1
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Randall RE, Young DF, Hughes DJ, Goodbourn S. Persistent paramyxovirus infections: in co-infections the parainfluenza virus type 5 persistent phenotype is dominant over the lytic phenotype. J Gen Virol 2023; 104:001916. [PMID: 37962188 PMCID: PMC10768688 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Parainfluenza virus type 5 (PIV5) can either have a persistent or a lytic phenotype in cultured cells. We have previously shown that the phenotype is determined by the phosphorylation status of the phosphoprotein (P). Single amino acid substitutions at critical residues, including a serine-to-phenylalanine substitution at position 157 on P, result in a switch between persistent and lytic phenotypes. Here, using PIV5 vectors expressing either mCherry or GFP with persistent or lytic phenotypes, we show that in co-infections the persistent phenotype is dominant. Thus, in contrast to the cell death observed with cells infected solely with the lytic variant, in co-infected cells persistence is immediately established and both lytic and persistent genotypes persist. Furthermore, 10-20 % of virus released from dually infected cells contains both genotypes, indicating that PIV5 particles can package more than one genome. Co-infected cells continue to maintain both genotypes/phenotypes during cell passage, as do individual colonies of cells derived from a culture of persistently infected cells. A refinement of our model on how the dynamics of virus selection may occur in vivo is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard E. Randall
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, BMS Building, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Dan F. Young
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, BMS Building, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, UK
| | - David J. Hughes
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, BMS Building, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Steve Goodbourn
- Section for Pathogen Research, Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George’s, University of London, London SW17 0RE, UK
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2
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Hardy A, Bakshi S, Furnon W, MacLean O, Gu Q, Varjak M, Varela M, Aziz MA, Shaw AE, Pinto RM, Cameron Ruiz N, Mullan C, Taggart AE, Da Silva Filipe A, Randall RE, Wilson SJ, Stewart ME, Palmarini M. The Timing and Magnitude of the Type I Interferon Response Are Correlated with Disease Tolerance in Arbovirus Infection. mBio 2023; 14:e0010123. [PMID: 37097030 PMCID: PMC10294695 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00101-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Infected hosts possess two alternative strategies to protect themselves against the negative impact of virus infections: resistance, used to abrogate virus replication, and disease tolerance, used to avoid tissue damage without controlling viral burden. The principles governing pathogen resistance are well understood, while less is known about those involved in disease tolerance. Here, we studied bluetongue virus (BTV), the cause of bluetongue disease of ruminants, as a model system to investigate the mechanisms of virus-host interactions correlating with disease tolerance. BTV induces clinical disease mainly in sheep, while cattle are considered reservoirs of infection, rarely exhibiting clinical symptoms despite sustained viremia. Using primary cells from multiple donors, we show that BTV consistently reaches higher titers in ovine cells than cells from cattle. The variable replication kinetics of BTV in sheep and cow cells were mostly abolished by abrogating the cell type I interferon (IFN) response. We identified restriction factors blocking BTV replication, but both the sheep and cow orthologues of these antiviral genes possess anti-BTV properties. Importantly, we demonstrate that BTV induces a faster host cell protein synthesis shutoff in primary sheep cells than cow cells, which results in an earlier downregulation of antiviral proteins. Moreover, by using RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), we also show a more pronounced expression of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) in BTV-infected cow cells than sheep cells. Our data provide a new perspective on how the type I IFN response in reservoir species can have overall positive effects on both virus and host evolution. IMPORTANCE The host immune response usually aims to inhibit virus replication in order to avoid cell damage and disease. In some cases, however, the infected host avoids the deleterious effects of infection despite high levels of viral replication. This strategy is known as disease tolerance, and it is used by animal reservoirs of some zoonotic viruses. Here, using a virus of ruminants (bluetongue virus [BTV]) as an experimental system, we dissected virus-host interactions in cells collected from species that are susceptible (sheep) or tolerant (cow) to disease. We show that (i) virus modulation of the host antiviral type I interferon (IFN) responses, (ii) viral replication kinetics, and (iii) virus-induced cell damage differ in tolerant and susceptible BTV-infected cells. Understanding the complex virus-host interactions in disease tolerance can allow us to disentangle the critical balance between protective and damaging host immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Hardy
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Siddharth Bakshi
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Wilhelm Furnon
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Oscar MacLean
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Quan Gu
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Margus Varjak
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Mariana Varela
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Muhamad Afiq Aziz
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew E. Shaw
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Rute Maria Pinto
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Natalia Cameron Ruiz
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Catrina Mullan
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Aislynn E. Taggart
