Lizard host abundances and climatic factors explain phylogenetic diversity and prevalence of blood parasites on an oceanic island

Host abundance might favour the maintenance of a high phylogenetic diversity of some parasites via rapid transmission rates. Blood parasites of insular lizards represent a good model to test this hypothesis because these parasites can be particularly prevalent in islands and host lizards highly abundant. We applied deep amplicon sequencing and analysed environmental predictors of blood parasite prevalence and phylogenetic diversity in the endemic lizard Gallotia galloti across 24 localities on Tenerife, an island in the Canary archipelago that has experienced increasing warming and drought in recent years. Parasite prevalence assessed by microscopy was over 94%, and a higher proportion of infected lizards was found in warmer and drier locations. A total of 33 different 18s rRNA parasite haplotypes were identified, and the phylogenetic analyses indicated that they belong to two genera of Adeleorina (Apicomplexa: Coccidia), with Karyolysus as the dominant genus. The most important predictor of between-locality variation in parasite phylogenetic diversity was the abundance of lizard hosts. We conclude that a combination of climatic and host demographic factors associated with an insular syndrome may be favouring a rapid transmission of blood parasites among lizards on Tenerife, which may favour the maintenance of a high phylogenetic diversity of parasites.

Evolutionary trade-offs constraining the MHC gene expansion: beyond simple TCR depletion model

The immune system is as much shaped by the pressure of pathogens as it is by evolutionary trade-offs that constrain its structure and function. A perfect example comes from the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), molecules that initiate adaptive immune response by presentation of foreign antigens to T cells. The remarkable, population-level polymorphism of MHC genes is assumed to result mainly from a co-evolutionary arms race between hosts and pathogens, while the limited, within-individual number of functional MHC loci is thought to be the consequence of an evolutionary trade-off between enhanced pathogen recognition and excessive T cell depletion during negative selection in the thymus. Certain mathematical models and infection studies suggest that an intermediate individual MHC diversity would thus be optimal. A recent, more direct test of this hypothesis has shown that the effects of MHC diversity on T-cell receptor (TCR) repertoires may differ between MHC classes, supporting the depletion model only for MHC class I. Here, we used the bank vole (Myodes=Cletronomys glareolus), a rodent species with variable numbers of expressed MHC genes, to test how an individual MHC diversity influences the proportions and TCR repertoires of responding T cell subsets. We found a non-linear relationship between MHC diversity and T cell proportions (with intermediate MHC numbers coinciding with the largest T cell proportions), perhaps reflecting an optimality effect of balanced positive and negative thymic selection. The association was strongest for the relationship between MHC class I and splenic CD8+ T cells. The CD8+ TCR richness alone was unaffected by MHC class I diversity, suggesting that MHC class I expansion may be limited by decreasing T cell counts, rather than by direct depletion of TCR richness. In contrast, CD4+ TCR richness was positively correlated with MHC class II diversity, arguing against a universal TCR depletion. It also suggests that different evolutionary forces or trade-offs may limit the within-individual expansion of the MHC class II loci.

Assessing fine-scale pondscape connectivity with amphibian eyes: An integrative approach using genomic and capture-mark-recapture data

In the face of habitat loss, preserving functional connectivity is essential to maintain genetic diversity and the demographic dynamics required for the viability of biotic communities. This requires knowledge of the dispersal behaviour of target species, which can be modelled as kernels, or probability density functions of dispersal distances at increasing geographic distances. We present an integrative approach to investigate the relationships between genetic connectivity and demographic parameters in organisms with low vagility focusing on five syntopic pond-breeding amphibians. We genotyped 1056 individuals of two anuran and three urodele species (1732-3913 SNPs per species) from populations located in a landscape comprising 64 ponds to characterize fine-scale genetic structure in a comparative framework, and combined these genetic data with information obtained in a previous 2-year capture-mark-recapture (CMR) study. Specifically, we contrasted graphs reconstructed from genomic data with connectivity graphs based on dispersal kernels and demographic information obtained from CMR data from previous studies, and assessed the effects of population size, population density, geographical distances, inverse movement probabilities and the presence of habitat patches potentially functioning as stepping stones on genetic differentiation. Our results show a significant effect of local population sizes on patterns of genetic differentiation at small spatial scales. In addition, movement records and cluster-derived kernels provide robust inferences on most likely dispersal paths that are consistent with genomic inferences on genetic connectivity. The integration of genetic and CMR data holds great potential for understanding genetic connectivity at spatial scales relevant to individual organisms, with applications for the implementation of management actions at the landscape level.

The effect of pegbovigrastim administration on the nonspecific immunity of calves

BACKGROUND

Prevention of diseases in the early rearing of calves is important, particularly because disease occurrence most often requires antimicrobial administration but reduction of their use in animals is a priority. Pegbovigrastim is known for its use as an immunoregulator in cows and heifers, but the effect of its administration on calves has not been fully investigated.

OBJECTIVES

Investigate whether administration of pegbovigrastim effectively stimulates nonspecific immunity in healthy calves.

ANIMALS

Eleven clinically healthy 5-week-old calves.

METHODS

Prospective observational study. Calves were randomly allocated to an experimental or control groups to receive pegbovigrastim or the same volume of phosphate-buffered saline twice over a 7-day period. To evaluate nonspecific immunity, the numbers of total leukocytes and cells in the appropriate cell fractions were determined. Cytometric analyses were carried out to identify cells expressing CD11b and to evaluate the phagocytic and oxidative burst activities of granulocytes and monocytes. Myeloperoxidase (MPO) and selected cytokines were assayed using ELISA.

RESULTS

Pegbovigrastim significantly increased the number of total leukocytes and of cells in all of the examined subsets (P < .05). The phagocytic activity of leukocytes expressed as mean fluorescence intensity was significantly potentiated after pegbovigrastim administration (P < .05). The cytokine response was modulated by pegbovigrastim administration toward anti-inflammatory activity.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Pegbovigrastim effectively stimulated nonspecific immunity in clinically healthy calves, which in the long term could make the prevention of diseases during early rearing possible by strengthening the immune defense mechanisms of the host.

The genomic response to urbanization in the damselfly Ischnura elegans

The complex and rapid environmental changes brought about by urbanization pose significant challenges to organisms. The multifaceted effects of urbanization often make it difficult to define and pinpoint the very nature of adaptive urban phenotypes. In such situations, scanning genomes for regions differentiated between urban and non-urban populations may be an attractive approach. Here, we investigated the genomic signatures of adaptation to urbanization in the damselfly Ischnura elegans sampled from 31 rural and urban localities in three geographic regions: southern and northern Poland, and southern Sweden. Genome-wide variation was assessed using more than 370,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) genotyped by ddRADseq. Associations between SNPs and the level of urbanization were tested using two genetic environment association methods: Latent Factors Mixed Models and BayPass. While we found numerous candidate SNPs and a highly significant overlap between candidates identified by the two methods within the geographic regions, there was a distinctive lack of repeatability between the geographic regions both at the level of individual SNPs and of genomic regions. However, we found "synapse organization" at the top of the functional categories enriched among the genes located in the proximity of the candidate urbanization SNPs. Interestingly, the overall significance of "synapse organization" was built up by the accretion of different genes associated with candidate SNPs in different geographic regions. This finding is consistent with the highly polygenic nature of adaptation, where the response may be achieved through a subtle adjustment of allele frequencies in different genes that contribute to adaptive phenotypes. Taken together, our results point to a polygenic adaptive response in the nervous system, specifically implicating genes involved in synapse organization, which mirrors the findings from several genomic and behavioral studies of adaptation to urbanization in other taxa.

