A standard set of outcome measures for the comprehensive assessment of osteogenesis imperfecta

BACKGROUND

Osteogenesis Imperfecta (OI) is a genetic disorder also known as 'brittle bone disease'. The clinical manifestation of OI shows a wide variation. Therefore, care for patients with OI requires an interdisciplinary approach. The effectiveness of particular interventions and treatment protocols of interdisciplinary teams is not clear due to a non-standardized and wide variation of patient outcomes thus making the comparison of outcome measures available in the literature difficult. It is only by agreeing on a common, standard set of outcome measures for the comprehensive appraisal of OI that comparisons across interdisciplinary treatment centers for OI will be possible in the future.

METHODS

The Key4OI international interdisciplinary working group of 27 members used a consensus-driven modified Delphi approach to develop a set of global outcome measures for patients with OI. The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), was used to define domains and organize the outcomes from the literature search. After reviewing the outcomes extracted from the literature, trials and registries, the working group agreed on a final selection of domains and their definition (ICF definition as well as a lay description). These domains were then presented to the focus groups who prioritized the outcome domains by taking into account the items important to the OI community. All content was collected and analyzed and final domains were determined. A consensus of appropriate measuring instruments for each domain was reached with Delphi rounds. The entire approach was in line with the International Consortium for Health Outcomes Measurement ICHOM methodology.

RESULTS

More than 400 different outcome measures were identified in our literature search. After three Delphi rounds, 24 domains were selected. After the focus group sessions, the number of domains were reduced to 15. A consensus was reached on the measuring instruments to cover these domains for both children and adults.

CONCLUSION

The Key4OI project resulted in standard set of outcome measures focused on the needs and wishes of individuals with OI and their families. This outcome set will enable healthcare teams and systems to compare and to improve their care pathways and quality of care worldwide. Further studies are needed to evaluate the implementation of this standardized outcome set.

Characterization of the recombinant Brettanomyces anomalus β-glucosidase and its potential for bioflavouring

AIM

Plant materials used in the food industry contain up to five times more aromas bound to glucose (glucosides) than free, unbound aromas, making these bound aromas an unused flavouring potential. The aim of this study was to identify and purify a novel β-glucosidase from Brettanomyces yeasts that are capable of releasing bound aromas present in various food products.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We screened 428 different yeast strains for β-glucosidase activity and are the first to sequence the whole genome of two Brettanomyces yeasts (Brettanomyces anomalus and Brettanomyces bruxellensis) with exceptionally high β-glucosidase activity. Heterologous expression and purification of the identified B. anomalus β-glucosidase showed that it has an optimal activity at a higher pH (5·75) and lower temperature (37°C) than commercial β-glucosidases. Adding this B. anomalus β-glucosidase to cherry beers and forest fruit milks resulted in increased amounts of benzyl alcohol, eugenol, linalool and methyl salicylate compared to Aspergillus niger and Almond glucosidase.

CONCLUSIONS

The newly identified B. anomalus β-glucosidase offers new possibilities for food bioflavouring.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

This study is the first to sequence the B. anomalus genome and to identify the β-glucosidase-encoding genes of two Brettanomyces species, and reports a new bioflavouring enzyme.

Validation of Microtox as a first screening tool for waste classification

The Waste Framework Directive (WFD; 2008/98/EG) describes how waste materials are to be classified as hazardous or not. For complex waste materials chemical analyses are often not conclusive and the WFD provides the possibility to assess the hazardous properties by testing on the waste materials directly. As a methodology WFD refers to the protocols described in the CLP regulation (regulation on Classification, Labeling and Packaging of chemicals) but the toxicity tests on mammals are not acceptable for waste materials. The DISCRISET project was initiated to investigate the suitability of alternative toxicity tests that are already in use in pharmaceutical applications, for the toxicological hazard assessment of complex waste materials. Results indicated that Microtox was a good candidate as a first screening test in a tiered approached hazard assessment. This is now further validated in the present study. The toxic responses measured in Microtox were compared to biological responses in other bioassays for both organic and inorganic fractions of the wastes. Both fractions contribute to the toxic load of waste samples. Results show that the Microtox test is indeed a good and practical screening tool for the organic fraction. A screening threshold (ST) of 5 geq/l as the EC50 value in Microtox is proposed as this ST allows to recognize highly toxic samples in the screening test. The data presented here show that the Microtox toxicity response at this ST is not only predictive for acute toxicity in other organisms but also for sub lethal toxic effects of the organic fraction. This limit value has to be further validated. For the inorganic fraction no specific biotest can be recommended as a screening test, but the use of direct toxicity assessment is also preferable for this fraction as metal speciation is an important issue to define the toxic load of elutriate fractions. A battery of 3 tests (Microtox, Daphnia and Algae) for direct toxicity assessment of this fraction is recommended in literature, but including tests for mechanistic toxicity might be useful.

