The diversity and quality of forages and their potency as herbal anthelmintic for swamp buffalo in Brebes District, Central Java

Background and Aim

Swamp buffaloes play an important role in the rural economy of Indonesia. They consume various forages during their grazing time, including those with anti-parasitic potential. However, the information about the type and quality of forages and their potential as a natural anthelmintic for swamp buffalo is very limited. This study aimed to identify the diversity, quality, and anthelmintic potency of forages consumed by swamp buffaloes reared in Bantarkawung Subdistrict, Brebes District, Central Java Province, Indonesia.

Materials and Methods

Samples of forages were obtained during three observation periods of the study, with a 12-week interval between each period. Forage diversity was evaluated by identifying its consumption by swamp buffaloes during their grazing activity in the field and feeding time in their shed. The quality of forages was analyzed using proximate analysis to measure their dry matter (DM), crude fiber (CF), crude protein (CP), crude fat (CFat), and ash contents. This is followed by the calculation of their total digestible nutrient based on the proximate analysis results. Botanical composition analysis was then conducted to measure the predominance of forages consumed by the livestock during their grazing activity. Literature reviews were carried out to explore forage's anthelmintic activity.

Results

The results showed that swamp buffaloes consume nine species of forage in the shed and 47 in the grazing area, including nine legumes, 18 grass, and 20 others. Swamp buffaloes consumed forages of lower quality, which contained high CF contents and varying levels of other nutrients below their daily nutritional needs. The grazing activity allowed swamp buffaloes to consume a higher variety of forages with better nutritional quality, thereby enabling them to meet their nutritional needs. Legumes and other forages served as the major protein sources, providing CP of 20.03% DM and 11.53% DM, and CF levels of 17.01% DM and 20.35% DM, respectively. The results also showed that the consumption of these forages increased during the rainy season. The predominant species of legumes consumed were Leucaena leucocephala and Acacia spp., while Alternanthera sessilis and Merremia umbellata were the predominant species of other forages. A total of 13 of the 47 species could potentially be used as natural anthelmintic due to their secondary metabolites, namely, tannin, flavonoid, saponin, terpenoid, diterpenoid, and mimosine. These compounds exert anthelmintic effects by inhibiting egg-hatching and larval development, as well as damaging the surface structure of both larvae and adult worms, ultimately leading to the death of the parasites.

Conclusion

Overall, swamp buffaloes consumed more variety of forages during grazing compared to when they were kept in sheds. While the low-variety and low-quality forages provisioned for swamp buffaloes in their shed resulted in a low nutrient intake below their daily requirement. Furthermore, daily grazing activities allowed swamp buffaloes to fulfill and supplement their need by consuming a variety of grasses, legumes, and other forages in their respective grazing areas. Some of these forages also have the potential to become natural anthelmintic because they contain secondary metabolites, such as tannins, flavonoids, saponins, terpenoids, diterpenoids, and mimosine.

Seasonal dynamics of Fasciola gigantica transmission in Prafi district, Manokwari Regency, West Papua, Indonesia

Background and Aim

Indonesia's farming practices are a perfect setting for establishing an infection with Fasciola gigantica which can result in economically detrimental. The objectives of the current study were to describe and analyze the transmission dynamics of fasciolosis (F. gigantica) in Prafi District, to provide information on effective control strategies and to identify risk factors associated with fasciolosis in cattle.

Materials and Methods

Fecal samples were purposively collected from the rectum of 60 beef cattle in Prafi District, Manokwari Regency, West Papua Province, Indonesia. The samples were collected once a month for 8 months from April 2019 to November 2019. Furthermore, the samples were taken from two rearing system groups: 30 stall cattle and 30 cattle in a palm oil garden. The presence of F. gigantica eggs in the fecal samples was examined using a modified Danish Bilharziasis Laboratory technique-sedimentation. Meanwhile, the antigenic diagnosis of Fasciola in the fecal samples was analyzed using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit to perform an indirect sandwich assay on feces. Snails were collected from an irrigation canal, rice field, and palm oil garden canal around Prafi District. These snails were examined for infection with cercariae larvae of F. gigantica by cercarial shedding and crushing techniques.

Results

The peak occurrence of F. gigantica infection was identified in August (65.00%) and the lowest in June (35.00%). The highest prevalence of fasciolosis in cattle was recorded in August and November (90.00%) and the lowest was in May (40.00%). Moreover, the highest prevalence of fasciolosis in cattle exposed to the palm oil garden was recorded in April (53.33%) and the lowest prevalence of F. gigantica infection was recorded in June (23.33%). In total, 2046 snails were screened by the cercarial shedding and crushing method; of these, 426 (20.82%) were found to be positive for trematode cercariae. The prevalence of F. gigantica infection in Lymnaea spp. snails was highest in November (47.46%) and lowest in April (9.28%).

Conclusion

The current study shows that beef cattle grown in two types of rearing systems in Prafi District were infected with F. gigantica during the dry and rainy season. It was revealed that Lymnaea spp. are common snails found in and around Prafi District, and can act as intermediate hosts with an infective stage of trematode. The transmission to cattle was highly effective, despite the short activity period, the low infection rate of snails, and the incidental anthelminthic treatment.

