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Mathios D, Johansen JS, Cristiano S, Medina JE, Phallen J, Larsen KR, Bruhm DC, Niknafs N, Ferreira L, Adleff V, Chiao JY, Leal A, Noe M, White JR, Arun AS, Hruban C, Annapragada AV, Jensen SØ, Ørntoft MBW, Madsen AH, Carvalho B, de Wit M, Carey J, Dracopoli NC, Maddala T, Fang KC, Hartman AR, Forde PM, Anagnostou V, Brahmer JR, Fijneman RJA, Nielsen HJ, Meijer GA, Andersen CL, Mellemgaard A, Bojesen SE, Scharpf RB, Velculescu VE. Detection and characterization of lung cancer using cell-free DNA fragmentomes. Nat Commun 2021; 12:5060. [PMID: 34417454 PMCID: PMC8379179 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-24994-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-invasive approaches for cell-free DNA (cfDNA) assessment provide an opportunity for cancer detection and intervention. Here, we use a machine learning model for detecting tumor-derived cfDNA through genome-wide analyses of cfDNA fragmentation in a prospective study of 365 individuals at risk for lung cancer. We validate the cancer detection model using an independent cohort of 385 non-cancer individuals and 46 lung cancer patients. Combining fragmentation features, clinical risk factors, and CEA levels, followed by CT imaging, detected 94% of patients with cancer across stages and subtypes, including 91% of stage I/II and 96% of stage III/IV, at 80% specificity. Genome-wide fragmentation profiles across ~13,000 ASCL1 transcription factor binding sites distinguished individuals with small cell lung cancer from those with non-small cell lung cancer with high accuracy (AUC = 0.98). A higher fragmentation score represented an independent prognostic indicator of survival. This approach provides a facile avenue for non-invasive detection of lung cancer. DNA from tumour cells can be detected in the blood of cancer patients. Here, the authors show that cell free DNA fragmentation patterns can identify lung cancer patients and when this information is further interrogated it can be used to predict lung cancer histological subtype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios Mathios
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Stephen Cristiano
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Biostatistics, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jamie E Medina
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jillian Phallen
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Klaus R Larsen
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Infiltrate Unit, Bispebjerg Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Daniel C Bruhm
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Noushin Niknafs
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Leonardo Ferreira
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Vilmos Adleff
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jia Yuee Chiao
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Alessandro Leal
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Michael Noe
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - James R White
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Adith S Arun
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Carolyn Hruban
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Akshaya V Annapragada
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Sarah Østrup Jensen
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | | | - Beatriz Carvalho
- Department of Pathology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Meike de Wit
- Department of Pathology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Patrick M Forde
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Valsamo Anagnostou
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Julie R Brahmer
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Remond J A Fijneman
- Department of Pathology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Hans Jørgen Nielsen
- Department of Surgical Gastroenterology 360, Hvidovre Hospital, Hvidovre, Denmark
| | - Gerrit A Meijer
- Department of Pathology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Anders Mellemgaard
- Department of Oncology, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Stig E Bojesen
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Robert B Scharpf
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA. .,Department of Biostatistics, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Victor E Velculescu
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Vachani A, Pass HI, Rom WN, Midthun DE, Edell ES, Laviolette M, Li XJ, Fong PY, Hunsucker SW, Hayward C, Mazzone PJ, Madtes DK, Miller YE, Walker MG, Shi J, Kearney P, Fang KC, Massion PP. Validation of a multiprotein plasma classifier to identify benign lung nodules. J Thorac Oncol 2015; 10:629-37. [PMID: 25590604 PMCID: PMC4382127 DOI: 10.1097/jto.0000000000000447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Indeterminate pulmonary nodules (IPNs) lack clinical or radiographic features of benign etiologies and often undergo invasive procedures unnecessarily, suggesting potential roles for diagnostic adjuncts using molecular biomarkers. The primary objective was to validate a multivariate classifier that identifies likely benign lung nodules by assaying plasma protein expression levels, yielding a range of probability estimates based on high negative predictive values (NPVs) for patients with 8 to 30 mm IPNs. METHODS A retrospective, multicenter, case-control study was performed using multiple reaction monitoring mass spectrometry, a classifier comprising five diagnostic and six normalization proteins, and blinded analysis of an independent validation set of plasma samples. RESULTS The classifier achieved validation on 141 lung nodule-associated plasma samples based on predefined statistical goals to optimize sensitivity. Using a population based nonsmall-cell lung cancer prevalence estimate of 23% for 8 to 30 mm IPNs, the classifier identified likely benign lung nodules with 90% negative predictive value and 26% positive predictive value, as shown in our prior work, at 92% sensitivity and 20% specificity, with the lower bound of the classifier's performance at 70% sensitivity and 48% specificity. Classifier scores for the overall cohort were statistically independent of patient age, tobacco use, nodule size, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease diagnosis. The classifier also demonstrated incremental diagnostic performance in combination with a four-parameter clinical model. CONCLUSIONS This proteomic classifier provides a range of probability estimates for the likelihood of a benign etiology that may serve as a noninvasive, diagnostic adjunct for clinical assessments of patients with IPNs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anil Vachani
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Penn Lung Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Unité de Recherche en Pneumologie, Centre de Recherche de l’Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de l’Université Laval; Québec, Canada; Integrated Diagnostics, Seattle, Washington; Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado; Statistics Consultant, Carlsbad, California; Thoracic Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville Campus, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Harvey I. Pass
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Penn Lung Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Unité de Recherche en Pneumologie, Centre de Recherche de l’Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de l’Université Laval; Québec, Canada; Integrated Diagnostics, Seattle, Washington; Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado; Statistics Consultant, Carlsbad, California; Thoracic Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville Campus, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - William N. Rom
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Penn Lung Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Unité de Recherche en Pneumologie, Centre de Recherche de l’Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de l’Université Laval; Québec, Canada; Integrated Diagnostics, Seattle, Washington; Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado; Statistics Consultant, Carlsbad, California; Thoracic Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville Campus, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - David E. Midthun
