COVID-19 and British Columbia's volunteer search and rescue workers: risk recognition and risk mitigation

Background

Early during COVID-19, British Columbia coordinated collaboration between academic researchers, public healthcare systems, and private sector partners to focus research resources on knowledge gaps in a timely manner, avoid duplication, and identify overlooked aspects. At a collaboration symposium, it became evident that BC's volunteer search & rescue (SAR) cadre was overlooked.

Objective

Our exploratory project studied volunteer SAR's operational readiness; use and perceived value of information sources; consistency in infection prevention measures among volunteer stations, and with their professional counterparts for comparable first aid medical interventions throughout the pandemic.

Methods

We partnered with the 2 organizations that govern BC's volunteer SAR stations. Local station leaders completed a short confidential survey. Guidance documents issued by associations governing voluntary and professional first responders were compared.

Results

Survey responses were received from 33 of 109 local stations, spanning all regions of BC. Most remained operationally ready throughout the entire pandemic (12.1% had to stand down at times). Except for 21% lacking eye protection, all had personal protective equipment commensurate with that of healthcare professionals; however, few used this PPE in a manner consistent with professional counterparts. Usage and perceived usefulness of various information sources differed. There was no communication link between the province's infection control experts and 2 volunteer SAR organizations.

Conclusions

Search & rescue capability was maintained despite pandemic impacts. Results reveal strengths and opportunities for improvement in the ways volunteers are informed and protected. Infection control experts providing advice for emergency health services professional responders should remember to include their volunteer counterparts.

Transnational comparison of the impact of COVID-19 on medicolegal death investigations and the administration of justice: Early stages of the pandemic

COVID-19 has had an unprecedented impact on arguably every sector of our criminal justice system. To assess the impact that this global health crisis has had on our medicolegal investigations and administration of justice during the early stages of the pandemic, this research aims to give voice to the lived experiences of medicolegal death investigators (coroners, medical examiners and pathologists). This research involved in-depth interviews and follow-ups with experienced personnel from Canada (3), Italy (1), the United Kingdom (1) and the United States (4). Results suggest that despite facing similar challenges, each individual office has had to develop their own strategies to overcome obstacles during the early stages of the pandemic. These results help identify overlapping areas for constructive policy and procedural changes, including recommendations for workflow adaptations, strategic partnerships and other approaches to best prepare for subsequent health crises.

Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Bereaved

The COVID-19 pandemic has killed millions across the world in only two years. Government health restrictions aimed at preventing transmission have impacted typical mourning practices such as funeral gatherings and in-person grief support services. This research examines the potential impacts that the pandemic may have had on people's ability to grieve. We employed a mixed methods study design to ask those who have lost a loved one during this time to reflect on their mourning practices with an anonymous survey. Our results present themes of complicated grief, the uncertainty of who to blame for frustrations, and common needs requested by the bereaved to help them mourn during these unprecedented times. These findings may help inform grief support and bereavement services during current and future mass death and pandemic health concerns.

Mental health and social support among public safety personnel

BACKGROUND

Social support may be a protective factor for the mental health of public safety personnel (PSP), who are frequently exposed to potentially psychologically traumatic events and report substantial post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depressive disorder (MDD) symptoms. Research examining perceived social support and its association with PTSD and MDD in different PSP categories (e.g. firefighters, paramedics) is limited.

AIMS

To examine differences in perceived social support across PSP and determine whether perceived social support is associated with differences in rates of MDD and PTSD.

METHODS

We asked Canadian PSP, including correctional workers and officers, public safety communications officials, firefighters, paramedics, municipal and provincial police officers, and Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) officers, to complete an online anonymous survey that assessed socio-demographic information (e.g. occupation, sex, marital status, service years), social supports and symptoms of mental disorders, including PTSD and MDD. Analyses included ANOVA and logistic regression models.

RESULTS

Perceived social support differed by PSP occupation. RCMP officers reported lower social support than all other PSP except paramedics. For most PSP categories, PSP who reported greater social support were less likely to screen positive for PTSD (adjusted odds ratios [AORs]: 0.90-0.93). Across all PSP categories, greater perceived social support was associated with a decreased likelihood of screening positive for MDD (AORs: 0.85-0.91).

CONCLUSIONS

Perceived social support differs across some PSP categories and predicts PTSD and MDD diagnostic status. Studies involving diagnostic clinical interviews, longitudinal designs and social support interventions are needed to replicate and extend our results.

The Forensic Entomology Case Report-A Global Perspective

Forensic practitioners analyzing entomological evidence are faced with numerous challenges when presenting their findings to law practitioners, particularly in terms of terminology used to describe insect age, what this means for colonization time of remains, and the limitations to estimates made. Due to varying legal requirements in different countries, there is no standard format for the entomological case report prepared, nor any guidelines as to the sections that are required, optional or unnecessary in a case report. The authors herein propose sections that should be considered when drafting an entomological case report. The criteria under which entomological evidence is analyzed are discussed, as well as the limitations for each criterion. The concept of a global, standardized entomological case report is impossible to achieve due to national legislative differences, but the authors here propose a basic template which can be adapted and changed according to the needs of the practitioner. Furthermore, while the discussion is fairly detailed, capturing all differences between nations could not be accomplished, and those initiating casework for the first time are encouraged to engage other practicing forensic entomologists or professional associations within their own nation or region, to ensure a complete report is generated that meets lab or national requirements, prior to generating a finalized report.

Mental disorders, suicidal ideation, plans and attempts among Canadian police

BACKGROUND

Recent investigations have demonstrated a significant prevalence of mental health disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and suicidal ideation, plans and attempts among Canadian public safety personnel, including police officers. What remains unknown is the relationship between mental disorders and suicide among sworn police officers, and the prevalence of both among civilian police workers.

AIMS

To examine the relationship between suicidal ideation, plans and attempts and positive mental health screens for depression, anxiety, panic disorder, alcohol abuse and PTSD among Canadian sworn and civilian police employees.