Review of 2022 WHO guidelines on the control and elimination of schistosomiasis

Schistosomiasis is a helminthiasis infecting approximately 250 million people worldwide. In 2001, the World Health Assembly (WHA) 54.19 resolution defined a new global strategy for control of schistosomiasis through preventive chemotherapy programmes. This resolution culminated in the 2006 WHO guidelines that recommended empirical treatment by mass drug administration with praziquantel, predominately to school-aged children in endemic settings at regular intervals. Since then, school-based and community-based preventive chemotherapy programmes have been scaled-up, reducing schistosomiasis-associated morbidity. Over the past 15 years, new scientific evidence-combined with a more ambitious goal of eliminating schistosomiasis and an increase in the global donated supply of praziquantel-has highlighted the need to update public health guidance worldwide. In February, 2022, WHO published new guidelines with six recommendations to update the global public health strategy against schistosomiasis, including expansion of preventive chemotherapy eligibility from the predominant group of school-aged children to all age groups (2 years and older), lowering the prevalence threshold for annual preventive chemotherapy, and increasing the frequency of treatment. This Review, written by the 2018-2022 Schistosomiasis Guidelines Development Group and its international partners, presents a summary of the new WHO guideline recommendations for schistosomiasis along with their historical context, supporting evidence, implications for public health implementation, and future research needs.

Diagnosis of Schistosoma infection in non-human animal hosts: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Reliable and field-applicable diagnosis of schistosome infections in non-human animals is important for surveillance, control, and verification of interruption of human schistosomiasis transmission. This study aimed to summarize uses of available diagnostic techniques through a systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHODOLOGY AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We systematically searched the literature and reports comparing two or more diagnostic tests in non-human animals for schistosome infection. Out of 4,909 articles and reports screened, 19 met our inclusion criteria, four of which were considered in the meta-analysis. A total of 14 techniques (parasitologic, immunologic, and molecular) and nine types of non-human animals were involved in the studies. Notably, four studies compared parasitologic tests (miracidium hatching test (MHT), Kato-Katz (KK), the Danish Bilharziasis Laboratory technique (DBL), and formalin-ethyl acetate sedimentation-digestion (FEA-SD)) with quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), and sensitivity estimates (using qPCR as the reference) were extracted and included in the meta-analyses, showing significant heterogeneity across studies and animal hosts. The pooled estimate of sensitivity was 0.21 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.03-0.48) with FEA-SD showing highest sensitivity (0.89, 95% CI: 0.65-1.00).

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings suggest that the parasitologic technique FEA-SD and the molecular technique qPCR are the most promising techniques for schistosome diagnosis in non-human animal hosts. Future studies are needed for validation and standardization of the techniques for real-world field applications.

Humoral responses to Schistosoma japonicum soluble egg antigens in domestic animals in Lindu Subdistrict, Central Sulawesi Province, Indonesia

Background and Aim: Schistosomiasis japonica, a disease caused by Schistosoma japonicum, is a public health problem in the Philippines, the Republic of Indonesia, and the People's Republic of China. The disease is known as zoonotic, meaning other than humans, animals are involved as the reservoirs. In Indonesia, schistosomiasis surveillance in animals is not continuous. Thus, the study to determine the prevalence of the disease in animals is needed. The study was aimed to determine the seroprevalence of S. japonicum infection among four species of domestic animals in the Lindu Sub-district, Central Sulawesi Province of Indonesia. Materials and Methods: Blood samples of domestic animals were collected and analyzed for the presence of anti-S. japonicum immunoglobulin G antibodies against S. japonicum soluble egg antigens using the indirect hemagglutination assay. Animal stool samples were collected, and the miracidia-hatching assay was used for the detection of S. japonicum infection. Additional data concerning the animal identity and the management practices were obtained through a questionnaire used in surveys and interviews. Results: A total of 146 sera from 13 cattle, 24 buffaloes, 54 pigs, and 55 dogs were collected. The overall schistosomiasis seroprevalence was 64.4%. The serology prevalence in cattle, buffalo, pig, and dog was 100.0%, 41.7%, 74.1%, and 56.4%, respectively. Domestic animals in all of five villages have previous exposure with S. japonicum as seropositive animals detected in every village. A total of 104 animal stool samples from 146 animals sampled were obtained. The overall schistosomiasis prevalence determined by the miracidia hatching assay was 16.35%. The sensitivity and specificity of indirect hemagglutination assay (IHA) in the current study were 88.24% and 41.37%, respectively, with miracidia hatching assay as the gold-standard method. Conclusion: This study has shown a high seroprevalence of schistosomiasis japonica among domestic animals in the Lindu Subdistrict. IHA can be used as the screening method for the detection of S. japonicum infection in domestic animals. Chemotherapy and animal livestock grazing management programs to reduce the parasite burden and Schistosoma egg contamination in the environment must be implemented as part of one health approaches, in addition to other control measures.