Landscape genetics reveals contrasting patterns of connectivity in two newt species (Lissotriton montandoni and L. vulgaris)

Ecologically distinct species may respond to landscape changes in different ways. In addition to basic ecological data, the extent of the geographic range has been successfully used as an indicator of species sensitivity to anthropogenic landscapes, with widespread species usually found to be less sensitive compared to range-restricted species. In this study, we investigate connectivity patterns of two closely related but ecologically distinct newt species - the range-restricted, Lissotriton montandoni and the widespread, L. vulgaris - using genomic data, a highly replicated setting (six geographic regions per species), and tools from landscape genetics. Our results show the importance of forest for connectivity in both species, but at the same time suggest differential use of forested habitat, with L. montandoni and L. vulgaris showing the highest connectivity at forest-core and forest-edges, respectively. Anthropogenic landscapes (i.e., higher crop- or urban-cover) increased resistance in both species, but the effect was one to three orders of magnitude stronger in L. montandoni than in L. vulgaris. This result is consistent with a view of L. vulgaris as an ecological generalist. Even so, currently, the negative impact of anthropogenic landscapes is mainly seen in connectivity among L. vulgaris populations, which show significantly stronger isolation and lower effective sizes relative to L. montandoni. Overall, this study emphasizes how habitat destruction is compromising genetic connectivity not only in endemic, range-restricted species of conservation concern but also in widespread generalist species, despite their comparatively lower sensitivity to anthropogenic landscape changes.

Widespread introgression of MHC genes in Iberian Podarcis lizards

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes are crucial for the adaptive immune response of jawed vertebrates. Their variation, reaching extreme levels, is driven mainly by an arms race between hosts and pathogens. One hypothesised mechanism contributing to MHC polymorphism is adaptive introgression, the exchange of genetic variants between hybridising species favoured by selection, yet its effect on MHC variation is poorly understood. Detection of adaptive MHC introgression, though challenging, may be facilitated by the analysis of species complexes forming multiple hybrid zones. Here, we investigated MHC introgression in six hybrid zones formed by seven species of Podarcis lizards inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula. To differentiate adaptive introgression from neutral introgression, we compared the patterns of gene exchange in MHC and genome-wide markers. We found elevated sharing of MHC alleles in the proximity of contact beyond the areas of detectable genome-wide admixture in most hybrid zones and, in half of them, asymmetric MHC exchange. In general, the elevated MHC allele sharing between species pairs with abutting ranges compared to geographically isolated species pairs also supports the prevalence of introgression. Collectively, our results demonstrate widespread MHC introgression in the Iberian Podarcis complex and suggest its adaptiveness. Contrary to previous results from Triturus newts, we did not observe differences in the rate of introgression between MHC classes. Our work adds support to the emerging view of adaptive introgression as a key mechanism shaping MHC diversity. It also raises questions about the effect of elevated MHC variation and factors leading to the asymmetry of adaptive introgression.

Interspecific introgression of MHC genes in Triturus newts: Evidence from multiple contact zones

The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes are central to the adaptive immune response in vertebrates. Selection generally maintains high MHC variation because the spectrum of recognized pathogens depends on MHC polymorphism. Novel alleles favoured by selection originate by interallelic recombination or de novo mutations but may also be acquired by introgression from related species. However, the extent and prevalence of MHC introgression remain an open question. In this study, we tested for MHC introgression in six hybrid zones formed by six Triturus newt species. We sequenced and genotyped the polymorphic second exons of the MHC class I and II genes and compared their interspecific similarity at various distances from the centre of the hybrid zone. We found evidence for introgression of both MHC classes in the majority of examined hybrid zones, with support for a more substantial class I introgression. Furthermore, the overall MHC allele sharing outside of hybrid zones was elevated between pairs of Triturus species with abutting ranges, regardless of the phylogenetic distance between them. No effect of past hybrid zone movement on MHC allele sharing was found. Finally, using previously published genome-wide data, we demonstrated that MHC introgression was more extensive than genome-wide introgression, supporting its adaptive potential. Our study thus provides evidence for the prevalence of MHC introgression across multiple Triturus hybrid zones, indicating that MHC introgression between divergent hybridizing species may be widespread and adaptive.

The Effect of Pegbovigrastim Injection on Phagocytic and Oxidative Burst Activities of Peripheral Blood Granulocytes and Monocytes in Calves Challenged with Mycoplasma bovis

Mycoplasma bovis (M. bovis) is an important pathogen affecting cattle, causing various diseases including pneumonia which mainly occurring in calves. Control of M. bovis infections is difficult due to the lack of commercial vaccines in most parts of the world and increasing trends of antimicrobial resistance in field isolates of the pathogen; therefore, it seems reasonable to look for new solutions for the prevention of the infection. Pegbovigrastim is a pegylated form of naturally occurring circulating cytokine in cattle that affects bovine leukocytes and some cell functions. Most studies on pegbovigrastim have focused on reducing the occurrence of mastitis and other diseases occurring during the periparturient period in cows, while this study attempts to use pegbovigrastim in the prevention of respiratory diseases in calves, which are largely caused by M. bovis. Based on previous observations on the immunostimulatory properties of pegbovigrastim in cattle, for the first time, the effect of its injection on the number and phagocytic and oxidative burst activities of peripheral blood granulocytes and monocytes in calves experimentally infected with M. bovis was investigated. Pegbovigrastim administration in the calves significantly stimulated an increase in peripheral blood granulocyte and monocyte counts and phagocytic activity of the cells, especially granulocytes, which was also generally expressed in the course of M. bovis infection. In response to pegbovigrastim administration, a general increase in the oxygen burst activity of the cells was observed. This effect was also shown despite ongoing infection with M. bovis which, taken together, may indicate a beneficial effect of pegbovigrastim injection on the immunity of the affected animals.

Salamanders reveal novel trajectories of amphibian MHC evolution

Genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) code for immune proteins that are crucial for pathogen recognition in vertebrates. MHC research in nonmodel taxa has long been hampered by its genomic complexity that makes the locus-specific genotyping challenging. The recent progress in sequencing and genotyping methodologies allows an extensive phylogenetic coverage in studies of MHC evolution. Here, we analyzed the peptide-binding region of MHC class I (MHC-I) in 30 species of salamanders from six families representative of Urodela phylogeny. This extensive dataset revealed an extreme diversity of MHC-I in salamanders, both in terms of sequence diversity (about 3000 variants) and architecture (2-22 gene copies per species). The signal of positive selection was moderate and consistent between both peptide-binding domains, but varied greatly between genera. Positions of positively selected sites mostly coincided with human peptide-binding sites, suggesting similar structural properties of MHC-I molecules across distant vertebrate lineages. Finally, we provided evidence for the common intraexonic recombination at MHC-I and for the role of life history traits in the processes of MHC-I expansion/contraction. Our study revealed novel evolutionary trajectories of amphibian MHC and it contributes to the understanding of the mechanisms that generated extraordinary MHC diversity throughout vertebrate evolution.