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Penn Lung Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Unité de Recherche en Pneumologie, Centre de Recherche de l’Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de l’Université Laval; Québec, Canada; Integrated Diagnostics, Seattle, Washington; Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado; Statistics Consultant, Carlsbad, California; Thoracic Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville Campus, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Eric S. Edell
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Penn Lung Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Unité de Recherche en Pneumologie, Centre de Recherche de l’Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de l’Université Laval; Québec, Canada; Integrated Diagnostics, Seattle, Washington; Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado; Statistics Consultant, Carlsbad, California; Thoracic Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville Campus, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Michel Laviolette
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Penn Lung Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Unité de Recherche en Pneumologie, Centre de Recherche de l’Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de l’Université Laval; Québec, Canada; Integrated Diagnostics, Seattle, Washington; Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado; Statistics Consultant, Carlsbad, California; Thoracic Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville Campus, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Xiao-Jun Li
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Penn Lung Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Unité de Recherche en Pneumologie, Centre de Recherche de l’Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de l’Université Laval; Québec, Canada; Integrated Diagnostics, Seattle, Washington; Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado; Statistics Consultant, Carlsbad, California; Thoracic Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville Campus, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Pui-Yee Fong
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Penn Lung Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Unité de Recherche en Pneumologie, Centre de Recherche de l’Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de l’Université Laval; Québec, Canada; Integrated Diagnostics, Seattle, Washington; Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado; Statistics Consultant, Carlsbad, California; Thoracic Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville Campus, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Stephen W. Hunsucker
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Penn Lung Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Unité de Recherche en Pneumologie, Centre de Recherche de l’Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de l’Université Laval; Québec, Canada; Integrated Diagnostics, Seattle, Washington; Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado; Statistics Consultant, Carlsbad, California; Thoracic Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville Campus, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Clive Hayward
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Penn Lung Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Unité de Recherche en Pneumologie, Centre de Recherche de l’Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de l’Université Laval; Québec, Canada; Integrated Diagnostics, Seattle, Washington; Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado; Statistics Consultant, Carlsbad, California; Thoracic Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville Campus, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Peter J. Mazzone
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Penn Lung Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Unité de Recherche en Pneumologie, Centre de Recherche de l’Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de l’Université Laval; Québec, Canada; Integrated Diagnostics, Seattle, Washington; Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado; Statistics Consultant, Carlsbad, California; Thoracic Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville Campus, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - David K. Madtes
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Penn Lung Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Unité de Recherche en Pneumologie, Centre de Recherche de l’Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de l’Université Laval; Québec, Canada; Integrated Diagnostics, Seattle, Washington; Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado; Statistics Consultant, Carlsbad, California; Thoracic Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville Campus, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - York E. Miller
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Penn Lung Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Unité de Recherche en Pneumologie, Centre de Recherche de l’Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de l’Université Laval; Québec, Canada; Integrated Diagnostics, Seattle, Washington; Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado; Statistics Consultant, Carlsbad, California; Thoracic Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville Campus, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Michael G. Walker
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Penn Lung Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Unité de Recherche en Pneumologie, Centre de Recherche de l’Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de l’Université Laval; Québec, Canada; Integrated Diagnostics, Seattle, Washington; Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado; Statistics Consultant, Carlsbad, California; Thoracic Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville Campus, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Jing Shi
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Penn Lung Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Unité de Recherche en Pneumologie, Centre de Recherche de l’Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de l’Université Laval; Québec, Canada; Integrated Diagnostics, Seattle, Washington; Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado; Statistics Consultant, Carlsbad, California; Thoracic Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville Campus, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Paul Kearney
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Penn Lung Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Unité de Recherche en Pneumologie, Centre de Recherche de l’Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de l’Université Laval; Québec, Canada; Integrated Diagnostics, Seattle, Washington; Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado; Statistics Consultant, Carlsbad, California; Thoracic Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville Campus, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Kenneth C. Fang
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Penn Lung Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Unité de Recherche en Pneumologie, Centre de Recherche de l’Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de l’Université Laval; Québec, Canada; Integrated Diagnostics, Seattle, Washington; Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado; Statistics Consultant, Carlsbad, California; Thoracic Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville Campus, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Pierre P. Massion
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Penn Lung Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Unité de Recherche en Pneumologie, Centre de Recherche de l’Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de l’Université Laval; Québec, Canada; Integrated Diagnostics, Seattle, Washington; Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado; Statistics Consultant, Carlsbad, California; Thoracic Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville Campus, Nashville, Tennessee
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