METHODS

Participants completed an online survey that included self-report screening tools for depression, anxiety, panic disorder, alcohol abuse and PTSD. Respondents were also asked if they ever contemplated, planned or attempted suicide. Between-group (Royal Canadian Mounted Police [RCMP], provincial/municipal police and civilians) differences on mental health screening tools were calculated using Kruskal-Wallis analyses. The relationship between mental disorders and suicidal ideation, plans and attempts was evaluated with a series of logistic regressions.

RESULTS

There were 4236 civilian and sworn officer participants in the study. RCMP officers reported more suicidal ideation than other police and scored highest on measures of PTSD, depression, anxiety, stress and panic disorder, which were significantly associated with suicidal ideation and plans but not attempts. Relative to provincial and municipal police, civilians reported more suicide attempts and scored higher on measures of anxiety.

CONCLUSIONS

The results identify a strong relationship between mental health disorders and increased risk for suicidal ideation, plans and attempts among sworn and civilian Canadian police employees.

Impact of confinement in vehicle trunks on decomposition and entomological colonization of carcasses

In order to investigate the impact of confinement in a car trunk on decomposition and insect colonization of carcasses, three freshly killed pig (Sus scrofa domesticus Erxleben) carcasses were placed individually in the trunks of older model cars and deployed in a forested area in the southwestern region of British Columbia, Canada, together with three freshly killed carcasses which were exposed in insect-accessible protective cages in the same forest. Decomposition rate and insect colonization of all carcasses were examined twice a week for four weeks. The exposed carcasses were colonized immediately by Calliphora latifrons Hough and Calliphora vomitoria (L.) followed by Lucilia illustris (Meigen), Phormia regina (Meigen) and Protophormia terraenovae (R.-D.) (Diptera: Calliphoridae). There was a delay of three to six days before the confined carcasses were colonized, first by P. regina, followed by Pr. terraenovae. These species represented the vast majority of blow fly species on the confined carcasses. Despite the delay in colonization, decomposition progressed much more rapidly in two of the confined carcasses in comparison with the exposed carcasses due to the greatly increased temperatures inside the vehicles, with the complete skeletonization of two of the confined carcasses ocurring between nine and 13 days after death. One confined carcass was an anomaly, attracting much fewer insects, supporting fewer larval calliphorids and decomposing much more slowly than other carcasses, despite similarly increased temperatures. It was later discovered that the vehicle in which this carcass was confined had a solid metal fire wall between the passenger area and the trunk, which served to reduce insect access and release of odors. These data may be extremely valuable when analyzing cadavers found inside vehicle trunks.

The Impact of Acute Stress Physiology on Skilled Motor Performance: Implications for Policing

Investigations of police performance during acutely stressful situations have primarily focused on higher-order cognitive processes like attention, affect or emotion and decision-making, and the behavioral outcomes of these processes, such as errors in lethal force. However, behavioral outcomes in policing must be understood as a combination of both higher-order processes and the physical execution of motor skills. What is missing from extant police literature is an understanding of how physiological responses to acute stress contribute to observed decrements in skilled motor performance at the neuromuscular level. The purpose of the current paper is to fill this knowledge gap in the following ways: (1) review scientific evidence for the physiological (i.e., autonomic, endocrine, and musculoskeletal) responses to acutely stressful exposures and their influence on skilled motor performance in both human and animal models, (2) review applied evidence on occupationally relevant stress physiology and observed motor decrements in performance among police, and (3) discuss the implications of stress physiology for police training and identify future directions for applied researchers. Evidence is compelling that skill decay is inevitable under high levels of acute stress; however, robust evidence-informed training practices can help mitigate this decay and contribute to officer safety.

Hyperspectral measurements of immature Lucilia sericata (Meigen) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) raised on different food substrates

Immature Lucilia sericata (Meigen) raised on beef liver, beef heart, pork liver and pork heart at a mean temperature of 20.6°C took a minimum of 20 days to complete development. Minimum development time differences within stages were observed between the meat types (pork/beef), but not the organ types (liver/heart). Daily hyperspectral measurements were conducted and a functional regression was completed to examine the main effects of meat and organ type on daily spectral measurements. The model examined post feeding larval spectral measurements of insects raised on beef liver alone, the effect of those raised on pork compared with those raised on beef, the effect of those raised on heart compared with those raised on liver and the interactional effect of those raised on pork heart compared with those raised on beef liver. The analyses indicated that the spectral measurements of post feeding L. sericata raised on pork and beef organs (liver and heart) are affected by the meat and organ type.

Initial investigations of spectral measurements to estimate the time within stages of Protophormia terraenovae (Robineau-Desvoidy) (Diptera: Calliphoridae)

Current applications of forensic entomology to post-mortem interval estimations involve ageing the insects colonizing the remains based on minimum time to reach the oldest stage of development. Immature species of blow fly develop at a predictable rate to each stage of development in their lifecycle. Unfortunately, the minimum time to reach a stage of development can be a rather unrefined estimate of tenure on the body in the sometimes lengthy time frame of the later stages. In a successful attempt to narrow this time frame, daily spectral measurements of the immature stages of Protophormia terraenovae (Robineau-Desvoidy) raised at a mean temperature of 24.6°C were collected and the functional data analysis was completed. Functional regressions and coefficient functions were examined for model prediction and generalization. P. terraenovae is a Holarctic species as well as an early colonizer of human remains and is therefore, an excellent indicator species in North American death investigations. Spectral measurements can be used successfully to estimate the day of development in the third instar including post feeding stage. In the intra-puparial period, however, only the last day of development could be distinguished from the earlier days of the intra-puparial period. Distinguishing day within second instar is also possible for P. terraenovae raised at a mean temperature of 24.6°C and, although not fully within the pointwise 95% confidence interval, it still accurately predicts the day. The results of this proof of concept research are promising and show a potential method for narrowing the original death estimates and offering a better overall estimate of age of P. terraenovae larvae and, therefore; estimated time since death.