Effect of Supplementation with the Combination of Se-Enriched Lentinula edodes Mycelium, Exogenous Enzymes, Acidifiers, Sodium Butyrate and Silicon Dioxide Nanoparticle Feed Additives on Selected Parameters in Calves

During the initial months of calves’ lives, the young animals are exposed to bacterial and viral infections, and during this period, crucial physiological changes take place in their organisms. Offering calves feed additives that will have a beneficial influence on their organisms and improve their growth while reducing the morbidity rate is the optimal task of feeding. This is the first study to investigate the effect of experimental supplementation for calves with the combination of two feed additives—one containing Lentinula edodes enriched with selenium (Se), and the second containing pancreatic-like enzymes, fat-coated organic acids, sodium butyrate, and silicon dioxide nanoparticles—on the serum Se concentration, selected immune parameters, and the average daily gains in the calves. During the study, the serum Se concentration was examined by means of inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, and the immunoglobulin and cytokine concentrations with ELISA assays. The white blood cell (WBC) count with leukocyte differentiation was examined with the use of a hematological analyzer, and the percentages of subpopulations of T lymphocytes and monocytes, phagocytic activity, and oxidative burst of monocytes and granulocytes with the use of a flow cytometer. The average daily gains of the calves were also evaluated. In summary, the supplementation of the experimental calves with the combination of two feed additives resulted in significantly higher serum Se concentrations, and the immune systems of the calves were not suppressed while the examined feed additives were being delivered. Although not statistically significant, some positive effects on the calves were seen: a tendency towards the improvement of some of the immune parameters evaluated, and a tendency for higher average daily gains in the calves.

POS1529-HPR SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION AND QUALITY OF LIFE IN PATIENTS WITH RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS

Background

Sexual health is a major component of human well-being. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines sexual health as “a state of physical, mental, emotional, and social well-being in relation to sexuality”. Sexuality is a very important, inherent part of human functioning. As repeatedly shown in research, satisfaction with sex life and sexual fulfillment correlate positively with quality of life (QoL) in most of its aspects. It is thus true that a reduced quality of one’s sex life and lack of sexual fulfillment can contribute to poorer QoL overall. As poor sex life quality and sexual dissatisfaction result from sexual dysfunction, effective treatment of such a dysfunction can be assumed to contribute significantly to a better QoL.

Objectives

To describe an assessment of sexual problem among RA patients as a part of patient-reported outcome measures assessment.

Methods

171 consecutive RA patients (mean age 48.3±14.6) attending the rheumatology outpatients clinic over 6 months in 2021. Standardized questionnaires were used in the study: The Sexological Questionnaire to assess self-assessment of the incidence of sexual disorders, WHOQOL-BREF to assess QoL level, Disease Acceptance Scale and VAS scale to assess pain intensity.

Results

The mean duration of the disease in the study group was 13±9 years. The mean score of subjective assessment of mobility was 6.2 ± 1.6, and the mean score of the DAS-28 disease activity index was 4.0±1.9. The study group presented a mean level of disease acceptance (AIS 29.6 ± 11.6). The comparative analysis showed significant differences in reaching orgasm and declared sexual dysfunctions. These problems occurred more often in women than in men (34.2% vs. 18% and 43% vs. 40% respectively p=0.002). In univariate analysis, factors correlating positively with the frequency of declaring sexual dysfunction were: subjective motor score less than 6 points, AIS<36 points, WHOQOL-BREF<59 points, disease activity ≥3.5 points and VAS>3. In multivariate logistic regression analysis independent factors positively correlating with frequency of sexual dysfunction declaration were: general QoL (β=1.255; p=0.035) and pain limiting social life (β=1.564; p=0.030). The absence of comorbidities correlated negatively and reduced the prevalence of sexual dysfunction (β=-1.030, p=0.043). Patients with reduced QoL had 3.5 times and patients with pain limiting social life had 4.8 times higher risk of sexual dysfunction than other patients. In contrast, those without comorbidities were 2.8 times more likely to be free of sexual dysfunction than those diagnosed with other chronic diseases besides RA.

Conclusion

Sexual dysfunction is a problem found both in women and in men with RA. The most common problems include lack of orgasm, vaginal dryness in women, and erectile dysfunction in men. Psychological factors that contribute to sexual dysfunction include low or no illness acceptance and poor QoL. The absence of comorbidities is an independent determinant of lower sexual dysfunction incidence, whereas low QoL and pain limiting the patient’s social life are independent determinants of increased incidence of sexual dysfunction in both sexes.

References

[1]Hunter TM, Boytsov NN, Zhang X, et al. Prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis in the United States adult population in healthcare claims databases, 2004-2014. Rheumatol Int. 2017;37:1551.

[2]Tristano AG. Impact of rheumatoid arthritis on sexual function. World J Orthop. 2014;5(2):107-11.

[3]WHO. Sexual and Reproductive Health and Research (SRH). Definition. URL: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjS3fS6gZr1AhXS66QKHbGwDHkQFnoECAwQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.euro.who.int%2Fen%2Fhealth-topics%2FLife-stages%2Fsexual-and-reproductive-health%2Fnews%2Fnews%2F2011%2F06%2Fsexual-health-throughout-life%2Fdefinition&usg=AOvVaw20satnO_o687QKq2N8ELi0 [Accessed: 05.01.2022].

[4]Oettingen J. Sexual dysfunction – approach based on cognitive theory. Polish sexology 2013;11(2):68-75.

Disclosure of Interests

None declared

Gene conversion restores selfing in experimentally evolving C. elegans populations with fog-2 loss-of-function mutation

We have discovered a new case of gene conversion restoring ability of self-fertilization in obligatory outcrossing Caenorhabditis elegans populations. The fog-2(q71) mutation, used to transform the nematodes’ mating system from mostly self-fertilization to obligatory outcrossing, was spontaneously removed by replacing a fragment of fog-2 gene with a fragment of its paralog, ftr-1 . This has occurred spontaneously in experimental evolution with large populations, evolving with fog-2(q71) mutation for over a hundred generations, without addition mutagens or other factors promoting mutation accumulation. A converted fog-2 allele restoring hermaphrodite sperm production was detected in five experimental populations. This raises the question about stability of obligatory outcrossing populations in long-term experiments.

The impact of sleep disorders on the daily activity and quality of life in rheumatoid arthritis patients - a systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

We aimed at determining the relationship between sleep disorders and daily activity and quality of life (QoL) of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A systematic search of databases was carried out. We used the Cochrane guidelines to perform the meta-analysis following the PRISMA statement. Fifteen full-text papers were ultimately included in the subsequent statistical analyses. The study was registered in the PROSPERO database (No. CRD42021245664).

RESULTS

In group 1, the mean sleep quality score measured with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) was 6.93. The mean QoL score for the physical domain and the mental domain of the Short Form (36) Health Survey (SF-36) was 38.15 and 41.83, respectively. In group 2, the mean PSQI score was 7.21. The mean daily activity score measured with the Health Assessment Questionnaire (HAQ) was 0.80. A strong negative correlation was observed between the PSQI scores, and the SF-36 total score each unit increase in the SF-36 total score was associated with an average decrease of 0.35 points in the PSQI score. A one-point increase in the PSQI score was associated with an average decrease of 2.4 points in the QoL score measured with SF-36.

CONCLUSIONS

RA patients have a low quality of sleep. Sleep disorders correlate negatively with the QoL scores in the physical and mental domains.

Phagocytic Activity, Oxygen Metabolism and Serum Amyloid a Concentration in Peripheral Blood of Mink with Subclinical Aleutian Virus Infection

Aleutian disease (AD) is a chronic disease of mink caused by the Aleutian Mink Disease Virus (AMDV) that results in dysfunction of the immune system. The prevalence of asymptomatic AMDV infections suggests a necessity to explore their effects on the cellular mechanisms of non-specific immunity in farmed mink. The study evaluated the phagocytic activity and oxygen metabolism of peripheral blood granulocytes and monocytes in mink with chronic subclinical AMDV infection. Moreover, the intensity of inflammatory processes was assessed based on the serum amyloid A (SAA) concentration. The analyses involved 24 brown mink females aged 12−24 months. The experimental group (group I) consisted of mink with chronic subclinical AMDV infections, and the control group (group II) included healthy animals. The statistical analysis was performed using the Mann-Whitney U rank test. Phagocytic activity of granulocytes and monocytes was carried out using flow cytometry, and SAA concentration was determined with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Compared with the control group, there was a significant decrease in the phagocytic activity and oxygen metabolism of granulocytes and monocytes in the AMDV-infected mink (p < 0.05). Additionally, it was found that the mean SAA value was significantly higher in the group infected with AMDV than in the control group (p < 0.05). The obtained data indicate that monitoring the serum SAA levels in mink with asymptomatic inflammation may help assess the health of mink and detect asymptomatic inflammation caused by AMDV infection.