Prevalence and risk factors of trematode infection in swamp buffaloes reared under different agro-climatic conditions in Java Island of Indonesia

Background and Aims:

This study was conducted to estimate the prevalence and intensity and to identify the associated risk factors and impact of trematode infection in swamp buffaloes reared under different agro-climatic conditions in Java, Indonesia.

Materials and Methods:

A total of 580 fecal samples were collected from swamp buffaloes in five different agro-climatic areas in Banten and Central Java Provinces, Indonesia. The fecal samples were examined using the Danish Bilharziasis Laboratory Technique to determine the prevalence and intensity of trematode infection. The risk factors for infection were determined from an in-depth interview of owners/keepers, and the results were analyzed using Chi-square tests and multiple logistic regression. The infection was also correlated with swamp buffalo production parameters (body weight and body condition score [BCS]).

Results:

From all fecal samples, the overall prevalence of trematode infection was 64.83%, which comprised Fasciola spp. (16.03%; mean eggs per gram [EPG]±SD: 1.02±0.43) and Paramphistomatidae (62.93%; mean EPG±SD: 1.01±0.66). The main risk factor for trematode infection was feeding animals with rice straw (odds ratio [OR]: 40.124); the risk of trematode infection was 40.142 times higher in buffaloes that consumed rice straw. Other risk factors included the frequency of anthelmintic treatment (OR: 4.666), age (OR: 0.449), and drinking water source (OR: 0.358). Trematode infection did not significantly affect the body weight or BCS of swamp buffaloes.

Conclusion:

Although the prevalence of trematode infection was high in swamp buffaloes, the intensity of infection was low, and the infection did not affect the animals’ physical parameters.

Toksisitas Akut Ekstrak Daun Miana (Coleus Blumei Benth) pada Mencit (Mus Musculus)

Coleus blumei memiliki berbagai khasiat untuk mengobati berbagai macam penyakit termasuk kecacingan. Sampai saat ini belum diketahui tingkat dosis yang menyebabkan toksisitas bagi pemakainya. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengevaluasi toksisitas akut ekstrak etanol daun miana pada mencit. Pengujian toksisitas dilakukan pada mencit dengan pemberian per oral untuk menentukan toksisitas akut dan dosis letal 50% (LD50). Hasil penelitian menunjukkan ekstrak daun miana memiliki toksisitas yang rendah. Hasil analisis probit menunjukkan LD50 ekstrak etanol daun miana adalah 9757.14 mg/kg berat badan. Gejala klinis yang terlihat pada mencit sebelum mati adalah tidak aktif, lemah, ritme pernapasan menurun dan bulu berdiri. Pemeriksaan patologi anatomi menunjukkan perdarahan pada rongga perut ditemukan pada dosis 10000 mg/kg bb ekstrak etanol. Hasil pemeriksaan histopatologi menunjukkan adanya pembendungan, oedema, dilatasi tubuli pada organ ginjal. Degenerasi dan nekrosis ditemukan pada organ usus, hati dan ginjal yang meningkat seiring dengan peningkatan dosis ekstrak. Berdasarkan nilai LD50 ekstrak etanol daun miana termasuk dalam kategori toksik ringan. Walaupun termasuk dalam katagori toksik ringan, akan tetapi mulai pada dosis 4000 mg/kg bb ekstrak daun miana menyebabkan degenerasi dan nekrosa sel pada organ usus, hati, dan ginjal.

The contribution of domestic animals to the transmission of schistosomiasis japonica in the Lindu Subdistrict of the Central Sulawesi Province, Indonesia

Background and Aim:

Schistosomiasis is endemic in Indonesia and is found in three remote areas in Central Sulawesi Province. Non-human mammals serve as reservoir hosts, meaning the disease is zoonotic. The previous schistosomiasis studies in animals from the Lindu Subdistrict did not determine which domestic animal species can serve as the primary source of transmission. No animals have been treated in Indonesia to control the disease; therefore, the parasite’s life cycle is not blocked entirely. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and identify the risk factors associated with, Schistosoma japonicum infection in animals, and identify animals’ relative contributions to S. japonicum transmission in the Lindu Subdistrict.

Materials and Methods:

A cross-sectional survey of S. japonicum infected animals was conducted in five villages of the Lindu Subdistrict. Fecal samples were collected from 134 selected animals (13 cattle, 26 buffaloes, 28 horses, 59 pigs, and 8 dogs). S. japonicum infection and infection intensity were determined using the Danish Bilharziasis Laboratory method. Environmental contamination with schistosome eggs was measured. The data were analyzed using a Chi-square test.

Results:

The overall prevalence of schistosomiasis was 32.9%, with the prevalence of infection in each species of animal at 61.5% in cattle, 42.3% in buffaloes, 25.0% in horses, 35.6% in pigs, and 12.5% in dogs. Free-range pigs were 8.667 times more likely to have S. japonicum infection than pigs kept in cages. Buffaloes, cattle, and horses were the primary sources of S. japonicum egg contamination, with relative transmission indices of 59.15%, 22.80%, and 10.61%, respectively.