Screening tests for hazard classification of complex waste materials--selection of methods

In this study we describe the development of an alternative methodology for hazard characterization of waste materials. Such an alternative methodology for hazard assessment of complex waste materials is urgently needed, because the lack of a validated instrument leads to arbitrary hazard classification of such complex waste materials. False classification can lead to human and environmental health risks and also has important financial consequences for the waste owner. The Hazardous Waste Directive (HWD) describes the methodology for hazard classification of waste materials. For mirror entries the HWD classification is based upon the hazardous properties (H1-15) of the waste which can be assessed from the hazardous properties of individual identified waste compounds or--if not all compounds are identified--from test results of hazard assessment tests performed on the waste material itself. For the latter the HWD recommends toxicity tests that were initially designed for risk assessment of chemicals in consumer products (pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, biocides, food, etc.). These tests (often using mammals) are not designed nor suitable for the hazard characterization of waste materials. With the present study we want to contribute to the development of an alternative and transparent test strategy for hazard assessment of complex wastes that is in line with the HWD principles for waste classification. It is necessary to cope with this important shortcoming in hazardous waste classification and to demonstrate that alternative methods are available that can be used for hazard assessment of waste materials. Next, by describing the pros and cons of the available methods, and by identifying the needs for additional or further development of test methods, we hope to stimulate research efforts and development in this direction. In this paper we describe promising techniques and argument on the test selection for the pilot study that we have performed on different types of waste materials. Test results are presented in a second paper. As the application of many of the proposed test methods is new in the field of waste management, the principles of the tests are described. The selected tests tackle important hazardous properties but refinement of the test battery is needed to fulfil the a priori conditions.

DISCRISET: a battery of tests for fast waste classification--application of tests on waste extracts

The Hazardous Waste Directive (HWD, Council Directive 91/689/EC, 1991) provides a framework for classification of hazardous waste, based on 15 Hazard (H)-criteria. For complex wastes the HWD foresees the application of toxicity tests on the waste material itself to assess its toxic properties. However, these proposed test methods often involve mammalian testing, which is not acceptable from an ethical point of view, nor is it feasible economically. The DISCRISET project was initiated to investigate the use of alternative chemical and biological fast screening tests for waste hazard classification. In the first part of the project, different methods were reviewed and a testing strategy was proposed to minimize time and cost of analysis by a tiered approach. This includes as a first tier chemical analysis followed by a general acute toxicity screen as a second tier and as a third tier mechanistic toxicity tests to assess chronic toxicity (genotoxicity, hormone disturbance, teratogenic effects, immunologic activity). In this phase of the project, selected methods were applied to 16 different waste samples from various sources and industries. The first tier chemical tests are recommended for the full characterization of the leachate fraction (inorganics) but not for the organic fraction of samples. Here the chemical characterization is only useful if toxic content is known or suspected. As second tier the fast bacterial test Microtox is validated as a general toxicity screen for the organic fraction (worst case organic extract). Samples that are not classified in tier 1 or 2 are then further investigated in the third tier by the mechanistic toxicity tests and tested for their potential chronic toxicity: immune activity (TNF-α upregulation) is indicative for corrosive, irritating or sensitising effects (H4/H8/H15), reproductive effects (H10) are indicated by hormone disturbance and early life stage abnormalities in fish larvae when exposed to the extracts and mutagenicity and carcinogenicity (H7, H11) are indicated by SOS response induction and increased mutation frequency in the Ames test when exposed to the extracts. Results indicate that the combination of chemical tests and bioassays allows important hazardous properties to be addressed and the tiered approach ensures that the tests are performed quickly and economically. The suggested strategy provides a solid and ethical alternative to the methods described in the HWD and is a vast improvement on the current, arbitrary classification.

Rapid assessment of the stability of DNA duplexes by impedimetric real-time monitoring of chemically induced denaturation

In this article, we report on the electronic monitoring of DNA denaturation by NaOH using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy in combination with fluorescence imaging as a reference technique. The probe DNA consisting of a 36-mer fragment was covalently immobilized on nanocrystalline-diamond electrodes and hybridized with different types of 29-mer target DNA (complementary, single-nucleotide defects at two different positions, and a non-complementary random sequence). The mathematical separation of the impedimetric signals into the time constant for NaOH exposure and the intrinsic denaturation-time constants gives clear evidence that the denaturation times reflect the intrinsic stability of the DNA duplexes. The intrinsic time constants correlate with calculated DNA-melting temperatures. The impedimetric method requires minimal instrumentation, is label-free and fast with a typical time scale of minutes and is highly reproducible. The sensor electrodes can be used repetitively. These elements suggest that the monitoring of chemically induced denaturation at room temperature is an interesting approach to measure DNA duplex stability as an alternative to thermal denaturation at elevated temperatures, used in DNA-melting experiments and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis.

Sustained and specific in vitro inhibition of HIV-1 replication by a protease inhibitor encapsulated in gp120-targeted liposomes

Selective delivery of antiretrovirals to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected cells may reduce toxicities associated with long-term highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), may improve therapeutic compliance and delay the emergence of resistance. We developed sterically stabilized pegylated liposomes coated with targeting ligands derived from the Fab' fragment of HIV-gp120-directed monoclonal antibody F105, and evaluated these liposomes as vehicles for targeted delivery of a novel HIV-1 protease inhibitor. We demonstrated that the immunoliposomes were selectively taken up by HIV-1-infected cells and localized intracellularly, enabling the establishment of a cytoplasmic reservoir of protease inhibitor. In antiviral experiments, the drug delivered by the immunoliposomes showed greater and longer antiviral activity than comparable concentrations of free drug or drug encapsulated in non-targeted liposomes. In conclusion, by combining a targeting moiety with drug-loaded liposomes, efficient and specific uptake by non-phagocytic HIV-infected cells was facilitated, resulting in drug delivery to infected cells. This approach to targeted delivery of antiretroviral compounds may enable the design of drug regimens for patients that allow increased therapeutic adherence and less toxic treatment of HIV infection.