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Ana Da Silva Filipe
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Richard E. Randall
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, United Kingdom
| | - Sam J. Wilson
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Meredith E. Stewart
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Massimo Palmarini
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
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3
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Lian C, Young D, Randall RE, Samuel IDW. Organic Light-Emitting Diode Based Fluorescence-Linked Immunosorbent Assay for SARS-CoV-2 Antibody Detection. Biosensors (Basel) 2022; 12:1125. [PMID: 36551092 PMCID: PMC9775261 DOI: 10.3390/bios12121125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Immunodiagnostics have been widely used in the detection of disease biomarkers. The conventional immunological tests in central laboratories require expensive equipment and, for non-specialists, the tests are technically demanding and time-consuming, which has prevented their use by the public. Thus, point-of-care tests (POCT), such as lateral flow immunoassays, are being, or have been, developed as more convenient and low-cost methods for immunodiagnostics. However, the sensitivity of such tests is often a concern. Here, a fluorescence-linked immunosorbent assay (FLISA) using organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) as excitation light sources was investigated as a way forward for the development of compact and sensitive POCTs. Phycoerythrin (PE) was selected as the fluorescent dye, and OLEDs were designed with different emission spectra. The leakage light of different OLEDs for exciting PE was then investigated to reduce the background noise and improve the sensitivity of the system. Finally, as proof-of-principle that OLED-based technology can be successfully further developed for POCT, antibodies to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in human serum was detected by OLED-FLISA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Lian
- Organic Semiconductor Centre, SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9SS, UK
| | - Dan Young
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Richard E. Randall
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Ifor D. W. Samuel
- Organic Semiconductor Centre, SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9SS, UK
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4
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Daza-Cajigal V, Albuquerque AS, Young DF, Ciancanelli MJ, Moulding D, Angulo I, Jeanne-Julien V, Rosain J, Minskaia E, Casanova JL, Boisson-Dupuis S, Bustamante J, Randall RE, McHugh TD, Thrasher AJ, Burns SO. Partial human Janus kinase 1 deficiency predominantly impairs responses to interferon gamma and intracellular control of mycobacteria. Front Immunol 2022; 13:888427. [PMID: 36159783 PMCID: PMC9501714 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.888427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Janus kinase-1 (JAK1) tyrosine kinase mediates signaling from multiple cytokine receptors, including interferon alpha/beta and gamma (IFN-α/β and IFN-γ), which are important for viral and mycobacterial protection respectively. We previously reported autosomal recessive (AR) hypomorphic JAK1 mutations in a patient with recurrent atypical mycobacterial infections and relatively minor viral infections. This study tests the impact of partial JAK1 deficiency on cellular responses to IFNs and pathogen control. Methods We investigated the role of partial JAK1 deficiency using patient cells and cell models generated with lentiviral vectors expressing shRNA. Results Partial JAK1 deficiency impairs IFN-γ-dependent responses in multiple cell types including THP-1 macrophages, Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)-transformed B cells and primary dermal fibroblasts. In THP-1 myeloid cells, partial JAK1 deficiency reduced phagosome acidification and apoptosis and resulted in defective control of mycobacterial infection with enhanced intracellular survival. Although both EBV-B cells and primary dermal fibroblasts with partial JAK1 deficiency demonstrate reduced IFN-α responses, control of viral infection was impaired only in patient EBV-B cells and surprisingly intact in patient primary dermal fibroblasts. Conclusion Our data suggests that partial JAK1 deficiency predominantly affects susceptibility to mycobacterial infection through impact on the IFN-γ responsive pathway in myeloid cells. Susceptibility to viral infections as a result of reduced IFN-α responses is variable depending on cell type. Description of additional patients with inherited JAK1 deficiency will further clarify the spectrum of bacterial and viral susceptibility in this condition. Our results have broader relevance for anticipating infectious complications from the increasing use of selective JAK1 inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Daza-Cajigal
- Institute of Immunity and Transplantation, University College London, London, United Kingdom.,Department of Immunology, Royal Free London National Health Service (NHS) Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom.,School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Immunology, Hospital Universitario Son Espases, Palma, Spain.,Research Unit, Institut d'Investigació Sanitària de les Illes Balears (IdISBa), Palma, Spain
| | - Adriana S Albuquerque
- Institute of Immunity and Transplantation, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Dan F Young
- School of Biology, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Michael J Ciancanelli
- St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Rockefeller Branch, Rockefeller University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Dale Moulding
- Molecular and Cellular Immunology Section, University College London Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ivan Angulo
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Valentine Jeanne-Julien
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, National Institute of Health and Medical Research (INSERM) U1163, Paris, France.,Paris Cité University, Imagine Institute, Paris, France