Relationship between maximum eye temperature and plasma cortisol concentration in racehorses during intensive training

The aim of the study was to determine the utility of maximum eye temperature measured by infrared thermography (IRT) as a stress indicator compared with plasma cortisol concentration in Thoroughbred and Arabian racehorses. The study included thirty racehorses undergoing standard training for racing. Measurements of maximum eye temperature and blood collection for plasma cortisol concentration were carried out before training (BT), and within 5 (5AT) and 120 minutes (120AT) after the end of the each training session in three repetitions, with a monthly interval. Both parameters were elevated at 5AT compared to BT (p⟨0.001). Compared to BT, at 120AT the maximum eye temperature remained elevated (p⟨0.001) and plasma cortisol concentration decreased (p⟨0.001). The study indicated significant weak correlations (r=0.220; p⟨0.001) between both measurements at all time points. The results support the use of IRT technique to monitor the response of horses to stress, potentially improving animal management and welfare.

Coevolution between MHC class I and Antigen Processing Genes in salamanders

Proteins encoded by antigen-processing genes (APGs) provide major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I (MHC-I) with antigenic peptides. In mammals, polymorphic multigenic MHC-I family is served by monomorphic APGs, whereas in certain nonmammalian species both MHC-I and APGs are polymorphic and coevolve within stable haplotypes. Coevolution was suggested as an ancestral gnathostome feature, presumably enabling only a single highly expressed classical MHC-I gene. In this view coevolution, while optimizing some aspects of adaptive immunity, would also limit its flexibility by preventing the expansion of classical MHC-I into a multigene family. However, some nonmammalian taxa, such as salamanders, have multiple highly expressed MHC-I genes, suggesting either that coevolution is relaxed or that it does not prevent the establishment of multigene MHC-I. To distinguish between these two alternatives, we use salamanders (30 species from 16 genera representing six families) to test, within a comparative framework, a major prediction of the coevolution hypothesis: the positive correlation between MHC-I and APG diversity. We found that MHC-I diversity explained both within-individual and species-wide diversity of two APGs, TAP1 and TAP2, supporting their coevolution with MHC-I, whereas no consistent effect was detected for the other three APGs (PSMB8, PSMB9, and TAPBP). Our results imply that although coevolution occurs in salamanders, it does not preclude the expansion of the MHC-I gene family. Contrary to the previous suggestions, nonmammalian vertebrates thus may be able to accommodate diverse selection pressures with flexibility granted by rapid expansion or contraction of the MHC-I family, while retaining the benefits of coevolution between MHC-I and TAPs.

Existence and Quality of Data on Control Programs for EU Non-regulated Cattle Diseases: Consequences for Estimation and Comparison of the Probability of Freedom From Infection

Some European countries have successfully implemented country-specific control programs (CPs) for infectious cattle diseases that are not regulated or are regulated only to a limited extent at the European Union (EU) level. Examples of such diseases include bovine viral diarrhea (BVD), infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), and Johne's disease (JD). The CPs vary between countries in the design and quality of collected data as well as methods used to detect infection and estimate prevalence or probability of freedom from infection. Differences in disease status between countries and non-standardized approaches to assess freedom from infection pose a risk for countries with CPs for non-regulated diseases as infected animals may influence the progress of the disease control or eradication program. The implementation of output-based standards allows estimation and comparison of the probability of freedom for non-regulated cattle diseases in European countries. The aim of the current study was to assess the existence and quality of data that could be used for estimating freedom from infection in European countries. The online data collection tool was sent to 32 countries participating in the SOUND control COST Action and was completed by 24 countries. Data on cattle demographics and data from CPs of IBR and BVD exist in more than 50% of the response countries. However, data describing risk factors and CP of JD was reported as existing in <25% of the countries. The overall quality of data in the sections on demographics and CPs of IBR and BVD were evaluated as "good", but risk factors and JD data were mostly evaluated as "fair." Data quality was considered less good mainly due to two quality criteria: accessibility and accuracy. The results of this study show that the quantity and quality of data about cattle populations and CPs are relatively similar in many surveyed countries. The outcome of this work provides an overview of the current situation in the European countries regarding data on EU non-regulated cattle diseases and will further assist in the development and implementation of output-based standards.

Recent Developments in Vaccines for Bovine Mycoplasmoses Caused by Mycoplasma bovis and Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides

Two of the most important diseases of cattle are caused by mycoplasmas. Mycoplasma bovis is a world-wide bovine pathogen that can cause pneumonia, mastitis and arthritis. It has now spread to most, if not all, cattle-rearing countries. Due to its increasing resistance to antimicrobial therapy, vaccination is the principal focus of the control of infection, but effective vaccines are currently lacking. Despite being eradicated from most parts of the world, Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides, the cause of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), continues to plague sub-Saharan Africa, affecting at least 25 countries. Numerous new experimental vaccines have been developed over the last 20 years to improve on protection afforded by the T1/44, a live vaccine in continuous use in Africa for over 60 years, but none so far have succeeded; indeed, many have exacerbated the disease. Tools for diagnosis and control are adequate for eradication but what is necessary are resources to improve vaccine coverage to levels last seen in the 1970s, when CBPP was restricted to a few countries in Africa. This paper summarizes the results of the main studies in the field of experimental mycoplasma vaccines, reviews data on commercially available bacterin vaccines and addresses issues relating to the search for new candidates for effective vaccines to reduce economic losses in the cattle industry caused by these two mycoplasmas.

Blood Counts, Biochemical Parameters, Inflammatory, and Immune Responses in Pigs Infected Experimentally with the African Swine Fever Virus Isolate Pol18_28298_O111

This study aimed to indicate the influence of infection caused by genotype II African swine fever virus (ASFV)–isolate Pol18_28298_O111, currently circulating in Poland, on blood counts, biochemical parameters, as well as inflammatory and immune responses. Blood and sera collected from 21 domestic pigs infected intranasally with different doses of virulent ASFV were analysed. The infection led to variable changes in blood counts depending on the stage of the disease with a tendency towards leukopenia and thrombocytopenia. The elevated C-reactive protein (CRP) concentrations and microscopic lesions in organs confirmed the development of the inflammation process, which also resulted in an increased level of biochemical markers such as: Aspartate transaminase (AST), creatine kinase (CK), creatinine, and urea. Antibodies could be detected from 9 to 18 days post infection (dpi). Two survivors presented the highest titer of antibodies (>5 log₁₀/mL) with a simultaneous increase in the lymphocyte T (CD3+) percentage–revealed by flow cytometry. Results confirmed a progressive inflammatory process occurring during the ASFV infection, which may lead to multiple organs failure and death of the majority of affected animals.

Molecular Evolution of Antigen-Processing Genes in Salamanders: Do They Coevolve with MHC Class I Genes?