Topographical and functional characterization of the ssDNA probe layer generated through EDC-mediated covalent attachment to nanocrystalline diamond using fluorescence microscopy

The covalent attachment method for DNA on nanocrystalline diamond (NCD), involving the introduction of COOH functionalities on the surface by photoattachment of 10-undecenoic acid (10-UDA), followed by the 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-carbodiimide (EDC)-mediated coupling to NH 2-labeled ssDNA, is evaluated in terms of stability, density, and functionality of the resulting biological interface. This is of crucial importance in DNA biosensor development. The covalent nature of DNA attachment will infer the necessary stability and favorable orientation to the ssDNA probe molecules. Using confocal fluorescence microscopy, the influence of buffer type for the removal of excess 10-UDA and ssDNA, the probe ssDNA length, the probe ssDNA concentration, and the presence of the COOH-linker on the density and functionality of the ssDNA probe layer were investigated. It was determined that the most homogeneously dense and functional DNA layer was obtained when 300 pmol of short ssDNA was applied to COOH-modified NCD samples, while H-terminated NCD was resistant for DNA attachment. Exploiting this surface functionality dependence of the DNA attachment efficiency, a shadow mask was applied during the photochemical introduction of the COOH-functionalities, leaving certain regions on the NCD H-terminated. The subsequent DNA attachment resulted in a fluorescence pattern corresponding to the negative of the shadow mask. Finally, NCD surfaces covered with mixtures of the 10-UDA linker molecule and a similar molecule lacking the COOH functionality, functioning as a lateral spacer, were examined for their suitability in preventing nonspecific adsorption to the surface and in decreasing steric hindrance. However, purely COOH-modified NCD samples, patterned with H-terminated regions and treated with a controlled amount of probe DNA, proved the most efficient in fulfilling these tasks.

Towards a real-time, label-free, diamond-based DNA sensor

Most challenging in the development of DNA sensors is the ability to distinguish between fully complementary target ssDNA (single-strand DNA) and 1-mismatch ssDNA. To deal with this problem, we performed impedance spectroscopy on DNA-functionalized nanocrystalline diamond (NCD) layers during hybridization and denaturation. In both reactions, a difference in behavior was observed for 1-mismatch target DNA and complementary target DNA in real-time. During real-time hybridization, a decrease of the impedance was observed at lower frequencies when the complementary target DNA was added, while the addition of 1-mismatch target ssDNA caused no significant change. Fitting these results to an electrical circuit demonstrates that this is correlated with a decrease of the depletion zone in the space charge region of the diamond. During real-time denaturation, differentiation between 1-mismatch and complementary target DNA was possible at higher frequencies. Denaturation of complementary DNA showed the longest exponential decay time of the impedance, while the decay time during 1-mismatch denaturation was the shortest. The real-time hybridization and denaturation experiments were carried out on different NCD samples in various buffer solutions at temperatures between 20 and 80 degrees C. It was revealed that the best results were obtained using a Microhyb hybridization buffer at 80 degrees C and 10x PCR buffer at 30 degrees C for hybridization and 0.1 M NaOH at temperatures above 40 degrees C for denaturation. We demonstrate that the combination of real-time hybridization spectra and real-time denaturation spectra yield important information on the type of target. This approach may allow a reliable identification of the mismatch sequence, which is the most biologically relevant.

Production of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) pseudoviruses using linear HIV-1 envelope expression cassettes

HIV-1 pseudoviruses constitute an important tool in HIV-1 vaccine and entry inhibitor research. Single-cycle pseudoviruses carrying functional envelopes are generated by co-transfecting HEK293T cells with pNL4-3.LucR(-)E(-) and Env expression plasmids. However, cloning of Env genes is time consuming and single Env clones are not representative of the diversity of HIV-1 in a patient's blood sample. A new method to construct Env expression cassettes is proposed which can be used for the rapid generation of heterogeneous HIV-1 pseudoviruses without a cloning step. The linear Env expression cassettes are constructed by ligating PCR amplified Env genes between a 5' CMV promoter and 3' SV40 polyadenylation element. The resulting cassettes generate pseudoviruses carrying heterogeneous Env variants of a primary HIV-1 isolate derived from viral RNA or proviral DNA. The influence of cis-acting sequences upstream of the Env gene on infectivity was compared between pseudoviruses generated from plasmids and linear expression cassettes. The results suggest that the presence of these upstream sequences tends to result in higher infectivity of pseudoviruses when present in heterogeneous Env expression cassettes, but they do not enhance infectivity of pseudoviruses generated with homogeneous Env expression constructs. Using linear expression cassettes allows for the rapid production of heterogeneous patient-derived functional Env genes.

Binding kinetics, uptake and intracellular accumulation of F105, an anti-gp120 human IgG1κ monoclonal antibody, in HIV-1 infected cells

The use of targeting moieties is a new and exciting field of scientific research for facilitating the specific delivery of therapeutic agents in HIV-infected patients. The interaction of a potential targeting moiety with its ligand is a crucial factor in the evaluation of a targeted approach for chemotherapeutic intervention. Therefore, we have further characterized the interaction between a potential targeting agent, the monoclonal human antibody F105, and its ligand gp120, a glycoprotein expressed on the surface of HIV-1 infected cells. We demonstrate the specificity of binding and entry of F105 to infected cells. F105 was rapidly taken up into the cell and accumulated in the Golgi apparatus. Kinetic analysis of the F105-gp120 interaction revealed an equilibrium dissociation constant (K(D)) of 0.62 nM, compared with the gp120-CD4 interaction where the K(D) was determined at 35 nM. Consequently, F105 displayed a higher gp120 affinity. This was due to a slower dissociation as compared with the natural ligand. These data further underline the potential of monoclonal antibodies as targeting agents, and offer new insights into the possibility of F105 as a targeting moiety for the delivery of antiretroviral drugs to HIV-1 infected cells.

