoic acid, with palytoxin and karlotoxin increasing in significance. The potential for tetrodotoxin, maitotoxin and palytoxin to contaminate seafood is also of concern, warranting future investigation. The largest and most significant toxic bloom in Tasmania in 2012 resulted in an estimated total economic loss of~AUD$23M, indicating that there is an imperative to improve toxin and organism detection methods, clarify the toxin profiles of species of phytoplankton and carry out both intra- and inter-species toxicity comparisons. Future work also includes the application of rapid, real-time molecular assays for the detection of harmful species and toxin genes. This information, in conjunction with a better understanding of the life histories and ecology of harmful bloom species, may lead to more appropriate management of environmental, health and economic resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Penelope Ajani
- Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia.
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, The Wood, Nelson 7010, New Zealand.
| | - Shauna A Murray
- Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia.
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Dorantes-Aranda JJ, Campbell K, Bradbury A, Elliott CT, Harwood DT, Murray SA, Ugalde SC, Wilson K, Burgoyne M, Hallegraeff GM. Comparative performance of four immunological test kits for the detection of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Tasmanian shellfish. Toxicon 2017; 125:110-119. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.11.262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Revised: 11/24/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Harwood DT, Murray S, Boundy MJ. Sample Preparation Prior to Marine Toxin Analysis. Recent Advances in the Analysis of Marine Toxins 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.coac.2017.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Verma A, Hoppenrath M, Dorantes-Aranda JJ, Harwood DT, Murray SA. Molecular and phylogenetic characterization of Ostreopsis (Dinophyceae) and the description of a new species, Ostreopsis rhodesae sp. nov., from a subtropical Australian lagoon. Harmful Algae 2016; 60:116-130. [PMID: 28073555 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Revised: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Cryptic and pseudo-cryptic species are common amongst marine phytoplankton, and may cause misleading inferences of ecological and physiological data of plankton community studies. Deciphering the diversity and distribution of species of the benthic dinoflagellate Ostreopsis is one example, as there are many morphologically indistinct clades that differ greatly genetically and toxicologically from one another. In this study, a new species, Ostreopsis rhodesae from the southern Great Barrier Reef was described. While it initially appeared to be highly similar to several other Ostreopsis species, we found O. rhodesae can be distinguished based on the relative size of the second apical plate (2'), which is twice as long as the APC plate, and separates the third apical (3') from the third precingular (3'') plate. Phylogenetic trees based on the SSU, ITS/5.8S and D1-D2 and D8-D10 regions of the LSU rRNA were well supported, and showed a clear difference to other Ostreopsis clades. Compensatory base changes (CBCs) were identified in helices of the ITS2 between O. rhodesae and O. cf. ovata and O. cf. siamensis, which were also present in the same habitat. Fish gill cell lines were toxic to O. rhodesae, cell extracts but no palytoxin-like analogues were found in them. The findings highlight a case of pseudo-cryptic speciation, found in sympatry with closely related and morphologically similar species, but biologically and functionally distinct.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjun Verma
- Plant Functional Biology and Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway, New South Wales 2007, Australia.
| | - Mona Hoppenrath
- Senckenberg Research Institute, Senckenberg am Meer, German Center for Marine Biodiversity Research (DZMB), Südstrand 44, D-26382 Wilhelmshaven, Germany
| | - Juan José Dorantes-Aranda
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 129, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7010, New Zealand
| | - Shauna A Murray
- Plant Functional Biology and Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway, New South Wales 2007, Australia
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Smith KF, Rhodes L, Verma A, Curley BG, Harwood DT, Kohli GS, Solomona D, Rongo T, Munday R, Murray SA. A new Gambierdiscus species (Dinophyceae) from Rarotonga, Cook Islands: Gambierdiscus cheloniae sp. nov. Harmful Algae 2016; 60:45-56. [PMID: 28073562 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Revised: 10/24/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) has been reported for many years in Rarotonga, Cook Islands, and has had the world's highest reported incidence of this illness for the last 20 years. Following intensive sampling to understand the distribution of the causative organisms of CFP, an undescribed Gambierdiscus species was isolated from the Rarotongan lagoon. Gambierdiscus cheloniae sp. nov. has the common Gambierdiscus Kofoidian plate formula (except for a variability in the number of precingular plates in aberrant cells): Po, 3', 6″ (7″), 6C?, 6 or 7S, 5'″, 1p and 2″″. The 2' plate is hatchet shaped and the dorsal end of 1p is pointed and the relatively narrow 1p plate. Morphologically G. cheloniae is similar to the genetically closely related species G. pacificus, G. toxicus and G. belizeanus, although smaller (depth and length) than G. toxicus. The apical pore plate varies from those of G. belizeanus and G. pacificus, which are shorter and narrower, and from G. toxicus, which is larger. G. cheloniae also differs from G. pacificus in the shape of the 2' plate. The description of this new species is supported by phylogenetic analyses using three different gene regions. G. cheloniae produced the putative maitotoxin-3 analogue, MTX-3, but neither maitotoxin or monitored ciguatoxin. Extracts of G. cheloniae were shown to be highly toxic to mice by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection, although they were less toxic by gavage. It is possible that this species produces toxins other than putative MTX-3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsty F Smith
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand.