Proteins encoded by antigen-processing genes (APGs) prepare antigens for presentation by the major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) molecules. Coevolution between APGs and MHC I genes has been proposed as the ancestral gnathostome condition. The hypothesis predicts a single highly expressed MHC I gene and tight linkage between APGs and MHC I. In addition, APGs should evolve under positive selection, a consequence of the adaptive evolution in MHC I. The presence of multiple highly expressed MHC I genes in some teleosts, birds, and urodeles appears incompatible with the coevolution hypothesis. Here, we use urodele amphibians to test two key expectations derived from the coevolution hypothesis: 1) the linkage between APGs and MHC I was studied in Lissotriton newts and 2) the evidence for adaptive evolution in APGs was assessed using 42 urodele species comprising 21 genera from seven families. We demonstrated that five APGs (PSMB8, PSMB9, TAP1, TAP2, and TAPBP) are tightly linked (<0.5 cM) to MHC I. Although all APGs showed some codons under episodic positive selection, we did not find a pervasive signal of positive selection expected under the coevolution hypothesis. Gene duplications, putative gene losses, and divergent allelic lineages detected in some APGs demonstrate considerable evolutionary dynamics of APGs in salamanders. Overall, our results indicate that if coevolution between APGs and MHC I occurred in urodeles, it would be more complex than envisaged in the original formulation of the hypothesis.

Mycoplasma bovis Infections-Occurrence, Diagnosis and Control

Mycoplasma bovis is a cause of bronchopneumonia, mastitis and arthritis but may also affect other main organs in cattle such us the eye, ear or brain. Despite its non-zoonotic character, M. bovis infections are responsible for substantial economic health and welfare problems worldwide. M. bovis has spread worldwide, including to countries for a long time considered free of the pathogen. Control of M. bovis infections is hampered by a lack of effective vaccines and treatments due to increasing trends in antimicrobial resistance. This review summarizes the latest data on the epizootic situation of M. bovis infections and new sources/routes of transmission of the infection, and discusses the progress in diagnostics. The review includes various recommendations and suggestions which could be applied to infection control programs.

Preliminary study on Se-enriched Lentinula edodes mycelium as a proposal of new feed additive in selenium deficiency

The presence of selenium in European soil is low and this causes its deficiency in livestock and, in consequence, in humans. This study aimed to obtain Lentinula (L.) edodes mycelium with the maximum content of selenium. This species was used for experiment based on its documented medicinal properties. Calves were fed with selenium-enriched L. edodes mycelium, and serum selenium concentration, average daily weight gains and selected immune parameters were estimated. The selenium-enriched mushroom was found to be safe based on cytotoxicity tests (MTT and LDH tests) and for this reason it was used for further experiments. The mean quantity of selenium in the serum of calves fed with selenium-enriched L. edodes mycelium was significantly higher than that of control calves. Additionally, the calves fed with selenium-enriched L. edodes mycelium had higher body weight gains than those of control calves. White blood cell counts and subpopulations of lymphocytes in the experimental and control calves were within the reference range. The administration of L. edodes enriched with selenium had a beneficial effect on state of health of the calves.

How Hosts Taxonomy, Trophy, and Endosymbionts Shape Microbiome Diversity in Beetles

Bacterial communities play a crucial role in the biology, ecology, and evolution of multicellular organisms. In this research, the microbiome of 24 selected beetle species representing five families (Carabidae, Staphylinidae, Curculionidae, Chrysomelidae, Scarabaeidae) and three trophic guilds (carnivorous, herbivorous, detrivorous) was examined using 16S rDNA sequencing on the Illumina platform. The aim of the study was to compare diversity within and among species on various levels of organization, including evaluation of the impact of endosymbiotic bacteria. Collected data showed that beetles possess various bacterial communities and that microbiota of individuals of particular species hosts are intermixed. The most diverse microbiota were found in Carabidae and Scarabaeidae; the least diverse, in Staphylinidae. On higher organization levels, the diversity of bacteria was more dissimilar between families, while the most distinct with respect to their microbiomes were trophic guilds. Moreover, eight taxa of endosymbiotic bacteria were detected including common genera such as Wolbachia, Rickettsia, and Spiroplasma, as well as the rarely detected Cardinium, Arsenophonus, Buchnera, Sulcia, Regiella, and Serratia. There were no correlations among the abundance of the most common Wolbachia and Rickettsia; a finding that does not support the hypothesis that these bacteria occur interchangeably. The abundance of endosymbionts only weakly and negatively correlates with diversity of the whole microbiome in beetles. Overall, microbiome diversity was found to be more dependent on host phylogeny than on the abundance of endosymbionts. This is the first study in which bacteria diversity is compared between numerous species of beetles in a standardized manner.

Preliminary study on the effects of enrofloxacin, flunixin meglumine and pegbovigrastim on Mycoplasma bovis pneumonia

BACKGROUND

Mycoplasma bovis is a causative agent of disease in cattle causing many clinical conditions. Currently there are no commercial M. bovis vaccines in Europe and treatment is difficult with decreased antimicrobial susceptibility of M. bovis field isolates. Using an M. bovis calf infection model the effectiveness of enrofloxacin given alone; in combination with flunixin meglumine, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug; and a group with an additional treatment of pegbovigrastim, an immunostimulator, was evaluated.

RESULTS

Enrofloxacin given alone stimulated a strong immune response, reduced the clinical manifestation and lung lessions of the M. bovis infection. In contrast the combination therapy appeared ineffective.

CONCLUSIONS

In this experiment enrofloxacin given alone appeared to be the most effective treatment of the M. bovis affected calves, whereas co-administration with flunixin meglumine, and pegbovigrastim was not beneficial in this trial.

Screening for Mollicutes microorganisms in perinatal calf mortality cases in Polish dairy herds

Perinatal calf mortality in dairy herds has been reported worldwide. The etiology of stillbirth is multifactorial, and can be caused by various species of bacteria and environmental factors. Among them some potential pathogens from the Mollicutes class such as Mycoplasma (M.) spp. and Ureaplasma (U.) diversum can be isolated from the bovine genital tract and other organs of the suspected cattle. The aim of this study was to evaluate if the bacteria belonging to the Molli- cutes class i.e. M. bovis, M. bovigenitalium, M. canadense, M. canis, M. arginini, M. bovirhinis, M. dispar, M. alkalescens and U. diversum could have an impact on perinatal calf mortality in selected Polish dairy farms. The material was: 121 stillborn calves (SB), 21 live born calves (C) and 131 cows (dams) from 30 Polish Holstein-Friesian herds. Samples were examined from all the SB calves' and six control euthanized calves' abomasal contents and lung samples collected during necropsy, and from the dams' serum and placenta. In dams the serological ELISA, and in calves and placenta samples molecular PCR/denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis, methods were used. Screening of dams' sera for antibodies to M. bovis (ELISA) showed seven dams positive for M. bovis, whereas none of the nine examined Mollicutes microorganisms were detected in the placenta and calves.

Massive introgression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes in newt hybrid zones

Variation in the vertebrate major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes is crucial for fighting pathogen assault. Because new alleles confer a selective advantage, MHC should readily introgress between species, even under limited hybridization. Using replicated transects through two hybrid zones between strongly reproductively isolated European newts, Lissotriton montandoni and L. vulgaris, we demonstrated recent and ongoing MHC class I and II introgression in the Carpathian region. The extent of introgression correlated with the age of contact. In the older zone, MHC similarity between species within transects exceeded similarity between transects within species, implying pervasive introgression - a massive exchange of MHC genes, not limited to specific variants. In simulations, the observed pattern emerged under the combined action of balancing selection and hybridization, but not when these processes acted separately. Thus, massive introgression at advanced stages of divergence can introduce novel and restore previously lost MHC variation, boosting the adaptive potential of hybridizing taxa. In consequence, MHC genes may be the last to stop introgressing between incipient species.