Comparative analysis of 10 small molecules binding to carbonic anhydrase II by different investigators using Biacore technology

In this benchmark study, 26 investigators were asked to characterize the kinetics and affinities of 10 sulfonamide inhibitors binding to the enzyme carbonic anhydrase II using Biacore optical biosensors. A majority of the participants collected data that could be fit to a 1:1 interaction model, but a subset of the data sets obtained from some instruments were of poor quality. The experimental errors in the k(a), k(d), and K(D) parameters determined for each of the compounds averaged 34, 24, and 37%, respectively. As expected, the greatest variation in the reported constants was observed for compounds with exceptionally weak affinity and/or fast association rates. The binding constants determined using the biosensor correlated well with solution-based titration calorimetry measurements. The results of this study provide insight into the challenges, as well as the level of experimental variation, that one would expect to observe when using Biacore technology for small molecule analyses.

EDC-mediated DNA attachment to nanocrystalline CVD diamond films

Chemical vapour deposited (CVD) diamond is a very promising material for biosensor fabrication owing both to its chemical inertness and the ability to make it electrical semiconducting that allows for connection with integrated circuits. For biosensor construction, a biochemical method to immobilize nucleic acids to a diamond surface has been developed. Nanocrystalline diamond is grown using microwave plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition (MPECVD). After hydrogenation of the surface, 10-undecenoic acid, an omega-unsaturated fatty acid, is tethered by 254 nm photochemical attachment. This is followed by 1-ethyl-3-[3-dimethylaminopropyl]carbodiimide (EDC)-mediated attachment of amino (NH(2))-modified dsDNA. The functionality of the covalently bound dsDNA molecules is confirmed by fluorescence measurements, PCR and gel electrophoresis during 35 denaturation and rehybridisation steps. The linking method after the fatty acid attachment can easily be applied to other biomolecules like antibodies and enzymes.

Parity-induced changes in global gene expression in the human mammary gland

The protective effect of an early first full-term pregnancy in relation to breast cancer risk is well established, but the molecular and cell-specific changes in the human mammary gland involved remain unclear. To identify the molecular changes associated with pregnancy-induced differentiation, we analysed the global gene expression profiles of normal mammary tissues from both a parous and a nulliparous woman, using serial analysis of gene expression. This approach allowed us to identify sets of genes, known and unknown, that are differentially expressed in parous versus age-matched nulliparous mammary gland tissues. The normal mammary gland of a multiparous woman is characterized by several known differentiation markers such as casein kappa, casein beta, keratin 14, CCAAT/enhancer binding protein beta and delta and adipsin. Candidate genes involved in cytoarchitectural remodelling and growth inhibition with a potential role in pregnancy-induced protection against breast cancer were also observed. Several genes that are highly expressed in the nulliparous mammary gland and that are lost after pregnancy, encode for growth promoting, cytoskeletal and extracellular matrix proteins. One of these genes, the small breast epithelial mucin, is almost completely downregulated upon a first full-term pregnancy but is known to be expressed in more than 90% of invasive ductal carcinomas.

Impedimetric immunosensors based on the conjugated polymer PPV

In the work reported here, we investigated the interaction between the semiconducting polymer MDMO-PPV and antibodies against the fluorescent dyes fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) and Cy5. The antibodies are adsorbed physically onto thin polymer films on gold electrodes, as seen in AFM images of these films. By tuning the antibody concentration, the contact angle of distilled water with the film can be made to vary between 95 degrees and 50 degrees, showing that different surface densities of antibody can be obtained. That these biosensor films specifically bind their antigenic fluorescent molecules from PBS buffer solution is demonstrated by confocal fluorescence microscopy. Specific antigen-antibody recognition is demonstrated by lack of cross-sensitivity between the two antibodies and their antigens. In a biosensor prototype based on differential impedance spectroscopy, these polymer films show a clear response to 1 ppb antigen solution, with a time constant of 2-3 min.

Protein biomarkers for breast cancer prevention

Protein biomarkers suitable for the prevention of breast cancer must be extremely sensitive, easily detectable and highly correlated with the disease. They should be expressed in the reversible phase of carcinogenesis. Among the large number of candidate tumour-associated proteins, those related to the oestrogen/chorionic gonadotropin/insulin pathway seem to be of most interest because these can be causally implicated. They presumably are the first to express differently and are open to hormonal treatments. The biomarkers that give information on membrane receptor-modulated signal transduction should be considered as well. Up to now, only tamoxifen has shown some preventive activity, suggesting that the oestrogen pathway is useful indeed. Fenretinide and recombinant human chorionic gonatotropin (hCG) are also promising. But the financial requirements and the very long assessment periods largely prevent current research. This is precisely why we badly need to give priority to molecular biology research, in particular in the protein compartment There is widespread belief that advanced proteomics together with increased informatics can provide specific combinations of disease-related expression profiles that could identify high-risk groups with much more reliability and allow us to monitor preventive strategies.

A retrospective study of non-specific rhinitis in 22 cats and the value of nasal cytology and histopathology

Case records from 40 cats subjected to rhinoscopic examination for investigation of chronic nasal disease were reviewed. Cases in which no specific underlying cause (eg neoplasia) was detected were further selected for detailed retrospective study. In these 22 cats (55% of the initial population), a final diagnosis of non-specific chronic nasal disease was made. The radiographic, rhinoscopic, cytological and histopathological findings were reviewed. Mucosal biopsy specimens were obtained in 20 cases. Despite clinical signs of more than 4 weeks duration, histopathology indicated acute inflammation in four cases. Two cases had chronic lymphoplasmacytic inflammation and 14 had mixed (lymphoplasmacytic and neutrophilic) inflammation. Specimens for cytology were obtained from 17 cases by brush sampling. Three of these samples were not diagnostic due to the poor quality of the slides; one showed normal cytology. Acute inflammation was diagnosed by cytology (n=11) more commonly than chronic (n=1) or mixed inflammation (n=1). Concurrent samples, of quality suitable for both histopathological and cytological interpretation, were collected from 12 cases only. Cytological results were in agreement with the histological results in 25% of these cases, the main discrepancy being the nature of the dominant inflammatory cell type. Therefore cytology does not appear to be a reliable means for detection of chronic inflammation. Further studies are needed in order to investigate the correlation between the nature of mucosal inflammation as defined by both histological and cytological evaluation, and the relationship of these test results to prognosis and therapy.