Conclusion:

Bovines and horses are the main contributors to schistosomiasis transmission in the Lindu Subdistrict. In conjunction with other schistosomiasis control programs, the government should treat infected animals living within endemic areas where there are high infection rates of S. japonicum.

Multi-disciplinary integration of networking through the RNAS+: Research on other target diseases

In 2005, the network decided to increase its number of target diseases to include other helminthic zoonoses such as fascioliasis, clonorchiasis, opisthorchiasis, paragonimiasis and cysticercosis and in the process expanding membership to include South Korea, Vietnam, Thailand and Japan. NTDs were eventually included as awareness is heightened on these diseases affecting poor and developing countries. Researches on clonorchiasis and opisthorchiasis unravel the mechanism by which these diseases eventually predispose to cholangiocarcinoma. The liver cancer associated with these liver fluke infections necessitate the need to clarify the global burden of disease of these infections. The magnitude of these liver fluke diseases in endemic countries like China, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand is described. Success in elimination of lymphatic filariasis in PR China and Cambodia is highlighted to show how intensified multisectoral collaboration and strong political become strong ingredients in elimination of parasitic diseases like LF. New advances are presented that clarify species and strain differences in Fasciola spp., Paragonimus spp., Taenia spp. and Echinococcocus spp. Conventional diagnostic techniques are compared with new serologic techniques that are being developed. New control strategies such as the Lawa model are presented.

From country control programmes to translational research

From the time it was conceptualized in 1998 to the present, RNAS⁺ has largely concentrated on research that will generate results to facilitate control, prevention and elimination of its target diseases. Diagnostics has remained an active field of research in order to develop tools that are appropriate for each stage from the first efforts until attempts to block transmission. For example, with regard to schistosomiasis, chemotherapy has excellent impact on morbidity, while better diagnostics and vaccine research have been promoted to complement the other components of the control programme. The need for surveillance in areas where the prevalence has been brought down to very low levels necessitated development of spatio-temporal tools and ecological models based on geographical information systems (GIS) to produce risk and distribution maps for monitoring and evaluation of programme success. New knowledge and experiences in management of the diseases contribute to the formulation of new schemes in management and treatment. Ways of drawing attention to the disease, such as determining disability weights for use in computation of burden of disease, updating epidemiological profile and unravelling new aspects of the disease provide bases for modifying the operation of control programmes as we move forward. Programme evaluation based on reports of actual implementation of activities brought to the fore problems related to the distribution of chemotherapy as well as social, cultural and behavioural aspects of endemic communities. Importantly, this highlighted the necessity of adapting control activities to specific situations of the endemic areas. New models evolving from reviews of this kind and success stories, such us the elimination of lymphatic filariasis (LF) in PR China and Cambodia are presented.

Exploration of anthelmintic activity of Cassia spp. extracts on gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep

Objective:

This study aimed to explore the phytochemical constituents and anthelmintic activities of four Cassia spp. leaves against Haemonchus contortus.

Materials and Methods:

The extracts were prepared from four species of Cassia spp. (C. siamea, C. fistula, C. surattensis, and C. spectabilis). Phytochemical screening of the extract was done based on the Harborne method. Evaluation of the anthelmintic activities against H. contortus was done in vitro using infective larvae (L₃) migration inhibition assay (LMIA). Measurement of larvae migrating was conducted through a nylon filter with a pore size of 20 μm. The doses of Cassia spp. extract implemented were 25, 50, 100, and 200 mg/ml.

Results:

Tannins, alkaloids, phenol hydroquinone, flavonoids, steroids, triterpenoids, and saponins were present in all the extracts, whereas alkaloids were absent in C. fistula. No triterpenoids were found in C. surattensis and C. spectabilis. Movement of H. contortus larvae was significantly inhibited after exposure to Cassia extracts at various dosage levels (p < 0.05). The test results using LMIA on L₃H. contortus showed the lowest inhibition in the negative control. Among the species of Cassia, the C. surattensis (at 200 mg/ml) showed the highest (p < 0.05) inhibition level on the larvae. The latter result corresponded to the effect of albendazole.

Conclusion:

Compared to other Cassia spp., C. surattensis exhibited the highest inhibition against L₃H. contortus. However, the inhibition effect of C. surattensis was still lower as compared to albendazole.

Trematodosis pada Sapi Potong di Wilayah Sentra Peternakan Rakyat (SPR) Kecamatan Kasiman, Kabupaten Bojonegoro