| | - Jérémie Rosain
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, National Institute of Health and Medical Research (INSERM) U1163, Paris, France.,Paris Cité University, Imagine Institute, Paris, France
| | - Ekaterina Minskaia
- Institute of Immunity and Transplantation, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jean-Laurent Casanova
- St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Rockefeller Branch, Rockefeller University, New York, NY, United States.,Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, National Institute of Health and Medical Research (INSERM) U1163, Paris, France.,Paris Cité University, Imagine Institute, Paris, France.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New York, NY, United States
| | - Stéphanie Boisson-Dupuis
- St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Rockefeller Branch, Rockefeller University, New York, NY, United States.,Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, National Institute of Health and Medical Research (INSERM) U1163, Paris, France.,Paris Cité University, Imagine Institute, Paris, France
| | - Jacinta Bustamante
- St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Rockefeller Branch, Rockefeller University, New York, NY, United States.,Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, National Institute of Health and Medical Research (INSERM) U1163, Paris, France.,Paris Cité University, Imagine Institute, Paris, France.,Study Center of Immunodeficiencies, Necker Hospital for Sick Children, Paris, France
| | - Richard E Randall
- School of Biology, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Timothy D McHugh
- Research Department of Infection, University College London Centre for Clinical Microbiology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Adrian J Thrasher
- Molecular and Cellular Immunology Section, University College London Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom.,Immunology Department, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Siobhan O Burns
- Institute of Immunity and Transplantation, University College London, London, United Kingdom.,Department of Immunology, Royal Free London National Health Service (NHS) Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
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5
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Duncan CJA, Randall RE, Hambleton S. Genetic Lesions of Type I Interferon Signalling in Human Antiviral Immunity. Trends Genet 2021; 37:46-58. [PMID: 32977999 PMCID: PMC7508017 DOI: 10.1016/j.tig.2020.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 08/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The concept that type I interferons (IFN-I) are essential to antiviral immunity derives from studies on animal models and cell lines. Virtually all pathogenic viruses have evolved countermeasures to IFN-I restriction, and genetic loss of viral IFN-I antagonists leads to virus attenuation. But just how important is IFN-I to antiviral defence in humans? The recent discovery of genetic defects of IFN-I signalling illuminates this and other questions of IFN biology, including the role of the mucosa-restricted type III IFNs (IFN-III), informing our understanding of the place of the IFN system within the concerted antiviral response. Here we review monogenic lesions of IFN-I signalling pathways and summarise the organising principles which emerge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J A Duncan
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK; Royal Victoria Infirmary, Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 4LP, UK.
| | - Richard E Randall
- School of Biology, University of St Andrew's, St Andrew's KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Sophie Hambleton
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK; Great North Children's Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 4LP, UK
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6
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Duncan CJA, Thompson BJ, Chen R, Rice GI, Gothe F, Young DF, Lovell SC, Shuttleworth VG, Brocklebank V, Corner B, Skelton AJ, Bondet V, Coxhead J, Duffy D, Fourrage C, Livingston JH, Pavaine J, Cheesman E, Bitetti S, Grainger A, Acres M, Innes BA, Mikulasova A, Sun R, Hussain R, Wright R, Wynn R, Zarhrate M, Zeef LAH, Wood K, Hughes SM, Harris CL, Engelhardt KR, Crow YJ, Randall RE, Kavanagh D, Hambleton S, Briggs TA. Severe type I interferonopathy and unrestrained interferon signaling due to a homozygous germline mutation in STAT2. Sci Immunol 2020; 4:4/42/eaav7501. [PMID: 31836668 DOI: 10.1126/sciimmunol.aav7501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Excessive type I interferon (IFNα/β) activity is implicated in a spectrum of human disease, yet its direct role remains to be conclusively proven. We investigated two siblings with severe early-onset autoinflammatory disease and an elevated IFN signature. Whole-exome sequencing revealed a shared homozygous missense Arg148Trp variant in STAT2, a transcription factor that functions exclusively downstream of innate IFNs. Cells bearing STAT2R148W in homozygosity (but not heterozygosity) were hypersensitive to IFNα/β, which manifest as prolonged Janus kinase-signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT) signaling and transcriptional activation. We show that this gain of IFN activity results from the failure of mutant STAT2R148W to interact with ubiquitin-specific protease 18, a key STAT2-dependent negative regulator of IFNα/β signaling. These observations reveal an essential in vivo function of STAT2 in the regulation of human IFNα/β signaling, providing concrete evidence of the serious pathological consequences of unrestrained IFNα/β activity and supporting efforts to target this pathway therapeutically in IFN-associated disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J A Duncan
- Primary Immunodeficiency Group, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK. .,Department of Infection and Tropical Medicine, Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Benjamin J Thompson
- Primary Immunodeficiency Group, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Rui Chen
- Primary Immunodeficiency Group, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Gillian I Rice