Mutation detection in the alpha-1 antitrypsin gene (PI) using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis

A method for mutation detection in the alpha-1 antitrypsin gene (protease inhibitor 1; PI) has been developed using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis of PCR amplified gene fragments. Using this experimental approach, all common phenotypes and mutations could be detected. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) was compared with standard isoelectric focusing (IEF) in 20 potential alpha1-antitrypsin deficient patients and their relatives. The genotype determined by DGGE was found to be more reliable in some cases than IEF, which is essential for a proper diagnosis of alpha-1 antitrypsin malfunctioning.

Despite high concordance, distinct mutational and phenotypic drug resistance profiles in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA are observed in gastrointestinal mucosal biopsy specimens and peripheral blood mononuclear cells compared with plasma

The gastrointestinal mucosa is a major lymphoid tissue reservoir for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) replication. Genotypic and phenotypic resistance patterns of HIV type 1 (HIV-1) RNA isolated from colonic mucosa were compared with those from the plasma and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) of 7 patients. Genotyping was performed using full-sequence analysis, and phenotyping was performed using a recombinant virus assay. Mutations in the reverse-transcriptase (kappa=.84) and protease (kappa=.73) genes were highly concordant among compartments. Similarly, phenotypic resistance patterns were highly concordant among compartments (intraclass correlation coefficient,.91). In 5 instances among 3 patients, a different genotypic result was observed between plasma and the other tissue compartments. Mixtures of wild-type and mutated HIV-1 RNA were present in the mucosa and PBMC but not in the plasma. Despite significant concordance among compartments, mucosal- and PBMC-derived viral RNA showed instances of discordance with plasma-derived virus that may suggest compartmentalization of virus.

Juvenile nephropathy in a boxer, a rottweiler, a collie and an Irish wolfhound

Juvenile nephropathy was diagnosed in a Boxer, a Rottweiler, a Collie and an Irish Wolfhound dog, each presenting with signs compatible with chronic renal failure. The diagnosis in each case was based on the presence of persistence of poorly differentiated tissue (immature glomeruli and/or tubules, persistent mesenchyme) on histopathologic examination. Although juvenile nephropathy has been reported in many breeds of dog, this is the first report of the condition in the Collie and the Irish Wolfhound and only the second description in the Boxer and the Rottweiler. The possibility of an inherited origin of the condition in these four breeds is at present unknown.

Lack of association between estrogen receptor genotypes and bone mineral density, fracture history, or muscle strength in elderly women

The PvuII polymorphism of the estrogen receptor (ESR) gene and its relation to bone mineral density (BMD), fracture history, and muscle strength was studied in 313 postmenopausal (76 +/- 5 years) women of Caucasian origin, of whom 142 had suffered from a fragility fracture after the age of 50 years (14 with fracture of the hip, 38 of the spine, 45 of the wrist, and 85 of other bones). The ESR genotype distribution was similar in women with and without a history of fragility fracture (PP 21%, Pp 43%, pp 36% compared with PP 18%, Pp 47%, pp 35%). We did not find a correlation between the ESR genotypes and BMD at the lumbar spine, the femoral neck, or the proximal forearm. No association was found with grip or quadriceps strength. We further evaluated the relationship between the vitamin D receptor (VDR) and ESR haplotypes and BMD in a random subgroup of 270 elderly women. No differences were found in women with the BBpp versus the bbPP haplotype in the femoral neck (mean difference +/- SD, in Bbpp compared with bbPP groups: -0.05 +/- 0.15 g/cm2), the spine (0.01 +/- 0.13 g/cm2), or the forearm (0.04 +/- 0.08 g/cm2). The significant association of quadriceps strength with VDR genotypes (25% lower in BB compared with bb genotype, p < 0.05) was not influenced by ESR haplotypes. We conclude that in elderly Caucasian women the PvuII ESR polymorphism is not associated with osteoporosis, fracture history, nor muscle strength and does not influence the association of bone density and muscle strength with polymorphism of the VDR.

Effects of soft drink and table beer consumption on insulin response in normal teenagers and carbohydrate drink in youngsters

There is ample evidence that breast cancer susceptibility is induced during the developmental stages of the human breast where, in a manner related to sex-steroid hormones, insulin plays an important role. In turn, nutrition might be implicated. Regular soft drinks and table beer, both carbohydrate-containing drinks, are candidates affecting insulin concentrations. Eleven teenagers, between the ages of 13 and 17 years, consumed a soft drink and a table beer in a crossover study. The blood levels of insulin and glucose were related to anthropomorphometric and endocrine factors. In contrast to table beer, consumption of regular soft drinks induced a fast and dramatic increase in both glucose and insulin concentration within a maximum 1 hour after consumption. The insulin response was linearly correlated to the body mass index (BMI). Children with a small increase in BMI are highly sensitive to regular soft drinks with regard to glucose and insulin response. The finding suggests a vicious circle of high caloric drinks, increase in BMI and insulin response. It is one of the nutritional pathways which might affect susceptibility for breast cancer in youngsters. Table beer, a drink with fermented sugars, does not share these effects on carbohydrate metabolism.