Trematodosis pada sapi adalah penyakit penting yang disebabkan oleh trematoda yang mengakibatkan kerugian ekonomi yang tinggi pada peternakan sapi potong dan sapi perah. Studi cross sectional dilakukan untuk menentukan prevalensi dan faktor risiko trematodosis pada sapi potong yang dilaksanakan dari bulan Agustus 2014 sampai bulan Maret 2015 di Kecamatan Kasiman Kabupaten Bojonegoro. Sebanyak 533 sampel tinja secara acak diambil dari peternakan sapi potong tradisional. Sampel diperiksa untuk keberadaan telur trematoda dengan metode modifikasi filtrasi dan sedimentasi. Prevalensi trematodosis dihubungkan dengan kategori musim, umur, jenis kelamin, pola pemeliharaan dan padang penggembalaan yang dianalisis statistik dengan uji Chi-square. Hasil menunjukkan bahwa ditemukan telur trematoda pada 12 (2.25%) sampel. Spesies trematoda yang menginfeksi dengan prevalensi tertinggi adalah Paramphistome (1.31%) dan rataan ukuran telur terbesar adalah Fasciola sp. Berdasarkan pada kategori di atas, prevalensi tertinggi ditemukan pada musim hujan, sapi betina dengan umur lebih dari 2 tahun, digembalakan di padang penggembalaan sebelah Timur dengan nilai masing-masing 2.59%; 3.1%; 2.68%; 2.71% dan 5.49%. Perbedaan signifikan (P<0.05) hanya ditemukan pada tingkat prevalensi kategori lokasi padang penggembalaan

Porcine cysticercosis (Taenia solium and Taenia asiatica): mapping occurrence and areas potentially at risk in East and Southeast Asia

Background

Due to the relative short life span and the limited spatial movement, porcine cysticercosis is an excellent indicator of current local active transmission. The aim of this study was to map at province-level, the occurrence of T. solium and T. asiatica in pigs and areas at risk of transmission to pigs in East and Southeast Asia, based on the density of extensive pig production systems and confirmed reports of porcine cysticercosis.

Methods

This study covered East and Southeast Asia, which consist of the following countries: Brunei, Cambodia, China, East Timor, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, North Korea, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Thailand and Vietnam. Literature searches were carried out to identify current epidemiological data on the occurrence of porcine cysticercosis caused by T. solium and T. asiatica infections. Modelled densities of pigs in extensive production systems were mapped and compared to available data on porcine cysticercosis.

Results

Porcine cysticercosis was confirmed to be present during the period 2000 to 2018 in eight out of the 16 countries included in this study. Taenia solium porcine cysticercosis was confirmed from all eight countries, whereas only one country (Laos) could confirm the presence of T. asiatica porcine cysticercosis. Province-level occurrence was identified in five countries (Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam) across 19 provinces. Smallholder pig keeping is believed to be widely distributed throughout the region, with greater densities predicted to occur in areas of China, Myanmar, Philippines and Vietnam.

Conclusions

The discrepancies between countries reporting taeniosis and the occurrence of porcine cysticercosis, both for T. solium and T. asiatica, suggests that both parasites are underreported. More epidemiological surveys are needed to determine the societal burden of both parasites. This study highlights a straightforward approach to determine areas at risk of porcine cysticercosis in the absence of prevalence data.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-018-3203-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Judul Seroprevalensi Trichinellosis pada Ternak Babi di Wilayah Kabupaten Tangerang, Propinsi Banten (SEROPREVALENCE OF TRICHINELLOSIS IN PIGS IN THE TANGERANG DISTRICT PROVINCE OF BANTEN)

Trichinellosis is a zoonotic disease caused by parasitic roundworms of the nematode class Trichinella spp, which is distributed worldwide. Indonesia is one of the countries with trichinellosis cases. This study aims to determine the seroprevalence of Trichinellosis in pigs in Tangerang Village, Banten Province. The sample size is determined with 95% confidence level, the expected prevalence is 5%, and the error rate is 5%. A total of 80 sera were collected from farm (27 sera) and from the sample banks of Disease Investigation Centre Subang (DIC Subang(53 sera)). The sample collection was examined serologically by the ELISA method for the examination of anti-Trichinella antibodies. The results showed that seroprevalence of trichinellosis in this study was 1.25% (confidence interval (CI) 95%; 0,22-6,75%). This case can be a threat to human health. Pigs that show seropositive results were the pigs with traditional husbandry practices with ground  flooring and without fences. The results of the questionnaires that distributed to the farmers indicated that all farmers did not know about trichinellosis, this may affect the presence of Trichinella in pigs. 