Spectral Signatures of Immature Lucilia sericata (Meigen) (Diptera: Calliphoridae)

Hyperspectral remote sensing is an innovative technology with applications in many sciences and is a non-destructive method that may offer more precise aging within development stages. Hyperspectral reflectance measurements from the anterior, midsection, and posterior of Lucilia sericata (Meigen) larvae and pupae were conducted daily from samples of the developing insects beginning at second instar. Only midsection measurements were conducted on second instar larvae due to their size, to ensure that the measurement was not of reflective surroundings. Once measured, all insects were washed with deionized water, blotted with filter paper, and re-measured. Daily age prediction during the post-feeding stage was not impacted by the unwashed insect measurements and was best predicted based on posterior measurements. The second and third instar larvae, which move about their food source, had different contributing coefficients to the functional regression model for the hyperspectral measurements of the washed compared with unwashed specimens. Although washing did not affect the daily prediction within these stages, it is still encouraged in order to decrease the effect of food source on spectral reflectance. Days within the intra-puparial period were best predicted based on anterior measurements and were not well distinguished from one another in the first few days based on midsection and posterior measurements.

Comparison of Faunal Scavenging of Submerged Carrion in Two Seasons at a Depth of 170 m, in the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia

The taphonomy of carcasses submerged in the ocean is little understood, yet it is extremely important ecologically and forensically. The objectives of this study were to determine the fate of pig carcasses as human proxies in the Strait of Georgia at 170 m in spring and fall. Using Ocean Networks Canada’s Victoria Experimental Network Underseas (VENUS) observatory, two carcasses per season were placed under a cabled platform hosting a webcam and instruments measuring water chemistry. Two minutes of video were recorded every 15 min. In spring, Lyssianassidae amphipods and Pandalus platyceros were immediately attracted and fed on the carcasses, the amphipods removed the bulk of the soft tissue from the inside whilst the shrimp shredded the skin and tissue. The carcasses were skeletonized on Days 8 and 10. In fall, Metacarcinus magister was the major scavenger, removing most of the soft tissue from one carcass. Amphipods did not arrive in large numbers until Day 15, when they skeletonized the scavenged carcass by Day 22 and the less scavenged carcass by Day 24. Amphipods remained for some days after skeletonization. This skeletonization was very different from previous experiments at different depths and habitats. Such data are very valuable for predicting preservation, planning recoveries, and managing family expectations.

Impact of Marine Submergence and Season on Faunal Colonization and Decomposition of Pig Carcasses in the Salish Sea

Pig carcasses, as human proxies, were placed on the seabed at a depth of 300 m, in the Strait of Georgia and observed continuously by a remotely operated camera and instruments. Two carcasses were deployed in spring and two in fall utilizing Ocean Network Canada's Victoria Experimental Network under the Sea (formerly VENUS) observatory. A trial experiment showed that bluntnose sixgill sharks could rapidly devour a carcass so a platform was designed which held two matched carcasses, one fully exposed, the other covered in a barred cage to protect it from sharks, while still allowing invertebrates and smaller vertebrates access. The carcasses were deployed under a frame which supported a video camera, and instruments which recorded oxygen, temperature, salinity, density, pressure, conductivity, sound speed and turbidity at per minute intervals. The spring exposed carcass was briefly fed upon by sharks, but they were inefficient feeders and lost interest after a few bites. Immediately after deployment, all carcasses, in both spring and fall, were very rapidly covered in vast numbers of lyssianassid amphipods. These skeletonized the carcasses by Day 3 in fall and Day 4 in spring. A dramatic, very localized drop in dissolved oxygen levels occurred in fall, exactly coinciding with the presence of the amphipods. Oxygen levels returned to normal once the amphipods dispersed. Either the physical presence of the amphipods or the sudden draw down of oxygen during their tenure, excluded other fauna. The amphipods fed from the inside out, removing the skin last. After the amphipods had receded, other fauna colonized such as spot shrimp and a few Dungeness crabs but by this time, all soft tissue had been removed. The amphipod activity caused major bioturbation in the local area and possible oxygen depletion. The spring deployment carcasses became covered in silt and a black film formed on them and on the silt above them whereas the fall bones remained uncovered and hence continued to be attractive to large numbers of spot shrimp. The carcass remains were recovered after 166 and 134 days respectively for further study.

Deep coastal marine taphonomy: investigation into carcass decomposition in the Saanich Inlet, British Columbia using a baited camera

Decomposition and faunal colonization of a carcass in the terrestrial environment has been well studied, but knowledge of decomposition in the marine environment is based almost entirely on anecdotal reports. Three pig carcasses were deployed in Saanich Inlet, BC, over 3 years utilizing Ocean Network Canada's VENUS observatory. Each carcass was deployed in late summer/early fall at 99 m under a remotely controlled camera and observed several times a day. Dissolved oxygen, temperature, salinity, density and pressure were continuously measured. Carcass 1 was immediately colonized by Munida quadrispina, Pandalus platyceros and Metacarcinus magister, rapidly scavenged then dragged from view by Day 22. Artifacts specific to each of the crustaceans' feeding patterns were observed. Carcass 2 was scavenged in a similar fashion. Exposed tissue became covered by Orchomenella obtusa (Family Lysianassidae) which removed all the internal tissues rapidly. Carcass 3 attracted only a few M. quadrispina, remaining intact, developing a thick filamentous sulphur bacterial mat, until Day 92, when it was skeletonized by crustacea. The major difference between the deployments was dissolved oxygen levels. The first two carcasses were placed when oxygen levels were tolerable, becoming more anoxic. This allowed larger crustacea to feed. However, Carcass 3 was deployed when the water was already extremely anoxic, which prevented larger crustacea from accessing the carcass. The smaller M. quadrispina were unable to break the skin alone. The larger crustacea returned when the Inlet was re-oxygenated in spring. Oxygen levels, therefore, drive the biota in this area, although most crustacea endured stressful levels of oxygen to access the carcasses for much of the time. These data will be valuable in forensic investigations involving submerged bodies, indicating types of water conditions to which the body has been exposed, identifying post-mortem artifacts and providing realistic expectations for recovery divers and families of the deceased.