Impact of temperature on the physicochemical, structural and biological features of copper-silica nanocomposites

Classical wet chemical synthesis was used to fabricate a hybrid composite that contained copper nanoparticles (average size ∼1 nm), which were embedded into a silicon oxide carrier. The structural and chemical alternations in the copper-functionalized silica were investigated in systems that were sintered at 573 K, 873 K, 1173 K, and 1473 K. A general trend, which was associated with the transformation of metallic copper with a cubic structure into copper(II) oxide with a monoclinic structure in the heat-treated systems, was found. XPS and FTIR spectroscopies also revealed the presence of copper(I) oxide, which formed a shell around the CuO. SEM and TEM showed gradual densification of the hybrid system at ever higher sintering temperatures, which corresponded with the gradual copper agglomeration. A temperature of 873 K was determined to be the temperature at which amorphous silica was transformed into cristoballite and tridymite, as well as the formation of a bulk-like copper structure. In relation to the physicochemical and structural data, high antimicrobial features that had a relatively low toxicity effect on the normal human fibroblasts (NHDF) below 250 mg/L was found for the initial copper-silica composite and the samples that were sintered at 573 K. In turn, a significant decrease in the biological impact was observed in the samples that were sintered at temperatures above 573 K. As a result, the paper discusses the model of structural modifications in copper-silica nanocomposite concerning their biological impact that was developed.

Evaluation of Serum Acute Phase Protein Concentrations in Dogs with Circumanal Gland Tumours

The aim of this study was to determine the serum concentrations of acute phase proteins (APPs), including C-reactive protein (CRP), serum amyloid A (SAA) and haptoglobin (Hp) in dogs with circumanal gland tumours. Investigations were conducted on 39 male dogs of mixed breed. The animals were divided into four groups depending on the degree of tumour malignancy and type of hormones that were dominant in the bloodstream. All measurements of serum APPs were conducted by the use of commercial diagnostic kits. In dogs with benign tumours, the concentrations of each APP decreased during therapy, while in dogs with malignant tumours, despite anti-tumour therapy, concentrations of APPs in serum increased markedly. The results of this study suggest that changes in serum concentrations of CRP, SAA and Hp during anti-hormone therapy may be a reliable marker for differentiating tumour grade and degree of malignancy. Including APPs in routine diagnostics may assist with formulating a prognosis for the outcome of the disease, before implementing anti-tumour therapy. Moreover, monitoring the effectiveness of therapy may be possible based on the determination of serum APP concentrations.

Physicochemical and structural features of heat treated silver-silica nanocomposite and their impact on biological properties

In the last few decades, many nanostructures with varying properties and possible applications have been developed. These materials have been intended to work in various environmental temperature conditions. In this context, the main challenge has been to comprehend the impact of synergic interaction between individual elements included in non-annealed materials in relation to systems subjected to temperature impact. Another problem has corresponded to the impact of thermal modification on organisms such as bacteria and human cells. Such problems can be solved by the fabrication of a nanocomposite with mono-dispersed 8 nm silver (Ag⁰ or Ag⁺) embedded into a silica carrier, followed by the analysis of the impact of heat treatment under various temperature conditions on its physicochemical features. Therefore, methodical studies reported in this text have shown an increase of silver particle size up to 170 nm, a decrease of its concentration, as well as the formation of sub-nanometer Ag⁺ and/or Ag²⁺ clusters as the temperature rises to 1173 K. In turn, the structurally disordered silica carrier had been entirely transformed to cristobalite and tridymite only at 1473 K as well as partial reduction of Ag²⁺ to Ag⁺. Simultaneously, inhibition of growth of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, as well as an increase in cytotoxicity towards human cells was observed as the temperature rose. As a final point, for the first time, a "pseudo" phase diagram of the structural alterations in the Ag/SiO₂ nanocomposite has been created, as well as a model of silver-silica transformation to biological systems has been developed.

Evaluation of T regulatory lymphocytes and serum concentration of selected cytokines in dogs with perianal tumors

The purpose of this study was to determine concentrations of IL-2, IL-10, TGF-β1 in serum and T regulatory cell (Treg) percentage in peripheral blood of dogs with perianal tumours. Investigations were conducted on 32 male dogs of mixed breed. The animals were divided into 4 experimental groups and control group. The groups were established depending on the tumour malignancy degree and the type of dominant hormones. All measurements of serum cytokine concentrations were conducted by the use of commercial diagnostic ELISA kits. Treg lymphocyte percentage was measured by flow cytometry. In both groups with benign tumours cytokine levels decreased during therapy, whilst in groups with malignant tumors, in spite of applying anti-tumour therapy, concentrations of cytokines in serum markedly increased. The mean percentage of Treg lymphocytes in dogs with benign tumours (group I and II) was significantly lower than the mean percentage of these cells in control group at all time points, but after applying of anti-hormonal therapy, the significant increase of Treg percentage was observed compared to baseline values. By contrast, in both groups with malignant tumours (group III and IV), the mean percentage of Treg lymphocytes was significantly higher at the beginning of the experiment comparing with the control group as well as both groups with benign tumours and this percentage increased during anti-tumour therapy. The results of this study suggest that monitoring changes in cytokine serum concentrations and Treg percentage in the bloodstream during anti-hormonal therapy may constitute a subsidiary marker in the monitoring of therapy effectiveness, in prognosis the outcome of a disease or in differentiating tumour degree of malignancy.

Balancing selection and introgression of newt immune-response genes

The importance of interspecific introgression as a source of adaptive variation is increasingly recognized. Theory predicts that beneficial genetic variants cross species boundaries easily even when interspecific hybridization is rare and gene flow is strongly constrained throughout the genome. However, it remains unclear whether certain classes of genes are particularly prone to adaptive introgression. Genes affected by balancing selection (BS) may constitute such a class, because forms of BS that favour novel, initially rare alleles, should facilitate introgression. We tested this hypothesis in hybridizing newts by comparing 13 genes with signatures of BS, in particular an excess of common non-synonymous polymorphisms, to the genomic background (154 genes). Parapatric hybridizing taxa were less differentiated in BS candidate genes than more closely related allopatric lineages, while the opposite was observed in the control genes. Coalescent and forward simulations that explored neutral and BS scenarios under isolation and migration showed that processes other than differential gene flow are unlikely to account for this pattern. We conclude that BS, probably involving a form of novel allele advantage, promotes introgression. This mechanism may be a source of adaptively relevant variation in hybridizing species over prolonged periods.

Analysis of the immune response of calves to various saponin-based adjuvants for an experimental Mycoplasma bovis vaccine

Mycoplasma bovis is a primary infectious agent of many disorders in cattle including bovine respiratory disease. No commercial vaccines against M. bovis are available in Europe. The immune response of calves to three saponin-based adjuvants combined with a field Polish M. bovis strain was evaluated. Four groups of six calves each were injected subcutaneously with the M. bovis strain combined with either saponin, saponin + Emulsigen®, saponin + Emulsigen® + alphatocopherol acetate, or with phosphate-buffered saline as control group. Blood and nasal swab samples were collected up to day 84 post injection. All formulations effectively stimulated the humoral and the cellular immune response of the calves, but the course of the response depended on the adjuvant formulation. These immunological data provide additional information supporting the findings of previous M. bovis saponin and Emulsigen® vaccine challenge studies to facilitate the development of successful M. bovis vaccines.

T- and B-cell Response Analysis Following Calf Immunisation with Experimental Mycoplasma Bovis Vaccine Containing Saponin and Lysozyme Dimer

Introduction

Mycoplasma bovis is a well-known cause of various disorders in cattle, such as pneumonia, arthritis, mastitis kerato-conjunctivitis, pharyngitis, laryngitis, otitis media, meningitis, and reproductive disorders. There are no commercial vaccines against M. bovis in Europe, therefore, experimental ones are still under investigation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of experimental M. bovis vaccine, containing the Polish field M. bovis strain as well as saponin and lysozyme dimer adjuvants, on the T- and B-cell response in calves.