Nonresponsive generalized bacterial infection associated with systemic lupus erythematosus in a Beauceron

A case of concurrent canine systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and generalized bacterial infection in a six-year-old female Beauceron is reported. The dog presented with purulent nasal and ocular discharges, skin lesions (including seborrhea, hyperkeratotic areas, and papules as well as ecchymoses around the eyes, on both sides of the pinnae, and on the vulva), generalized lymph node enlargement, a mitral murmur, and lameness. Later, facial swelling, a retrobulbar abscess, and a cough also developed. Occurrence of a generalized bacterial infection was established by culture of group-C, beta-hemolytic Streptococcus from the throat, the mouth, a biopsy site (popliteal lymph node area), the retrobulbar abscess, and the lung. The diagnosis of SLE was based on the clinical signs and particularly on the occurrence of antinuclear antibody (ANA) and antidoublestranded-desoxyribonucleic acid (ds-DNA) antibody. Interestingly, the latter type of antibodies were also detected in two young female puppies whelped by this dog. Salient histological findings included an extreme cell depletion of the lymph nodes and spleen and severe pneumonitis and peribronchiolitis. The results of this case indicate that a definite diagnosis of canine SLE can, at times, be made on the basis of the presence of serum ANA and ds-DNA antibodies.

Marginal-zone B cells in the human lymph node and spleen show somatic hypermutations and display clonal expansion

Splenic marginal-zone B cells, marginal-zone B cells of Peyer's patches in the gut, and nodal marginal-zone B cells (also identified as monocytoid B cells) share a similar morphology and immunophenotype. These cells likely represent a distinct subset of B cells in humans and rodents, but their precise ontogenetic relationship as well as their origin from B cells of the germinal center is still debated. To study this, we performed a mutation analysis of the rearranged immunoglobulin variable genes (VH) of microdissected single nodal and splenic marginal-zone cells. In addition, we investigated the presence of proliferating cells and B-cell clones in the human splenic and nodal marginal zone as well as adjacent germinal centers. This was performed by immunohistochemical staining for the Ki-67 antigen and denaturing gradient gel analysis of amplified immunoglobulin heavy chain genes' complementarity determining region 3 of microdissected cell clusters. A variable subset of nodal and splenic marginal-zone B cells showed somatic mutations in their rearranged VH genes, indicating that both virgin and memory B cells are present in the nodal and splenic marginal zone. Nodal and splenic marginal-zone B cells preferentially rearranged VH3 family genes such as DP47, DP49, DP54, and DP58. A preferential rearrangement of the same VH genes has been shown by others in the peripheral CD5(-) IgM+ B cells. These data suggest that the splenic and nodal marginal-zone B cells are closely related B-cell subsets. We also showed that marginal-zone B cells may cycle and that clones of B cells are frequently detected in the nodal as well as the splenic marginal zone. These clones are not related to those present in adjacent germinal centers. These data favor the hypothesis that clonal expansion occurs in the marginal zone. Whether the somatic hypermutation mechanism is activated during the clonal expansion in the marginal zone and which type of immune response triggers the clonal expansion need to be elucidated.

Laryngeal rhabdomyoma in a golden retriever

A three-year-old male golden retriever had had progressive dyspnoea, exercise intolerance, stridor, and a modified bark for five months. A mass 2 cm in diameter was present dorsal to the right side of the larynx. Histological examination revealed cross-striations in some elongated cells, consistent with a diagnosis of rhabdomyoma, a diagnosis which was confirmed by positive immunohistochemical staining for myoglobin and desmin. The mass could not be removed without total laryngectomy and a permanent tracheostomy and the dog was euthanased.

Representational difference analysis using minute quantities of DNA

Representational difference analysis (RDA) is a differential hybridization method which can effectively isolate unique DNA sequences from complex and highly related genomes or cDNA libraries. A major drawback of the RDA analysis is the requirement for pure driver and relatively pure tester samples, ruling out the analysis of whole tissue biopsies. To circumvent this problem, we have modified the technique for the analysis of very small quantities of DNA so that pure cell populations isolated by micromanipulation from tissue sections can be analyzed. Using this modified technique, as few as 50 diploid cells ( approximately 500 pg of DNA) can be analyzed.

A European multicenter study of phenylalanine hydroxylase deficiency: classification of 105 mutations and a general system for genotype-based prediction of metabolic phenotype

Phenylketonuria (PKU) and mild hyperphenylalaninemia (MHP) are allelic disorders caused by mutations in the gene encoding phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH). Previous studies have suggested that the highly variable metabolic phenotypes of PAH deficiency correlate with PAH genotypes. We identified both causative mutations in 686 patients from seven European centers. On the basis of the phenotypic characteristics of 297 functionally hemizygous patients, 105 of the mutations were assigned to one of four arbitrary phenotype categories. We proposed and tested a simple model for correlation between genotype and phenotypic outcome. The observed phenotype matched the predicted phenotype in 79% of the cases, and in only 5 of 184 patients was the observed phenotype more than one category away from that expected. Among the seven contributing centers, the proportion of patients for whom the observed phenotype did not match the predicted phenotype was 4%-23% (P<.0001), suggesting that differences in methods used for mutation detection or phenotype classification may account for a considerable proportion of genotype-phenotype inconsistencies. Our data indicate that the PAH-mutation genotype is the main determinant of metabolic phenotype in most patients with PAH deficiency. In the present study, the classification of 105 PAH mutations may allow the prediction of the biochemical phenotype in >10,000 genotypes, which may be useful for the management of hyperphenylalaninemia in newborns.