Effect of fluctuating temperatures on the development of a forensically important blow fly, Protophormia terraenovae (Diptera: Calliphoridae)

Experiments were conducted to compare the immature development of Protophormia terraenovae (Robineau-Desvoidy) at fluctuating temperatures of 4-28 and 9-23 °C to their mean constant temperature, 16 °C. Overall development was fastest at the greater fluctuation and slowest at the constant temperature but showed similar percentages of development time in each stage. The rate summation effect is suspected to have caused this difference in development rate because fluctuations above the mean increase the rate relatively more than temperatures below the mean can lower the rate.

The influence of clothing and wrapping on carcass decomposition and arthropod succession during the warmer seasons in central South Africa*

The influence of clothing and wrapping on carcass decomposition and arthropod succession was investigated to provide data to enable estimated postmortem interval in homicide investigations. Six pig carcasses, Sus scrofa, were divided into three sample groups, each with a clothed carcass wrapped and a carcass wrapped with no clothes. Two more carcasses, one with no clothes or wrapping, the other with clothes and no wrapping were used as controls. The clothed or wrapped carcasses had larger visible maggot masses, which moved more freely and these carcasses took longer to dry out. The blow fly maggot masses were dominated by Chrysomya marginalis and Chrysomya albiceps. Oviposition occurred simultaneously on all carcasses. High temperatures in one case caused significant maggot mortality. The Coleoptera community was dominated by Silphidae, Thanathopilus micans larvae, Dermestidae, Dermestes maculatus adults and larvae, and Cleridae, Necrobia rufipes.

Insect succession and decomposition patterns on shaded and sunlit carrion in Saskatchewan in three different seasons

A study was conducted on decomposition and insect succession in the Prairie Ecozone of Saskatchewan in the year 2000. Eighteen domestic pig carcasses (42-79 kg) were employed as human models for applications to future homicide investigations in this region. Two major variables were considered including the effect of season and habitat (sun versus shade). Research was conducted over 25 weeks, spanning three seasons: spring, summer and fall. Ambient temperature, internal carcass temperature, faunistic succession over time, and the rate of decay were all compared for each experimental variable. Results indicated that habitat was only a factor in the decompositional rate of carrion in the spring season. The ambient temperature was the chief factor determining the seasonal variations in decay rate. Maximum internal carcass temperatures always coincided with the presence of 3rd instar larvae. Patterns of insect succession occurred in a predictable sequence that varied across different habitats and seasons and was unique compared to previously published studies. Carcasses placed in spring and fall attracted a more diverse assemblage of insects than summer-placed carrion. Sun-exposed carrion also had greater variation in fauna than shaded carrion in spring and fall. Members of Silphidae were the first coleopteran colonizers in all habitats and seasons. This paper also marks the first record for Cochliomyia macellaria (Fabricius) in Saskatchewan.

Decomposition of carrion in the marine environment in British Columbia, Canada

Decomposition of carrion in the marine environment is not well understood. This research involved the decomposition of pig carcasses in Howe Sound in British Columbia. Freshly killed pigs were submerged at two depths, 7.6 m and 15.2 m. The carcasses were tethered so that they could float or sink, but not drift away. Observations were made from May until October. Decomposition was more greatly influenced by sediment type of the sea floor and whether the carcass remained floating, than by depth. Decomposition stages were modified in the marine environment from that seen on land, or in freshwater and were similar to those reported in human death investigations in the marine environment.

Determining time of death using blow fly eggs in the early postmortem interval

A forensic entomology case is presented which is interesting for two reasons; firstly, it uses egg development, but secondly, it involves a case which is over 20 years old, and was recently re-opened. The only entomological evidence was in the form of photographs. Usually, it is not possible to make any determinations from photographs alone, as species and age cannot be determined. However, this case was particularly unusual, as close up photographs taken by police at the crime scene showed the first egg eclosion. Weather records, developmental data and degree day accumulations, together with a knowledge of local species and their habitats, allowed determination of the time since death. Time of death was affirmed when the defendant was convicted of first degree murder more than 20 years after the killing.

Time of submergence using aquatic invertebrate succession and decompositional changes

Pig carcasses were placed in pond and stream habitats in the Malcolm Knapp Research Forest in Maple Ridge, B.C. for approximately one year, to examine the development, species, and sequence of invertebrates associated with the carrion. An invertebrate successional database was created for pond and stream habitats for potential use in estimating time of submergence in water related death investigations. Analysis has shown that a predictable succession of invertebrates colonize the carrion. However, whether or not this succession is carrion dependent or seasonal is unknown. There is a difference in the species composition between pond and stream habitats. Habitats influence invertebrate fauna, therefore, species colonizing carrion are habitat-specific. In both habitats, no one organism can determine time of submergence alone. Decompositional descriptions from this research were compared with 15 freshwater related death investigations. Similarities were seen in the earlier decompositional characteristics including bloat, discoloration, and nail shedding; however, the human descriptions were so vague that they had little value in determining time of submergence and hence time of death.

Simple method for developing percentile growth curves for height and weight

The present paper demonstrates the ease of use of method I by Preece and Baine ([1978] Ann Hum Biol 5:1-24) in generating smoothed growth curves for both height and weight. Using the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) growth curve data, smoothed curves were developed and compared to those produced using the least-squares-cubic-spline method. Based on the lower sum of squares and better fit of shape as indicated by residual examination, it was concluded that the method I curve fitting procedure by Preece and Baine ([1978] Ann Hum Biol 5:1-24) fit centile growth curves for height and weight in 2-18-year-old male and female children as well as, if not better than, the least-squares-cubic-spline method used in developing the 1979 NCHS growth curves. Further, as this paper demonstrates, smoothed curves can be generated on a desktop computer using readily available software (the SOLVER function within Microsoft EXCEL).