| | - Lesley Rhodes
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand
| | - Arjun Verma
- Plant Functional Biology and Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway, New South Wales 2007, Australia
| | - Belinda G Curley
- Sydney Institute of Marine Sciences, Chowder Bay Rd, Mosman 2088, New South Wales Australia
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand
| | - Gurjeet S Kohli
- Plant Functional Biology and Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway, New South Wales 2007, Australia
| | - Dorothy Solomona
- Ministry of Marine Resources, Private Bag, Avarua, Rarotonga, Cook Islands
| | - Teina Rongo
- Climate Change Cook Islands, Office of the Prime Minister, Private Bag, Avarua, Rarotonga, Cook Islands
| | - Rex Munday
- AgResearch, Ruakura Research Centre, 10 Bisley Road, Private Bag 3240, Hamilton 3214, New Zealand
| | - Shauna A Murray
- Plant Functional Biology and Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway, New South Wales 2007, Australia; Sydney Institute of Marine Sciences, Chowder Bay Rd, Mosman 2088, New South Wales Australia
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Farrell H, Zammit A, Manning J, Shadbolt C, Szabo L, Harwood DT, McNabb P, Turahui JA, van den Berg DJ. Clinical diagnosis and chemical confirmation of ciguatera fish poisoning in New South Wales, Australia. Commun Dis Intell (2018) 2016; 40:E1-E6. [PMID: 27080020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Ciguatera fish poisoning is common in tropical and sub-tropical areas and larger fish (> 10 kg) are more susceptible to toxin accumulation with age. Although the coastal climate of northern New South Wales is considered sub-tropical, prior to 2014 there has only been 1 documented outbreak of ciguatera fish poisoning from fish caught in the region. During February and March 2014, 2 outbreaks of ciguatera fish poisoning involved 4 and 9 individuals, respectively, both following consumption of Spanish mackerel from northern New South Wales coastal waters (Evans Head and Scotts Head). Affected individuals suffered a combination of gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms requiring hospital treatment. At least 1 individual was symptomatic up to 7 months later. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry detected the compound Pacific ciguatoxin-1B at levels up to 1.0 µg kg(-1) in fish tissue from both outbreaks. During April 2015, another outbreak of ciguatera fish poisoning was reported in 4 individuals. The fish implicated in the outbreak was caught further south than the 2014 outbreaks (South West Rocks). Fish tissue was unavailable for analysis; however, symptoms were consistent with ciguatera fish poisoning. To our knowledge, these cases are the southernmost confirmed sources of ciguatera fish poisoning in Australia. Educational outreach to the fishing community, in particular recreational fishers was undertaken after the Evans Head outbreak. This highlighted the outbreak, species of fish involved and the range of symptoms associated with ciguatera fish poisoning. Further assessment of the potential for ciguatoxins to occur in previously unaffected locations need to be considered in terms of food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazel Farrell
- Shellfish Operations Officer, NSW Food Authority, Newington, New South Wales
| | - Anthony Zammit
- Manager NSW Shellfish Program, NSW Food Authority, Newington, New South Wales
| | - Jennifer Manning
- Recall Co-ordinator, NSW Food Authority, Newington, New South Wales
| | - Craig Shadbolt
- Manager, Food Incidents Response and Complaints, NSW Food Authority, Newington, New South Wales
| | - Lisa Szabo
- Chief Scientist, NSW Food Authority, NSW Food Authority, Newington, New South Wales
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Safe New Zealand Seafood Programme co-leader, Cawthron Institute, Nelson, New Zealand
| | - Paul McNabb
- Technical Manager, Research and Method Development, Cawthron Institute, Nelson, New Zealand
| | - John A Turahui
- Communicable Disease Public Health Officer, North Coast Public Health Unit, Lismore, New South Wales
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Satake M, Irie R, Suzuki R, Tachibana K, T. Holland P, Tim Harwood D, Shi F, McNabb P, Beuzenberg V, Hayashi F, Zhang H. Brevisulcatic Acids from a Marine Microalgal Species Implicated in a Toxic Event in New Zealand. HETEROCYCLES 2016. [DOI: 10.3987/com-15-13332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Farrell H, Seebacher F, O'Connor W, Zammit A, Harwood DT, Murray S. Warm temperature acclimation impacts metabolism of paralytic shellfish toxins from Alexandrium minutum in commercial oysters. Glob Chang Biol 2015; 21:3402-3413. [PMID: 26032975 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.12952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Accepted: 03/24/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Species of Alexandrium produce potent neurotoxins termed paralytic shellfish toxins and are expanding their ranges worldwide, concurrent with increases in sea surface temperature. The metabolism of molluscs is temperature dependent, and increases in ocean temperature may influence both the abundance and distribution of Alexandrium and the dynamics of toxin uptake and depuration in shellfish. Here, we conducted a large-scale study of the