The soluble extracellular portion of the human interferon-gamma receptor is a valid substitute for evaluating binding characteristics and for neutralizing the biological activity of this cytokine

In order to have a reliable and reproducible source of soluble human interferon-gamma (HuIFN-gamma) receptor at our disposal both for studying binding phenomena and for evaluating its neutralizing potential towards the cytokine, we expressed the extracellular part of the receptor in J558L mouse myeloma cells as a fusion protein with the C-terminal c-myc TAG (HuECR-gamma-TAG). It is expected that the receptor will undergo post-translational modifications comparable to that in humans. The affinity purified soluble receptor was subjected to mass spectrometry analysis resulting in a molecular size of 31 to 40 kDa and showed heterogeneous N-glycosylation with an M(r)-contribution of 4 to 13 kDa. Its HuIFN-gamma binding affinity, determined by real time biospecific interaction (BIAcore) analysis, resulted in a value of Kd = 2 x 10(-9) M, which is in agreement with the high affinity described for the cell anchored complete HuIFN-gamma receptor (Kd = 5-35 x 10(-9) M). HuECR-gamma-TAG was able to neutralize the biological activity of HuIFN-gamma in an in vitro antiviral assay. Furthermore, we report for the first time the association and dissociation rate constants, which were, respectively, 2.4 x 10(5) M-1 s-1 and 4.8 x 10(-4) s-1. In conclusion, this mammalian source of the extracellular soluble HuIFN-gamma receptor represents a valuable tool for extensive in vitro studies of the HuIFN-gamma receptor interaction. Furthermore, in view of its expected low or nonimmunogenicity it opens new ways for immunomodulation in vivo.

Interaction of truncated human interferon gamma variants with the interferon gamma receptor: crucial importance of Arg-129

Recombinant human interferon gamma (IFN-gamma), produced in Escherichia coli, was selectively truncated at its C-terminus with chymotrypsin, clostripain or plasmin. The C-terminal amino acid residues of the three truncated IFN-gamma variants were identified as Phe136, Arg129 and Lys128, indicating the removal of 7, 14 and 15 amino acid residues from the full-length molecule. The absence of seven C-terminal residues did not influence the binding of IFN-gamma to its receptor. In contrast, the truncation of 14 residues resulted in a decrease in the Ka value to 1/24, as determined by surface plasmon resonance analysis. The removal of one additional amino acid residue from the C-terminal region of IFN-gamma led to a marked loss of receptor-binding capacity and biological activity. These observations demonstrate that Arg129 is an essential part of a functionally important C-terminal IFN-gamma sequence that is involved in receptor interaction.

fau cDNA encodes a ubiquitin-like-S30 fusion protein and is expressed as an antisense sequence in the Finkel-Biskis-Reilly murine sarcoma virus

The Finkel-Biskis-Reilly murine sarcoma virus (FBR-MuSV) is capable of inducing osteosarcomas in susceptible mice. This retrovirus transduced sequences derived from the transcription factor c-fos and from an unrelated mouse sequence called fox. Here, we describe the cloning and sequence analysis of human and mouse cellular cDNAs hybridizing to the fox sequence. The cloned cDNAs encode for a single ubiquitin-like (Fubi) protein fused in frame to S30, a protein of the small ribosomal subunit. Fubi conserved amino acid residues known to be involved in the ATP-dependent proteolytic activity of ubiquitin. Moreover, the fau gene is conserved in several species, while its mRNA is ubiquitously expressed in different mouse tissues. Surprisingly, FBR-MuSV transduced the complete but mutated open reading frame (ORF) in its reversed transcriptional orientation. This is the first report about a retrovirus in which an antisense sequence to a cellular gene, which we called fau (FBR-MuSV-associated ubiquitously expressed gene), is discovered. Rat-2 cells transfected with plasmids containing v-fau/fox recombinants of FBR-MuSV revealed a twofold increase of the transformation capacity of FBR-MuSV 'in vitro' because of the fau antisense sequence. Newly formed retropseudogenes were identified in three out of eight primary radiation-induced osteosarcomas. This high incidence of creating retropseudogenes in these 90Sr-induced bone tumours may contribute to the mechanism by which FBR-MuSV, originally isolated from such tumours, acquired the fau gene in its reverse orientation.

Assignment of the human FAU gene to a subregion of chromosome 11q13

The FAU gene is the cellular homologue of the fox sequence in the Finkel-Biskis-Reilly murine sarcoma virus (FBR-MuSV). FAU (for FBR-MuSV associated ubiquitously expressed gene) encodes the ribosomal protein S30 fused to a ubiquitin-like protein. A cosmid clone containing the human FAU gene was used for fluorescence in situ hybridization to metaphase chromosomes. The obtained localization to 11q13 was confirmed by hybridization against a panel of somatic cell hybrids containing different parts of chromosome 11 on a hamster background. FAU was then further mapped, both on a panel of radiation-reduced somatic cell hybrids designed to carry different parts of the 11q13 region and by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. This fine mapping assigned FAU close to the skeletal muscle glycogen phosphorylase gene (PYGM), in a region that contains several oncogenes as well as the putative tumor suppressor genes MEN1 and ST3.