Postirradiation hyperthermia selectively potentiates the merocyanine 540-sensitized photoinactivation of small cell lung cancer cells

Lung cancer has long been considered a disease that might benefit from the dose escalation of radio/chemotherapy afforded by a stem cell transplant. However, the clinical experience with high-dose chemotherapy and autologous bone marrow transplantation in lung cancer has been disappointing, with most trials showing little or no improvement in long-term survival. Unfortunately, lung cancer has a tendency to metastasize to the bone marrow, and lung cancer cells are known to circulate in the peripheral blood. Therefore, there is concern that autologous stem cell grafts from lung cancer patients may reinoculate recipients with live tumor cells. Photochemical purging of stem cell grafts with Merocyanine 540 (MC540) is highly effective against a wide range of leukemia and lymphoma cells and is well tolerated by normal hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. Most solid tumor cells (including lung cancer cells), however, are only moderately sensitive or refractory to MC540-mediated photodynamic therapy (PDT). We report here that postirradiation hyperthermia (< or = 42 degrees C, 3 h) potentiates the MC540-mediated photoinactivation of both wild-type (H69) and cisplatin-resistant mutant (H69/CDDP) small cell lung cancer cells by several orders of magnitude, while only minimally enhancing the depletion of normal human granulocyte/macrophage progenitor cells. Our data suggest that postirradiation hyperthermia provides a simple and effective means of extending the utility of MC540-PDT to the purging of stem cell grafts contaminated with lung cancer and possibly other solid tumor cells.

Minimum and maximum development rates of some forensically important Calliphoridae (Diptera)

Blow fly development rates are frequently used to estimate elapsed time since death in homicide investigations in the first few weeks after death. However, in order to make more precise estimates of time since death, accurate developmental data must be generated for all carrion species, and at temperatures that are comparable with those found at crime scenes. This paper presents developmental rates determined for five forensically important species in British Columbia, Phormia regina (Meigen), Phaenicia sericata (Meigen), Eucalliphora latifrons (Hough), Lucilia illustris (Meigen), and Calliphora vicina Robineau-Desvoidy, at several temperatures.

Effect of molecular structure on the performance of triarylmethane dyes as therapeutic agents for photochemical purging of autologous bone marrow grafts from residual tumor cells

Extensively conjugated cationic molecules with appropriate structural features naturally accumulate into the mitochondria of living cells, a phenomenon typically more prominent in tumor than in normal cells. Because a variety of tumor cells also retain pertinent cationic structures for longer periods of time compared with normal cells, mitochondrial targeting has been proposed as a selective therapeutic strategy of relevance for both chemotherapy and photochemotherapy of neoplastic diseases. Here we report that the triarylmethane dye crystal violet stains cell mitochondria with efficiency and selectivity, and is a promising candidate for photochemotherapy applications. Crystal violet exhibits pronounced phototoxicity toward L1210 leukemia cells but comparatively small toxic effects toward normal hematopoietic cells (murine granulocyte-macrophage progenitors, CFU-GM). On the basis of a comparative examination of chemical, photochemical, and phototoxic properties of crystal violet and other triarylmethane dyes, we have identified interdependencies between molecular structure, and selective phototoxicity toward tumor cells. These structure-activity relationships represent useful guidelines for the development of novel purging protocols to promote selective elimination of residual tumor cells from autologous bone marrow grafts with minimum toxicity to normal hematopoietic stem cells.

Human morphology and temperature regulation

For nearly a century individuals have believed that there is a link between human morphology and one's thermoregulatory response in adverse environments. Most early research was focussed on the rate of core cooling in a male adult population and the role of subcutaneous adipose tissue, surface area and the surface-area-to-mass ratio in one's ability to withstand varying degrees of cold stress. More recently research has addressed heat tolerance in various populations, exploring the role of subcutaneous adipose tissue, surface area and the surface-area-to-mass ratio in one's ability to maintain thermal equilibrium in warm and hot, dry and humid environments. Since the late 1970s an emphasis has been placed on the role of muscle and muscle perfusion in total-body thermal insulation. Yet, despite the history of research pertaining to human morphology and temperature regulation there is little consensus as to the impact of variations in human morphology on thermoregulatory responses. Individuals differing in body size, shape and composition appear to respond quantitatively differently to variations in both ambient and core temperatures but the interrelations between morphological components and temperature regulation are complex. It is the purpose of this paper to examine the literature pertaining to the impact of variations in muscularity, adipose tissue thickness and patterning, surface area and the surface-area-to-mass ratio on thermoregulation and thermal stability in response to both heat and cold stress.

Human bites and the risk of human immunodeficiency virus transmission

The risk of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission following a bite injury is important to many groups of people. The first are those who are likely to be bitten as an occupational risk, such as police officers and institutional staff. Another group are represented by the victims and perpetrators of crimes involving biting, both in attack and defense situations. The possibility of these bites transmitting a potentially fatal disease is of interest to the physicians who treat such patients and the legal system which may have to deal with the repercussions of such a transmission. Bite injuries represent 1% of all emergency department admissions in the United States, and human bites are the third most common following those of dogs and cats. The worldwide epidemic of HIV and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) continues, with >5 million new cases last year and affecting 1 in 100 sexually active adults. A review of the literature concerning human bites, HIV and AIDS, HIV in saliva, and case examples was performed to examine the current opinion regarding the transmission of HIV via this route. A bite from an HIV-seropositive individual that breaks the skin or is associated with a previous injury carries a risk of infection for the bitten individual.