Trichinellosis pada Babi di Kota Manado Provinsi Sulawesi Utara

Trichinellosis adalah penyakit zoonnotik yang berasal dari makanan yang disebabkan oleh cacing nematoda Trichinella spp. Penyakit ini masih kurang mendapatkan perhatian di negara maju dan negara berkembang. Parasit ini mempunyai distribusi yang sangat luas hampir di seluruh dunia. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengkaji keberadaan trichinellosis pada daging babi di Manado. Penelitian ini menggunakan lintas sektional dengan total sampel otot maseter babi (n=139) dan otot diafragma babi (n=139) berasal dari 4 rumah potong hewan babi di Manado. Pengujian laboratorium terhadap Trichinella spp. menggunakan uji pool digesti terdeteksi larva yang diduga Trichinella spp. dalam satu pool yang terdiri dari 9 sampel otot diafragma babi. Pool yang terdeteksi positif kemudian secara individu diuji dengan menggunakan uji kompresi dan dilakukan pembuatan preparat dengan metode pengecatan Hemaktosili Eosin. Hasil dari pengujian individual tidak terdeteksinya Trichinella spp. pada sampel yang diuji. Berdasarkan hasil pengujian tersebut diatas daging babi yang diperiksa tidak terinfeksi oleh Trichinella spp.Kata kunci: digesti, kompresi, Trichinella spp. (Trichinellosis in Pig in Manado North Sulawesi Province)Trichinellosis is a food-borne zoonotic disease caused by the nematode Trichinella spp. However it is still a neglected disease in development and developing country. This parasite has worldwide distribution in a worldwide. The aims of this study were to observe the occurance Trichinella spp. in pork in Manado. The research was conducted using cross sectional study. A total of pig masseter muscle (n=139) and pig diaprhagmatic muscle (n=139) came from 4 slaughter house in Manado. Laboratory examination of Trichinella larvae using pooled sample digestion method was detected one larva in a pooled batch of 9 pig diaprhagmatic muscle samples whereas the suspected positive findings were individually subjected to the compression method and Hematoxilin Eosin staining method. The result showed that the infected  could not be identified. Based on these findings, the absence of Trichinella infection in pigs slaughtered pigs indicates that not infected by Trichinella spp.Keywords: compression, digestion, Trichinella spp.

Current status of schistosomiasis in Indonesia

Schistosomiasis japonica is currently endemic in three very isolated areas in Central Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. Integrated schistosomiasis control programmes implemented in the Lindu and Napu Valleys during the period of 1982-2005 have successfully reduced the prevalence of schistosomiasis from 37% to 1% in Napu Valley and from 37% to 0.6% in Lindu Valley. Human prevalence surveys reveal that the prevalence tended to increase during the period of 2008-2011. The average prevalence fluctuated between 0.3% and 4.8% in Napu Valley and between 0.8% and 3.2% in Lindu Valley. During this period, the percentage of rats that were infected fluctuated between 7.9% and 18.2% in Napu Valley and between 6.7% and 9.8% in Lindu Valley. The average percentage of infected snails was 2.6% and 2.1% in the Napu and Lindu Valleys, respectively. In 2008, schistosomiasis was also found in a separate but adjacent place, i.e. Bada Valley. The prevalence of schistosomiasis in endemic villages in this area was 0.8% in 2008 and 5.9% in 2010, while the percentage of infected snails was 1% in 2010. These contemporary data clearly indicate a trend of increasing schistosomiasis prevalence in the three endemic areas in Central Sulawesi.

The phylogeography of Indoplanorbis exustus (Gastropoda: Planorbidae) in Asia

BACKGROUND

The freshwater snail Indoplanorbis exustus is found across India, Southeast Asia, central Asia (Afghanistan), Arabia and Africa. Indoplanorbis is of economic importance in that it is responsible for the transmission of several species of the genus Schistosoma which infect cattle and cause reduced livestock productivity. The snail is also of medical importance as a source of cercarial dermatitis among rural workers, particularly in India. In spite of its long history and wide geographical range, it is thought that Indoplanorbis includes only a single species. The aims of the present study were to date the radiation of Indoplanorbis across Asia so that the factors involved in its dispersal in the region could be tested, to reveal potential historical biogeographical events shaping the phylogeny of the snail, and to look for signs that I. exustus might be polyphyletic.

RESULTS

The results indicated a radiation beginning in the late Miocene with a divergence of an ancestral bulinine lineage into Assam and peninsular India clades. A Southeast Asian clade diverged from the peninsular India clade late-Pliocene; this clade then radiated at a much more rapid pace to colonize all of the sampled range of Indoplanorbis in the mid-Pleistocene.

CONCLUSIONS

The phylogenetic depth of divergences between the Indian clades and Southeast Asian clades, together with habitat and parasitological differences suggest that I. exustus may comprise more than one species. The timescale estimated for the radiation suggests that the dispersal to Arabia and to Southeast Asia was facilitated by palaeogeographical events and climate change, and did not require human involvement. Further samples from Afghanistan, Africa and western India are required to refine the phylogeographical hypothesis and to include the African Recent dispersal.

The effects of first-season strategic and tactical ivermectin treatments on trichostrongylosis in the first- and second-season grazing

A 2 year study was conducted to evaluate the effects of first-season strategic or tactical treatments with ivermectin on trichostrongylosis in heifer calves in the first and second-season grazing. Three groups of each eight Holstein-Friesian calves were turned out in early May onto a permanent pasture naturally contaminated with trichostrongyle larvae. Two of these groups were given ivermectin either as strategic treatments (Weeks 3, 8 and 13 after turnout) or as tactical treatments (Weeks 14, 18 and 22 after turnout); the third group served as untreated controls. The strategic ivermectin treatments prevented build-up of high herbage infectivity from mid-summer onwards as shown by low trichostrongyle egg outputs, serum pepsinogen levels and serum antibody responses. In spite of exposure to continuous high larval challenge in late season, the pathogenic effects of worm loads in calves receiving the tactical ivermectin treatment were significantly suppressed. The performance of the strategically treated calves tended to be higher than that of the tactically treated calves in the first-season grazing; yet, there was no statistical difference. During the following summer, all three groups were grazed in a single herd together with a new group of eight first-season calves. No anthelmintic treatments were given to any animals during the season. From late August until the end of the season all animals were given weekly experimental challenge infections. Following the challenge infections, the first-season calves developed clinical parasitic gastroenteritis, whereas the second-season heifers showed no symptoms. At post-mortem it was found that worm burdens mainly consisted of early fourth-stage larvae (L4) of Ostertagia ostertagi (> 97%). Fewer adult worms were recovered from the untreated animals than from the treated ones. However, serum anti-parasite IgG1 responses and post-mortem worm counts suggested that the untreated heifers harboured markedly fewer adult O. ostertagi than the previously treated ones, indicating a higher level of immunity against adult worms. However, this difference did not have any clinical impact in this experiment.