Material and Methods

The study was carried out on 12 calves divided into two equal groups: experimental and control. The experimental group was subcutaneously injected with the vaccine composed of the field M. bovis strain as well as saponin and lysozyme dimer as adjuvants, whereas the control one received phosphate buffered saline (PBS). The blood samples were collected prior to the study (day 0), then in 24 h intervals up to day 7 and then each 7 days until day 84 post immunisation. The T- and B-cell response as CD2⁺ (T-cells), CD4⁺ (T-helper cells), CD8⁺ (T-cytotoxic cells), and WC4⁺ (B-cells) markers was analysed using flow cytometry.

Results

In response to the immunisation, the general stimulation of T-cell was observed, the most seen in an increase in CD8⁺ subpopulation. Similarly, a visible rise in the percentage of WC4⁺ cells was registered in the vaccinated calves when compared to the control animals.

Conclusion

This study demonstrated that the novel experimental M. bovis vaccine containing saponin and lysozyme dimer effectively stimulated the cell-mediated immunity in the calves.

Isolation and gene flow in a speciation continuum in newts

Because reproductive isolation often evolves gradually, differentiating lineages may retain the potential for genetic exchange for prolonged periods, providing an opportunity to quantify and to understand the fundamental role of gene flow during speciation. Here we delimit evolutionary lineages, reconstruct the phylogeny and infer gene flow in newts of the Lissotriton vulgaris species complex based on 74 nuclear markers sampled from 127 localities. We demonstrate that distinct lineages along the speciation continuum in newts exchange nontrivial amounts of genes, affecting their evolutionary trajectories. By integrating a wide array of methods, we delimit nine evolutionary lineages and show that two principal factors have driven their genetic differentiation: time since the last common ancestor determining levels of shared ancestral polymorphism, and shifts in geographic distributions determining the extent of secondary contact. Post-divergence gene flow, indicative of evolutionary non-independence, has been most extensive in Central Europe, while four southern European lineages have acquired the population-genetic hallmarks of independent species (L. graecus, L. kosswigi, L. lantzi, L. schmidtleri). We obtained strong statistical support for widespread mtDNA introgression following secondary contact, previously suggested by discordance between mtDNA phylogeny and morphology. Our study reveals long-term evolutionary persistence of evolutionary lineages that may periodically exchange genes with one another: although some of these lineages may become extinct or fuse, others will acquire complete reproductive isolation and will carry signatures of this complex history in their genomes.

Selective Landscapes in newt Immune Genes Inferred from Patterns of Nucleotide Variation

Host–pathogen interactions may result in either directional selection or in pressure for the maintenance of polymorphism at the molecular level. Hence signatures of both positive and balancing selection are expected in immune genes. Because both overall selective pressure and specific targets may differ between species, large-scale population genomic studies are useful in detecting functionally important immune genes and comparing selective landscapes between taxa. Such studies are of particular interest in amphibians, a group threatened worldwide by emerging infectious diseases. Here, we present an analysis of polymorphism and divergence of 634 immune genes in two lineages of Lissotriton newts: L. montandoni and L. vulgaris graecus. Variation in newt immune genes has been shaped predominantly by widespread purifying selection and strong evolutionary constraint, implying long-term importance of these genes for functioning of the immune system. The two evolutionary lineages differ in the overall strength of purifying selection which can partially be explained by demographic history but may also signal differences in long-term pathogen pressure. The prevalent constraint notwithstanding, 23 putative targets of positive selection and 11 putative targets of balancing selection were identified. The latter were detected by composite tests involving the demographic model and further validated in independent population samples. Putative targets of balancing selection encode proteins which may interact closely with pathogens but include also regulators of immune response. The identified candidates will be useful for testing whether genes affected by balancing selection are more prone to interspecific introgression than other genes in the genome.

Screening of the Cervidae family in Poland for Mycoplasma species

Introduction: Several Mycoplasma species can cause severe diseases in ruminant hosts, some of which are the diseases listed by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). The role of the Cervidae family in carrying and transmitting ruminant mycoplasma infections in Poland is unknown. Material and Methods: Antibody and antigen detection tests for the main mycoplasma species that can affect wild ruminants were performed on 237 samples (serum, nasal swab, bronchoalveolar lavage, and lung) collected from 161 animals during 2011-2014. The samples were obtained from a cull of healthy population of deer which included: 96 red deer (Cervus elaphus elaphus), 19 fallow deer (Dama dama), and 46 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Results: Serological screening tests revealed positive reactions to Mycoplasma bovis in one sample and to Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae in three samples; however, these three samples were negative by immunoblotting. Other antibody and antigen detection tests demonstrated negative results. Conclusion: Currently wild cervids in Poland do not play a significant role in transmitting mycoplasma infections to domestic animals, but they remain a potential risk.

Prevalence of pathogens from Mollicutes class in cattle affected by respiratory diseases and molecular characteristics of Mycoplasma bovis field strains

Introduction: Mycoplasma bovis is one of the main pathogens involved in cattle pneumonia. Other mycoplasmas have also been directly implicated in respiratory diseases in cattle. The prevalence of different Mycoplasma spp. in cattle affected by respiratory diseases and molecular characteristics of M. bovis field strains were evaluated. Material and Methods: In total, 713 nasal swabs from 73 cattle herds were tested. The uvrC gene fragment was amplified by PCR and PCR products were sequenced. PCR/DGGE and RAPD were performed. Results: It was found that 39 (5.5%) samples were positive for M. bovis in the PCR and six field strains had point nucleotide mutations. Additionally, the phylogenetic analysis of 20 M. bovis field strains tested with RAPD showed two distinct groups of M. bovis strains sharing only 3.8% similarity. PCR/DGGE analysis demonstrated the presence of bacteria belonging to the Mollicutes class in 79.1% of DNA isolates. The isolates were identified as: Mycoplasma bovirhinis, M. dispar, M. bovis, M. canis, M. arginini, M. canadense, M. bovoculi, M. alkalescens, and Ureaplasma diversum. Conclusion: Different Mycoplasma spp. strains play a crucial role in inducing respiratory diseases in cattle.

Changes in blood parameters induced by experimental jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus infection

The aim of the study was to assess the changes of blood parameters in 12 three-week-old Polish Merino sheep subjected to experimental jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus (JSRV) infection.

Material and Methods: Haematological (WBC with leukocyte subpopulations: GRA, LYM, MID, and RBC, MCV, MCH, MCHC, HGB, HCT, PLT, and MPV) and biochemical blood parameters (acid/base balance, cation/anion content, and gasometry) were determined in blood samples collected one month after JSRV infection, then at four-week intervals for five consecutive months.

Results: A decrease in RBC, HCT, MCV, PLT, MPV, and LYM values in comparison with controls was found in the last month of observation. On the other hand, at the same time, an increase in HGB, MCH, MCHC, WBC, MID, and GRA indices was observed. Moreover, at the end of experiment blood gasometric indices such as pCO2, HCO3, and tCO2, and Na and K ion concentrations were higher in the affected lambs than in the healthy animals. The pH values of the challenged animals exhibited less alkaline character than in the case of controls, which was associated with a decrease in O2% saturation. However, the majority of differences between JSRV inoculated and control groups was not statistically significant.

Conclusion: The observed changes in the examined blood parameters can be considered as prodromal symptoms in the preclinical phase of adenocarcinoma development associated with JSRV infection.