Wildlife forensic entomology: determining time of death in two illegally killed black bear cubs

Forensic entomology is now commonly used to determine time of death in human death investigations. However, it can be equally applicable to wildlife crimes. This paper describes the use of entomology to determine time of death in the illegal killing of two young bear cubs in Manitoba, Canada. Two cubs were found shot, disemboweled, with their gall bladders removed. Natural Resource officers (Conservation Officers) and a Royal Canadian Mounted Police (R.C.M.P.) officer examined the remains, and the R.C.M.P. officer collected insect evidence. The only insects on the remains were adult blow flies coming to lay eggs and the blow fly eggs themselves (Diptera: Calliphoridae). The time of hatch was recorded and the insects were reared to adulthood. Time of hatch, together with species identification, macro and micro climate and lab developmental data were used to determine the time of death. The time was consistent with the time that the defendants were seen at the scene and was used in their conviction. This case illustrates that insect evidence can be equally as valuable in poaching cases as in homicide cases. However, in most cases Conservation Officers are unaware of this science. It is therefore, extremely important for more Conservation Officers to be educated about this field.

Insect succession on buried carrion in two biogeoclimatic zones of British Columbia

We established a database of insect succession on buried carrion in two biogeoclimatic zones of British Columbia over a 16-month period beginning June 1995. Pig (Sus scrofa L.) carcasses were buried shortly after death in the Coastal Western Hemlock and Sub-boreal Spruce biogeoclimatic zones of British Columbia. Buried pigs exhibited a distinct pattern of succession from that which occurred on above-ground carrion. The species composition and time of colonization for particular species differed between the two zones. Therefore ideally, a database of insect succession on buried carrion should be established for each major biogeoclimatic zone. We did not observe maggot masses on any of the buried carcasses; therefore, the presence of maggot masses may indicate a delayed burial. Soil temperature was a better indicator of internal buried carcass temperature (r2 = 0.92, p < 0.0001) than was ambient air temperature (r2 = 0.60, p < 0.0001); thus soil temperature should be used to determine developmental rates of insects for determination of the postmortem interval by a forensic entomologist.

Resilience of anthropometric data assembly strategies to imposed error

The aim of this study was to examine strategies for selecting a criterion value during anthropometric data assembly and their resilience to imposed error. Sixty-seven women aged 16-60 years were subjected to three separate series of measurements, which included six skinfolds and three girths. A random error term was added to the first of the three series of measurements to produce a pseudo-series containing error, termed the 'erroneous replicated series'. Five strategies were then used to determine the criterion value of each of the replication series: the first measurement, the mean of the first two measurements, the mean of all three measurements, the mean of the closest two measurements and the median of the three measurements. The technical error between the criterion values of the true and the flawed replication series for each of the selection strategies was calculated. We found that, for five of the skinfolds and all of the girths, the median value provided the smallest technical error of measurement between the criterion values for the true and erroneous replication series. We conclude that the strategy of selecting the median of three measurements is the most resilient to imposed error.

The use of insects to determine time of decapitation: a case-study from British Columbia

A case is presented in which insects were used to determine time of decapitation. A severed human head was located on 28 June in a ditch on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. The victim had been missing since 17 June. Prepupal Calliphora vomitoria (L.) were found at the cut surface of the neck and no evidence of insect feeding was observed at any of the natural orifices; the eyes were intact. Meteorological and insect developmental data indicated that the insects had been oviposited on or before 20 June. The lack of feeding at the orifices, together with the evidence of feeding and presence of insects at the cut surface of the neck indicated that the eggs had been laid after decapitation. Therefore, decapitation had occurred on or before 20 June. This was consistent with later police evidence.

Thermoregulatory responses of circum-pubertal children

Passive temperature lability of nine circum-pubertal children [11.4 (1.2) years] was compared to that of nine young adult males [26.6 (5.2) years]. Each subject completed a 20-min period of exercise, followed immediately by post-exercise immersion in water at 28 degrees C. The aim of the exercise protocol was to induce a steady rate of sweating (Esw) while the postexercise immersion period induced cooling of the core region (tympanic temperature: Tty). The Tty values (relative to rest, delta Tty) at which sweating abated and at which shivering commenced were defined as the thresholds for the cessation of sweating and onset of shivering, respectively. While there was no significant difference between the delta Tty sweating thresholds, the onset of shivering, as reflected in the oxygen uptake (VO2) response, occurred at significantly higher (P < 0.05) delta Tty values in the children [mean (SD): - 0.07 (0.07) degrees C] than in the adults [ -0.22 (0.10) degrees C]. The slope of the Esw/delta Tty relationship was found to be significantly lower in the children (z = -5.64; P < 0.05), while the slopes of the VO2/delta Tty relationship were not significantly different (z = -0.84; P > 0.05). Skin blood perfusion was measured at the forehead (SkBP), and the slope of the SkBP/delta Tty relationship across the null-zone was significantly less in the children than in the adults (z = -2.13; P < 0.05) with the greatest reduction in perfusion occurring prior to the offset of sweating in the children. The subjective ratings of thermal comfort indicated that the children were more sensitive to changes in core temperature than the adults. It is concluded that maturation plays an important role in modifying thermoregulatory responses to deviations in core temperature. These results suggest that there may be differences in thermoregulatory "strategies" which are maturationally related.

Inactivation of photosensitizing merocyanine dyes by plasma, serum and serum components

Merocyanine dyes with an oxygen in the electron donor heterocycle were rapidly degraded by plasma, serum and serum components. Replacement of the oxygen by a sulfur or selenium atom rendered the dyes refractory to degradation. The degradation of labile merocyanine dyes was temperature dependent and oxygen independent. The plasma component that was responsible for the degradation of merocyanine dyes was sensitive to heat and detergent, suggesting an enzymatic process. The identification of the structural requirements for sensitivity/resistance to degradation provides the experimenter with a simple means to manipulate the stability of merocyanines in high serum or plasma environments and may expand the clinical utility of merocyanine photosensitizers beyond their traditional role in the extracorporeal purging of bone marrow grafts.