The effects of early-season treatments with doramectin on set-stocked calves naturally exposed to trichostrongyles

A study was carried out to evaluate the effects of strategic early-season treatments with doramectin on first-season grazing calves exposed to trichostrongylid infection on a naturally contaminated pasture. Two groups of cross-bred Limousine/Red Danish calves were turned out in early May on two plots that were similar with respect to size and herbage infectivity. They grazed separately until housing in early October. One of these groups was given doramectin at turnout and 10 weeks later, while the other group served as untreated controls. The results showed that the treatments significantly reduced trichostrongylid loads throughout the season, as evidenced by significant reductions in both their Ostertagia ostertagi burdens and serum pepsinogen levels compared with the controls. Furthermore, the results of herbage larval counts and post-mortem worm counts in tracer animals demonstrated that the treatment had successfully suppressed herbage infectivity on the 'treated' plot.

Strategic effects of early season treatments with Moxidectin on trichostrongylosis in young calves

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of strategic early season treatments with Moxidectin on trichostrongyles in first-season grazing heifer calves on a permanent pasture. Three groups of Black-Pied Friesian heifer calves were turned out in early May on a permanent pasture naturally infected with trichostrongyle larvae. Two of these groups were treated with Moxidectin at turnout or at turnout and again 8 weeks later, while one group served as untreated controls. For the first three weeks of the experiment all animals grazed together in one flock on one pasture. Subsequently, the pasture was divided into three comparable plots, which from then and until housing in mid October were grazed by each calf group. The results showed that the treatments significantly suppressed faecal egg excretion in the early part of the season, leading to reduced herbage infectivity and parasitism over the rest of the season. Results from faecal egg counts determined at genus level revealed that the persistent activity of Moxidectin appeared to be longer against Ostertagia spp. than against Cooperia spp. Two Moxidectin treatments, given at turnout and on week 8, protected the calves to a higher degree than a single Moxidectin treatment given at turnout. However, there was also a significant effect of only one Moxidectin treatment which possibly could be explained by a low overwintered larval population and a drought period in the early summer.

Anthelmintic activity of papaya latex against patent Heligmosomoides polygyrus infections in mice

The purpose of this experiment was to study the possible anthelmintic activity of papaya latex (Carica papaya) against Heligmosomoides polygyrus in experimentally infected mice. Five groups of BALB/C mice were infected with 100 Heligmosomoides polygyrus infective larvae/mouse. After patency (day 22) four groups of mice (groups B, C, D and E) were given papaya latex suspended in water at dose levels of 2, 4, 6 and 8 g of papaya latex/kg body weight, respectively. One group of mice (group A) served as non-treated controls. All animals were necropsied on day 25, i.e. 3 days after treatment, for post-mortem worm counts. The papaya latex showed an antiparasitic efficacy of 55.5, 60.3, 67.9 and 84.5% in groups B, C, D and E, respectively. The results may suggest a potential role of papaya latex as an anthelmintic against patent intestinal nematodes of mammalian hosts.

Effect of papaya latex against Ascaris suum in naturally infected pigs

An experiment was carried out to investigate the anthelmintic activity of papaya latex (Carica papaya) against natural infection of Ascaris suum in pigs. Sixteen naturally infected pigs were, on the basis of faecal egg counts and body weight, allocated into four groups, each of four pigs. Three groups (groups B, C, and D) were given papaya latex per os at dose levels of 2, 4, and 8 g of papaya latex per kg body weight, respectively. The fourth group (group A) served as a non-treated control. Results of post mortem counts on day 7 post treatment revealed worm count reductions of 39.5, 80.1 and 100% in groups B, C, and D, respectively. Some of the pigs receiving the highest dose of the latex showed mild diarrhoea on the day following treatment. Otherwise, no clinical or pathological changes were observed in the treated animals. The possible future use of this traditional herbal medicine for livestock and humans is discussed.

Experimental concurrent infections with Ostertagia ostertagi and Cooperia oncophora in the calf

An experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of experimental concurrent infection with Ostertagia ostertagia and Cooperia oncophora compared with the effects of monospecific infections with O ostertagi under conditions designed to mimic natural conditions on pasture during a grazing season. The present experiment was not able to demonstrate any significant effect of C oncophora on the course of an O ostertagi infection. Neither did C oncophora influence the build up of immunity to O ostertagi as demonstrated by post mortem worm count results from challenge infections with hypobiosis-prone larvae.