Divergence history of the Carpathian and smooth newts modelled in space and time

Information about demographic history is essential for the understanding of the processes of divergence and speciation. Patterns of genetic variation within and between closely related species provide insights into the history of their interactions. Here, we investigated historical demography and genetic exchange between the Carpathian (Lissotriton montandoni, Lm) and smooth (L. vulgaris, Lv) newts. We combine an extensive geographical sampling and multilocus nuclear sequence data with the approximate Bayesian computation framework to test alternative scenarios of divergence and reconstruct the temporal and spatial pattern of gene flow between species. A model of recent (last glacial period) interspecific gene flow was favoured over alternative models. Thus, despite the relatively old divergence (4-6 mya) and presumably long periods of isolation, the species have retained the ability to exchange genes. Nevertheless, the low migration rates (ca. 10(-6) per gene copy per generation) are consistent with strong reproductive isolation between the species. Models allowing demographic changes were favoured, suggesting that the effective population sizes of both species at least doubled as divergence reaching the current ca. 0.2 million in Lm and 1 million in Lv. We found asymmetry in rates of interspecific gene flow between Lm and one evolutionary lineage of Lv. We suggest that intraspecific polymorphism for hybrid incompatibilities segregating within Lv could explain this pattern and propose further tests to distinguish between alternative explanations. Our study highlights the importance of incorporating intraspecific genetic structure into the models investigating the history of divergence.

Molecular Inversion Probes for targeted resequencing in non-model organisms

Applications that require resequencing of hundreds or thousands of predefined genomic regions in numerous samples are common in studies of non-model organisms. However few approaches at the scale intermediate between multiplex PCR and sequence capture methods are available. Here we explored the utility of Molecular Inversion Probes (MIPs) for the medium-scale targeted resequencing in a non-model system. Markers targeting 112 bp of exonic sequence were designed from transcriptome of Lissotriton newts. We assessed performance of 248 MIP markers in a sample of 85 individuals. Among the 234 (94.4%) successfully amplified markers 80% had median coverage within one order of magnitude, indicating relatively uniform performance; coverage uniformity across individuals was also high. In the analysis of polymorphism and segregation within family, 77% of 248 tested MIPs were confirmed as single copy Mendelian markers. Genotyping concordance assessed using replicate samples exceeded 99%. MIP markers for targeted resequencing have a number of advantages: high specificity, high multiplexing level, low sample requirement, straightforward laboratory protocol, no need for preparation of genomic libraries and no ascertainment bias. We conclude that MIP markers provide an effective solution for resequencing targets of tens or hundreds of kb in any organism and in a large number of samples.

Association of MicroRNAs and YRNAs With Platelet Function

RATIONALE

Platelets shed microRNAs (miRNAs). Plasma miRNAs change on platelet inhibition. It is unclear whether plasma miRNA levels correlate with platelet function.

OBJECTIVE

To link small RNAs to platelet reactivity.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Next-generation sequencing of small RNAs in plasma revealed 2 peaks at 22 to 23 and 32 to 33 nucleotides corresponding to miRNAs and YRNAs, respectively. Among YRNAs, predominantly, fragments of RNY4 and RNY5 were detected. Plasma miRNAs and YRNAs were measured in 125 patients with a history of acute coronary syndrome who had undergone detailed assessment of platelet function 30 days after the acute event. Using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reactions, 92 miRNAs were assessed in patients with acute coronary syndrome on different antiplatelet therapies. Key platelet-related miRNAs and YRNAs were correlated with platelet function tests. MiR-223 (rp=0.28; n=121; P=0.002), miR-126 (rp=0.22; n=121; P=0.016), and other abundant platelet miRNAs and YRNAs showed significant positive correlations with the vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein phosphorylation assay. YRNAs, miR-126, and miR-223 were also among the small RNAs showing the greatest dependency on platelets and strongly correlated with plasma levels of P-selectin, platelet factor 4, and platelet basic protein in the population-based Bruneck study (n=669). A single-nucleotide polymorphism that facilitates processing of pri-miR-126 to mature miR-126 accounted for a rise in circulating platelet activation markers. Inhibition of miR-126 in mice reduced platelet aggregation. MiR-126 directly and indirectly affects ADAM9 and P2Y12 receptor expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Levels of platelet-related plasma miRNAs and YRNAs correlate with platelet function tests in patients with acute coronary syndrome and platelet activation markers in the general population. Alterations in miR-126 affect platelet reactivity.

A serological and molecular study on the occurrence of mycoplasmas in European bison (Bison bonasus) from two areas of Eastern Poland

European bison (Bison bonasus) from two different areas of Eastern Poland showing gross pathology possibly associated with mycoplasma infections were tested for ruminant Mycoplasma species using serological and molecular methods. Fifty-five samples, blood or tissue were collected from 28 animals during 2013-2014. Six sera were positive for Mycoplasma bovis. The ELISA and complement fixation test for Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides gave a few weak reactions, but were negative by immunoblotting and molecular methods.

Mycoplasma bovis infections and co-infections with other Mycoplasma spp. with different clinical manifestations in affected cattle herds in eastern region of Poland

The aim of the study was to evaluate the presence of Mycoplasma bovis infection and co-infections with other Mycoplasma spp. infections in cattle. The tested population was one in the eastern region of Poland containing 66 dairy cows and 23 calves showing different clinical signs and suffering from pneumonia, mastitis, and arthritis. The incidence of M. bovis in co-infections with other Mycoplasma spp. was examined using serological traditional mycoplasma culture methods, and the molecular methods - PCR and polymerase chain reaction/denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR/DGGE). The PCR/DGGE method for detecting Mycoplasma spp. in cattle was used for the first time in Poland. The seroprevalence of M. bovis in the affected cattle herds in the eastern region of Poland was 47.8% in calves and 19.7% in dairy cows. The direct detection and identification of M. bovis from nasopharyngeal swabs by PCR revealed that 56.5% of calves were positive, but all of the dairy cows were negative. The PCR/DGGE identified eight (34.8%) instances of M. arginini and eight (26.1%) instances of M. bovirhinis co-infecting with M. bovis in ten calves. The seroprevalence of M. bovis in the tested population was 33.7%. Any future attempts to control mycoplasma infections require an insight into the current epidemiological situation of M. bovis infection and its relationship to other mycoplasmas in causing clinical disease in cattle. Using these diagnostic methods we have demonstrated that mycoplasmal infections are often caused by multiple species of Mycoplasma and not just the primary M. bovis pathogen.

Flow cytometry follow-up analysis of peripheral blood leukocyte subpopulations in calves experimentally infected with field isolates of Mycoplasma bovis

Changes in peripheral blood leukocyte subpopulations were investigated in calves challenged intratracheally with three different Mycoplasma bovis isolates in Groups E1, E2, and E3. The controls received a placebo. Blood samples were collected before challenge and then at days 1 to 7, 14, 21 and 28. White blood cells (WBC), polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNLs), lymphocytes (LYMs), monocytes, eosinophils and basophils (mid-size cells, MID), as well as CD2(+), CD4(+), CD8(+), WC4(+) lymphocyte subsets with CD4:CD8 ratio were also analysed. A transient increase of WBC and PMNLs in all challenged calves was observed on day 1. Increased LYM counts were observed in E1 throughout the study, whereas in E2 the LYM counts were higher only between days 14 and 28, and consistently lower in E3. The MID count had broadly comparable values for all groups. Stimulation of the CD2(+) response was observed in E2 and E3 in contrast with E1 which had a lower CD2(+) throughout. The CD4(+) response was dominant in E1 and E2, whereas in E3 a parallel CD4(+) and CD8(+) stimulation was observed. The B-cell response (WC4(+)) and an increased CD4:CD8 ratio was most apparent in E1. The main host responses to M. bovis infections are a stimulation of CD4(+) cells and an enhancement of the WC4(+) response.