Passive temperature lability in the elderly

Thermoregulatory responses of nine healthy elderly [seven men and two women; mean age (SD) 73.9 (4.8) years] were compared to those of nine young adult men [26.6 (5.2) years]. They exercised on a cycle ergometer for 20 min at an intensity inducing a heart rate equivalent to 65% of their predicted maximum, and were thereafter immersed in 28 degrees C water. The exercise was conducted to elevate tympanic temperature (Tty) and initiate a steady rate of sweating. The post-exercise immersion period induced gradual cooling of Tty, and changes in Tty relative to resting levels (delta Tty) at which sweating abated and shivering commenced were defined as the delta Tty thresholds for the cessation of sweating (Tsw) and onset of shivering (Tsh), respectively. In addition to Tty, oxygen uptake (VO2; l.min-1), sweating rate (g.m-2.min-1), and forehead skin blood perfusion were also measured during the trials. The mean (SD) Tsw occurred at a significantly (P < 0.005) higher delta Tty [0.48 (0.18) degrees C] in the elderly than in the young adults [0.21 (0.06) degrees C], while the Tsh occurred at significantly (P < 0.005) lower delta Tty in the elderly [-0.64 (0.34) degrees C] than in young adults [-0.22 (0.10) degrees C]. Decreases in delta Tty below the shivering threshold were met with a significantly (P < 0.01) reduced VO2. The range of temperature lability between Tsw and Tsh, defined as the null-zone, was significantly greater in the elderly [1.12 (0.39) degrees C] than in the young adults [0.43 (0.12) degrees C], and the slope of the vasoconstrictor response in the null-zone was significantly (P < 0.001) lower in the elderly subjects. The present study demonstrates a greater passive core temperature lability in older individuals, since the effector responses of sweating and shivering were initiated at higher and lower levels of Tty, respectively. The magnitudes of the effector responses beyond the thresholds were also significantly reduced, suggesting that the elderly may be more susceptible to hypo-/hyperthermia during periods of endogenous and/or exogenous thermal stress.

Immunotherapy trial for horses in British Columbia with Culicoides (Diptera:Ceratopogonidae) hypersensitivity

Immunotherapy was used to treat horses in British Columbia for Culicoides hypersensitivity. This is a severe, chronic, recurrent allergic disease of horses that results in severe irritation, large lesions, hair loss and secondary infection in the ventral midline, mane, and proximal region of the tail. A crude Culicoides extract was injected subcutaneously, in increasing doses, into 10 horses that were affected severely by the disease. Weekly doses reduced the clinical signs in 9 of the 10 horses in the 1st yr. Eight horses were treated with a maintenance dose during a 2nd yr. After the 2nd yr, 3 horses were completely free of clinical signs, 3 showed much less severe clinical signs than in untreated years, and 2 showed moderate reduction in clinical signs. Dosage, frequency of injections, and possible future applications of this technique are discussed.

Rehabilitation learning needs: patient and family perceptions

Understanding consumer needs for information provides the foundation for empowering patients and families to assume more responsibility for their own care both in hospital and after discharge. Self administered questionnaires identified adult rehabilitation learning needs from the perspectives of patients and their families both during and following hospitalization. The greatest needs for both groups in both time periods were for information about medical, psychosocial and community integration topics. During the in-patient phase, families identified high needs for information which suggests that they should be targeted for educational activities along with patients. Surveys repeated 6 weeks following discharge indicated that information needs were lower but continued to exist.

Potentiation of merocyanine 540-mediated photodynamic therapy by salicylate and related drugs

Simultaneous exposure to merocyanine 540 (MC540) and light of a suitable wavelength kills leukemia, lymphoma and neuroblastoma cells but is relatively well tolerated by normal pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells. This differential phototoxic effect has been exploited in preclinical models and a phase I clinical trial for the extracorporeal purging of autologous bone marrow grafts. Salicylate is known to potentiate the MC540-mediated photokilling of tumor cells. Assuming that salicylate induces a change in the plasma membrane of tumor cells (but not normal hematopoietic stem cells) that enhances the binding of dye molecules it has been suggested that salicylate may provide a simple and effective means of improving the therapeutic index of MC540-mediated photodynamic therapy. We report here on a direct test of this hypothesis in a murine model of bone marrow transplantation as well as in clonal cultures of normal murine hematopoietic progenitor cells. In both systems, salicylate enhanced the MC540-sensitized photoinactivation of leukemia cells and normal bone marrow cells to a similar extent and thus failed to improve the therapeutic index of MC540 significantly. On the basis of a series of dye-binding studies, we offer an alternative explanation for the potentiating effect of salicylate. Rather than invoking a salicylate-induced change in the plasma membrane of tumor cells, we propose that salicylate displaces dye molecules from serum albumin, thereby enhancing the concentration of free (active) dye available for binding to tumor as well as normal hematopoietic stem cells.

Gender differences in physiological reactions to thermal stress

Following an extensive anthropometric evaluation, thermoregulatory responses were studied in nine men and nine women who performed immersed exercise with post-exercise rest in 28 degrees C water. During the post-exercise period esophageal temperature (Tes), oxygen consumption, heat flux and skin blood perfusion were monitored at 10 s intervals, with average minute values used for calculations. The delta Tes (relative to resting Tes) at which sweating abated and shivering commenced were defined as the delta Tes thresholds for the cessation of sweating and onset of shivering, respectively. No significant gender differences were evident in the sweating and shivering threshold delta Tes values, or the magnitude of the null-zone. Using z-tests for parallelism the rates of core cooling across the null-zone were not found to differ significantly between genders, nor were the slopes of the perfusion: delta Tes responses across the null-zone or the post-threshold shivering responses (ml.kg-1.min-1.degrees C-1). The slope of the sweating response (measured from immersion until sweat cessation; g.m-2.min-1 degree C-1) was, however, significantly lower in the female than in the male samples (z = 3.93; P < 0.01). Despite the gender-related dimorphic distribution of adipose tissue, both men and women lost equal proportions of their total heat flux from central and peripheral measurement sites.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Calculated thermal conductivities and heat flux in man