Experimental infections with Cooperia oncophora in calves. A study with two different larval dose levels and dosing regimens

The effect of different larval dose level and dosing regimens on the course of Cooperia oncophora infection in calves was studied. Four groups each of 4 calves were experimentally infected either with 50,000 or 200,000 C. oncophora larvae (L3) given either as single infections or as daily trickle infections. An additional group of calves remained as uninfected controls. The animals were necropsied on week 4 after infection. Mild to moderate clinical signs of parasitic gastroenteritis developed among calves given high doses of larvae, but liveweight gains were not significantly different from those of the uninfected controls. Serum pepsinogen levels of dosed animals were within normal ranges but rose slightly, and on day 14 p.i. they differed significantly from those of the controls. On that occasion, the levels of serum pepsinogen in the trickle infected groups significantly exhibited the levels of the single infected groups. Hypoalbuminaemia was not a feature on any occasion. The various groups did not differ significantly with regard to total worm counts and adult worm counts, but the groups receiving high larval dose harboured significantly more fourth stage larvae than the group receiving low doses of larvae, both in terms of absolute counts and in terms of percentages of total worm burdens. Within the same dose level, there was a tendency of a more even distribution of worms along the small intestine when the infections was given as a single infection compared with a trickle infection. The results indicate that C. oncophora larval dose and dosing regimens may influence the pathogenic effects and to some extent the distribution of the parasite in the small intestine.

Attempts to immunize cattle against Ostertagia ostertagi infections employing 'normal' and 'chilled' (hypobiosis-prone) third stage larvae

Immunity to Ostertagia ostertagi infections in calves develops slowly and only becomes manifest towards the end of a grazing season in which they have been exposed to the parasite. In an attempt to hasten the onset of immune reactions, three immunization protocols were set up. Twenty four heifers were allocated into four groups. Beginning in January, animals in two of the groups were inoculated with four 1-monthly increasing dosages of either 'normal' or 'chilled' (hypobiosis-prone) larvae, those in the third group received a single large infection with 'chilled' larvae and those in the fourth group served as non-infected controls. All animals were turned out on a common pasture in late April. Development of immunity was evaluated through determinations of faecal egg counts, live weight gains, serum pepsinogen levels and specific serum antibody responses of three isotypes (IgG1, IgG2 and IgA). Significantly reduced egg excretions in the immunized groups were apparent early in the season, indicating that the immunizations had, in this respect, been efficacious. The 'chilled' and 'normal' larvae seemed equally efficient given as multiple and single infections. A single large dosage of 'chilled' larvae seemed to have adverse effects. Only moderate antibody responses were elicited probably because of low challenge infection level on pasture. Considerable variation in responses existed between and within the four groups, for which reason conclusions regarding correlations between antibody isotype responses and immune effects on parasites could not be made.

Experimental infections with Cooperia oncophora in calves. A study with two different larval dose levels and dosing regimens

The effect of different larval dose level and dosing regimens on the course of Cooperia oncophora infection in calves was studied. Four groups each of 4 calves were experimentally infected either with 50,000 or 200,000 C. oncophora larvae (L3) given either as single infections or as daily trickle infections. An additional group of calves remained as uninfected controls. The animals were necropsied on week 4 after infection. Mild to moderate clinical signs of parasitic gastroenteritis developed among calves given high doses of larvae, but liveweight gains were not significantly different from those of the uninfected controls. Serum pepsinogen levels of dosed animals were within normal ranges but rose slightly, and on day 14 p.i. they differed significantly from those of the controls. On that occasion, the levels of serum pepsinogen in the trickle infected groups significantly exhibited the levels of the single infected groups. Hypoalbuminaemia was not a feature on any occasion. The various groups did not differ significantly with regard to total worm counts and adult worm counts, but the groups receiving high larval dose harboured significantly more fourth stage larvae than the group receiving low doses of larvae, both in terms of absolute counts and in terms of percentages of total worm burdens. Within the same dose level, there was a tendency of a more even distribution of worms along the small intestine when the infections was given as a single infection compared with a trickle infection. The results indicate that C. oncophora larval dose and dosing regimens may influence the pathogenic effects and to some extent the distribution of the parasite in the small intestine.

Ostertagia ostertagi in neonatal calves: establishment of infection in ruminating and non-ruminating calves

An experiment was carried out to study the role of the ruminal function in the establishment of Ostertagia ostertagi in neonatal calves. Three groups of calves were fed either milk only (groups A and C), or hay and concentrate in addition to milk (group B) from birth. At the time of infection, ruminal function was negligible in groups A and C, whereas it was well developed in group B. Calves of groups A and B were each given 25,000 normal ensheathed infective larvae of O ostertagi and those of group C were given 25,000 infective larvae exsheathed in vitro. Daily faecal egg output and post mortem worm counts 28 days after infection were higher in calves with well developed ruminal function than those having only negligible ruminal function. In the latter group, exsheathed larvae established at a lower rate than did ensheathed larvae. The results suggest that the degree of development of the ruminal function influences the establishment of O ostertagi.