effect of temperature on the uptake and depuration of paralytic shellfish toxins in three commercial oysters (Saccostrea glomerata and diploid and triploid Crassostrea gigas, n = 252 per species/ploidy level). Oysters were acclimated to two constant temperatures, reflecting current and predicted climate scenarios (22 and 27 °C), and fed a diet including the paralytic shellfish toxin-producing species Alexandrium minutum. While the oysters fed on A. minutum in similar quantities, concentrations of the toxin analogue GTX1,4 were significantly lower in warm-acclimated S. glomerata and diploid C. gigas after 12 days. Following exposure to A. minutum, toxicity of triploid C. gigas was not affected by temperature. Generally, detoxification rates were reduced in warm-acclimated oysters. The routine metabolism of the oysters was not affected by the toxins, but a significant effect was found at a cellular level in diploid C. gigas. The increasing incidences of Alexandrium blooms worldwide are a challenge for shellfish food safety regulation. Our findings indicate that rising ocean temperatures may reduce paralytic shellfish toxin accumulation in two of the three oyster types; however, they may persist for longer periods in oyster tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazel Farrell
- School Plant Functional Ecology and Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, 2007, Australia
- Sydney Institute of Marine Sciences, Chowder Bay Rd, Mosman, NSW, 2088, Australia
- NSW Food Authority, 6 Avenue of the Americas, Newington, NSW, 2127, Australia
| | - Frank Seebacher
- Integrative Physiology, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Sydney, Heydon Laurence Building A08, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Wayne O'Connor
- Department of Primary Industries, Port Stephens Fisheries Institute, Locked Bag 1, Nelson Bay, NSW, 2315, Australia
| | - Anthony Zammit
- NSW Food Authority, 6 Avenue of the Americas, Newington, NSW, 2127, Australia
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
| | - Shauna Murray
- School Plant Functional Ecology and Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, 2007, Australia
- Sydney Institute of Marine Sciences, Chowder Bay Rd, Mosman, NSW, 2088, Australia
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Keski-Rahkonen P, Desai R, Jimenez M, Harwood DT, Handelsman DJ. Measurement of Estradiol in Human Serum by LC-MS/MS Using a Novel Estrogen-Specific Derivatization Reagent. Anal Chem 2015; 87:7180-6. [PMID: 26090565 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b01042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method is described that employs a novel derivatization reagent for the measurement of serum estradiol (E2), with simultaneous analysis of underivatized testosterone (T) and dihydrotestosterone (DHT). The main advantage of the new derivatization reagent 1,2-dimethylimidazole-5-sulfonyl chloride is its analyte-specific fragmentation that enables monitoring of confirmatory mass transitions with high sensitivity. The reaction mixture can be analyzed without additional purification steps using a 9.5 min gradient run, and sensitive detection is achieved with a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer using atmospheric pressure photoionization. Method validation was performed with human serum samples, including a comparison with a standard LC-MS/MS method using 120 samples from a clinical study, and analysis of certified E2 serum reference materials BCR-576, BCR-577, and BCR-578. The lower limits of quantification for E2, T, and DHT were 0.5 pg/mL, 25 pg/mL, and 0.10 ng/mL, respectively, from a 200-μL sample. Validation results indicated good accuracy and agreement with established, conventional LC-MS/MS assays, demonstrating suitability for analysis of samples containing E2 in the low pg/mL range, such as serum from men, children, and postmenopausal women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pekka Keski-Rahkonen
- †ANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney and Andrology Department, Concord Hospital, NSW Health, Sydney, NSW 2139, Australia
| | - Reena Desai
- †ANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney and Andrology Department, Concord Hospital, NSW Health, Sydney, NSW 2139, Australia
| | - Mark Jimenez
- †ANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney and Andrology Department, Concord Hospital, NSW Health, Sydney, NSW 2139, Australia
| | - D Tim Harwood
- †ANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney and Andrology Department, Concord Hospital, NSW Health, Sydney, NSW 2139, Australia
| | - David J Handelsman
- †ANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney and Andrology Department, Concord Hospital, NSW Health, Sydney, NSW 2139, Australia
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Boundy MJ, Selwood AI, Harwood DT, McNabb PS, Turner AD. Development of a sensitive and selective liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry method for high throughput analysis of paralytic shellfish toxins using graphitised carbon solid phase extraction. J Chromatogr A 2015; 1387:1-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2015.01.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Revised: 01/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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