Using data compiled by the Brussels Cadaver Analysis Study on 13 unembalmed cadavers, this study examined the validity of assumptions often made concerning the role of the skin and adipose tissue layers in thermal insulation in vivo. Skin thickness was previously reported to vary from 0.35 to 2.55 mm, depending on the site of measurement and gender of the subject. Assuming a thermal conductivity of 0.70 x 10(-3) kcal/(cm.s-1.degree C-1) for the skin, heat flux across the skin would vary between site and gender in the order of 7.5 times, ranging from 0.16 to 1.20 kcal.min-1.degree C-1.m-2. Due to the negligible thermal gradient across the skin layer, however, this would be of little physiologic significance. Assumptions concerning the homogeneity of skin thickness across gender and measurement site when investigating thermal insulation of the peripheral tissues would not, therefore, influence the reported results significantly. However, it has recently been shown that the calculated lipid fraction of the adipose tissue layer varies according to a person's level of adiposity. Using a two-component model of adipose tissue, the predicted thermal conductivity (k) of the adipose tissue in the present sample was found to range from 0.50 to 0.97 x 10(-3) kcal/(cm.s-1.degree C-1), being significantly lower (P = 0.005) in the five most obese cadavers [6.66 +/- 0.45 x 10(-4) kcal/(cm.s-1.degree C-1)] than in the five most lean cadavers [8.22 +/- 0.93 x 10(-4) kcal/(cm.s-1.degree C-1)]. Adiposity level correlated significantly (r = 0.80; P < 0.01) with calculated k values, suggesting caution must be taken when assuming a single k for the adipose tissue layer when examining divergent populations (i.e., obese vs. thin).

A DNA-based approach to the identification of insect species used for postmortem interval estimation

Insect larvae found on a corpse can be used for estimating postmortem intervals. Here, we describe a molecular method for rapid identification of these insects. Specific insect DNA fragments were amplified using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), followed by direct DNA sequencing of the amplification products. We sequenced 2300 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA from each of three blowfly species: Phormia regina, Phaenicia sericata and Lucilia illustris. All three species are important in forensic entomology. We found 118 nucleotide differences between the L. illustris and P. sericata sequences, 186 between L. illustris and P. regina, and 192 between P. sericata and P. regina. Based on these abundant DNA sequence differences, we can unambiguously identify the immature larval stages of these insects. These DNA sequence differences were also used to predict species-specific, diagnostic restriction sites in the amplified DNA, and these predictions were verified by digestion with nine restriction enzymes. The DNA sequences reported here encode the mitochondrial COI, COII and tRNA-leucine genes.

Hypersensitivity of horses in British Columbia to extracts of native and exotic species of Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae)

Six horses from British Columbia severely affected by Culicoides hypersensitivity, a seasonal dermatitis caused by the bites of Culicoides spp., were inoculated intradermally with extracts of six species or forms of Culicoides from British Columbia, United States, and Israel. Two native and four exotic species were thought to cause the disease in their own geographical area. The horses developed large welts within 20 min after injection of any of the six extracts, indicating an immediate (type I) reaction. The skin reactions caused by each extract peaked at or after 24 h, indicating an additional delayed (type IV) reaction. These reactions confirm that the reactions to the extracts were allergic in nature. The horses were physically irritated by each extract and developed transverse ridges in the injection area similar to those seen in natural cases of the disease, again indicating an allergic reaction. Previous studies showed that control horses injected with Culicoides extract showed only a small, short-term reaction, with no delayed component, no irritation, and no transverse ridge development, further indicating that the observed reactions were allergic in nature. The affected horses reacted to all extracts of Culicoides, despite the fact that they had not been previously exposed to most of the species, indicating that the allergen(s) was present in all the extracts tested.

A comparison of predictive tests of aerobic capacity

This study examined the relationship among three predictive tests of aerobic capacity when analyzed within and across gender. Sixty-three active college students (37 males, 26 females) performed the multistage 20-metre shuttle run (SR), the Canadian Aerobic Fitness Test (ST), and the 1.5-mile run (DR). Predicted VO2max (ml.kg-1 x min-1) scores were obtained for each subject. Significant correlations were found among the VO2max results on all possible pairings of tests analyzed as a group, and by gender (p < .001) except for the females' SR and ST pairing (p > .05). One-way analysis of variance was performed for each of the three subject pools with significant F values for the grouped (F = 5.8, p < .01) and male (F = 30.7, p < .01) samples. Tukey HSD post hoc comparison identified significant differences among the SR and ST, and ST and DR VO2 max scores for both samples. However, there were no significant differences between the cell means when females were analyzed separately.

Antineoplastic effects of gallium nitrate on human medulloblastoma in vivo

Gallium nitrate possesses antineoplastic activity against certain solid tumors and has been demonstrated to be an effective agent in reducing cell proliferation and DNA synthesis in the medulloblastoma Daoy cell line in vitro. In prior studies, gallium inhibited the cellular uptake of 59Fe by brain tumor cells; however, this block in 59Fe uptake was variable and closely paralleled the inhibitory effects of gallium on cell growth. In vivo trials now have been conducted and have yielded some promising results. Nude mice received intradermal injections of medulloblastoma Daoy and then allowed to grow tumors. When the mice had developed at least one tumor between 9 to 10 mm in diameter, a 10-day course of intraperitoneal gallium nitrate injections was initiated. Gallium nitrate treatment reduced overall tumor growth rate and reduced actual tumor size. Nephrotoxicity was severe, but may be preventable by continuous gallium infusion and use of diuretics and hyperhydration.