Exclusion of FAU as the multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) gene

The FAU gene (FBR-MuSV associated ubiquitously expressed gene) encodes the ribosomal protein S30 fused with a Ubiquitin-like molecule. The FAU gene is expressed in a wide range of tissues, is evolutionarily conserved, and has putative tumour suppressor activity in vitro. The human FAU gene maps to the long arm of chromosome 11 band q13, close to the PYGM locus. This locus is tightly linked to the Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) locus. The FAU gene properties, together with its chromosomal localisation on 11q13, make it a candidate gene for MEN1. To test this hypothesis we screened 33 unrelated patients with MEN1 for constitutional genetic alterations in the FAU gene by Southern blot analysis, denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and in two cases complemented by DNA sequencing to confirm the DGGE data. Furthermore, 10 parathyroid and pancreatic tumours from MEN1 patients and 15 each of sporadic parathyroid and pituitary tumours were similarly examined. In addition, we studied the expression of the FAU gene at the RNA level in 9 MEN1-associated tumours by Northern blot analysis. No FAU gene anomalies could be demonstrated by any of these techniques. We conclude that FAU is not likely to be the MEN1 tumour suppressor gene.

Genomic structure and expression of the human fau gene: encoding the ribosomal protein S30 fused to a ubiquitin-like protein

The fau gene is the cellular homolog of the fox sequence in the Finkel-Biskis-Reilly Murine Sarcoma Virus (FBR-MuSV). This virus acquired the fau sequence in its reversed transcriptional orientation. Human and mouse fau cDNA's were identified and both encode a new protein of 133 AA. We show that fau (for FBR-MuSV associated ubiquitiously expressed gene) becomes expressed in all different tissues tested as a 600 bp messenger and we report the genomic structure of the human fau gene. The gene consists of five exons and four introns and the 5' untranslated region displays characteristic features for a housekeeping gene. Fau encodes the ribosomal protein S30 fused to a Ubiquitin-like protein.

Expression of protooncogenes in murine osteosarcomas

The expression of 7 protooncogenes (c-sis, c-abl, c-mos, c-bas, c-Ki-ras, c-fos, c-myc) was examined in transplants and established cell lines from spontaneous and radiation-induced murine osteosarcomas. The transplant tumors were compared with different tissues, particularly skeletal tissue (sternum), and the osteosarcoma cell lines with fibroblast lines from the same mouse strains. C-sis was expressed above the level of controls in 2 osteosarcomas (TV, Os5). Three osteosarcomas showed over-expression of c-abl (TVK, DOS, Os5), c-bas (DOS, Os5 and V893) and c-fos (TVK, DOS, Os5), and 4 osteosarcomas showed over-expression of c-Ki-ras (TVK, DOS, Os5, Os16) and c-myc (TVK, DOS, TV, Os5). C-mos expression was not observed under the conditions used. One cell line (Os5) showed an altered transcript (1 kb transcript of c-fos). Apart from the relatively frequent increase in expression of the c-myc and c-ras-family, there was no indication that any particular protooncogene or combination of protooncogenes was associated with murine osteosarcomas.

Genome organisation of the FBR-osteosarcoma virus complex: identification of a subgenomic fos-specific message

The FBR murine virus complex together with the FBJ murine virus complex are known to be bone tumor inducers in newborn mice. Both transforming viruses have transduced c-proto-fos-derived sequences in their genome. FBR-MuSV was molecularly cloned as a biologically active 10-kbp EcoRI fragment from non-productively transformed rat embryo fibroblasts into Charon phage 4A (lambda MOL503) and subsequently subcloned in plasmid pBR322 (pMOL503). Its natural associated helper FBR-MuLV, excized as an internal 8.2-kbp PstI proviral DNA fragment from chronically infected NIH/3T3 cells, was cloned into the unique PstI site of pBR322. Comparative analysis of the restriction maps of FBR-MuSV and FBR-MuLV together with the electron microscopic analysis of heteroduplex DNA molecules formed between both molecular clones suggested that FBR-MuLV is the parental virus of FBR-MuSV. fos- and fox-specific DNA hybridisation probes identified a genomic sized 3.3-kb mRNA and a subgenomic 2.2-kb messenger RNA. Using a 5'-gag hybridisation probe, only the genomic 3.3-kb RNA molecule was detected, demonstrating that a donor splice site is present upstream of the gag sequences and used to generate the fos-specific 2.2-kb subgenomic mRNA.

Oncogene involvement in radiation- and virus-induced mouse osteosarcomas

Internal irradiation of mice using bone seeking radionuclides results in the activation of endogenous retroviruses and in the subsequent development of bone tumors. Genomic DNA from an osteosarcoma cell line, derived from an 90Sr-induced bone tumor, was cotransfected with the plasmid pSV2-neo into NIH/3T3 cells and G418-resistant transfectants gave rise to colonies in soft agar. Southern blot analysis of these first cycle transformants revealed the presence of extra copies of c-ras. We have analysed the arrangement of ecotropic murine leukemia proviral sequences in seven 90Sr-induced bone tumors and one osteosarcoma cell line of CF1-mice. Integration of ecotropic and/or ecotropic recombinant proviruses seems to be involved in rearrangements of 3' provirus cellular junction fragments occurring in all tumor DNAs analysed, but no indication for site-specific integration was found. We also determined the primary structure of FBR-MuSV, a transforming retrovirus able to induce bone tumors in newborn mice. FBR-MuSV contains sequences from all four exons of the murine c-fos gene, but lacks sequences encoding the first 24 and the last 98 amino acids of the c-fos gene product. The coding region of FBR-MuSV has also undergone two small in frame deletions. Thus, the v-fosFBR-MuSV retains 236 amino acids of the 380 amino acids of the murine c-fos product. In FBR-MuSV-transformed cells two fos-containing mRNAs have been detected: a 3.3-kb full-size genomic RNA and a 2.2-kb subgenomic mRNA as revealed by both fos- and MuLV-hybridization probes.