- Division of Evolution and Genomic Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Florian Gothe
- Primary Immunodeficiency Group, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.,Department of Pediatrics, Dr. von Hauner Children's Hospital, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Dan F Young
- School of Biology, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, UK
| | - Simon C Lovell
- Division of Evolution and Genomic Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Victoria G Shuttleworth
- Complement Therapeutics Research Group, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Vicky Brocklebank
- Complement Therapeutics Research Group, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Bronte Corner
- Complement Therapeutics Research Group, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Andrew J Skelton
- Primary Immunodeficiency Group, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Vincent Bondet
- Immunobiology of Dendritic Cells, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Jonathan Coxhead
- Genomics Core Facility, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, UK
| | - Darragh Duffy
- Immunobiology of Dendritic Cells, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | | | - John H Livingston
- Department of Paediatric Neurology, Leeds General Infirmary, Leeds, UK
| | - Julija Pavaine
- Academic Unit of Paediatric Radiology, Royal Manchester Children's Hospital, Central Manchester University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, UK.,Division of Informatics, Imaging and Data Sciences, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Edmund Cheesman
- Department of Paediatric Histopathology, Central Manchester University Foundation NHS Trust, Manchester, UK
| | - Stephania Bitetti
- Department of Paediatric Histopathology, Central Manchester University Foundation NHS Trust, Manchester, UK
| | - Angela Grainger
- Primary Immunodeficiency Group, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Meghan Acres
- Primary Immunodeficiency Group, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Barbara A Innes
- Primary Immunodeficiency Group, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Aneta Mikulasova
- Primary Immunodeficiency Group, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Ruyue Sun
- Complement Therapeutics Research Group, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Rafiqul Hussain
- Immunobiology of Dendritic Cells, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Ronnie Wright
- Division of Evolution and Genomic Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.,Manchester Centre for Genomic Medicine, St Mary's Hospital, Manchester University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, UK
| | - Robert Wynn
- Department of Paediatric Blood and Marrow Transplant, Royal Manchester Children's Hospital, Oxford Rd., Manchester, UK
| | | | - Leo A H Zeef
- Bioinformatics Core Facility, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Katrina Wood
- Department of Pathology, Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Stephen M Hughes
- Immunology Department, Royal Manchester Children's Hospital, Manchester University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, UK
| | - Claire L Harris
- Complement Therapeutics Research Group, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Karin R Engelhardt
- Primary Immunodeficiency Group, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Yanick J Crow
- MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Centre for Genomic and Experimental Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.,Laboratory of Neurogenetics and Neuroinflammation, Institut Imagine, Paris, France.,Paris Descartes University, Sorbonne-Paris-Cité, Paris, France
| | | | - David Kavanagh
- Complement Therapeutics Research Group, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.,National Renal Complement Therapeutics Centre, Royal Victoria Infirmary, Newcastle upon Tyne Hosptials NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Sophie Hambleton
- Primary Immunodeficiency Group, Immunity and Inflammation Theme, Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK. .,Children's Immunology Service, Great North Children's Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Tracy A Briggs
- Division of Evolution and Genomic Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK. .,Manchester Centre for Genomic Medicine, St Mary's Hospital, Manchester University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, UK
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7
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Wignall-Fleming EB, Vasou A, Young D, Short JAL, Hughes DJ, Goodbourn S, Randall RE. Innate Intracellular Antiviral Responses Restrict the Amplification of Defective Virus Genomes of Parainfluenza Virus 5. J Virol 2020; 94:e00246-20. [PMID: 32295916 PMCID: PMC7307174 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00246-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
During the replication of parainfluenza virus 5 (PIV5), copyback defective virus genomes (DVGs) are erroneously produced and are packaged into "infectious" virus particles. Copyback DVGs are the primary inducers of innate intracellular responses, including the interferon (IFN) response. While DVGs can interfere with the replication of nondefective (ND) virus genomes and activate the IFN-induction cascade before ND PIV5 can block the production of IFN, we demonstrate that the converse is also true, i.e., high levels of ND virus can block the ability of DVGs to activate the IFN-induction cascade. By following the replication and amplification of DVGs in A549 cells that are deficient in a variety of innate intracellular antiviral responses, we show that DVGs induce an uncharacterized IFN-independent innate response(s) that limits their replication. High-throughput sequencing was used to characterize the molecular structure of copyback DVGs. While there appears to be no sequence-specific break or rejoining points for the generation of copyback DVGs, our findings suggest there are region, size, and/or structural preferences selected for during for their amplification.IMPORTANCE Copyback defective virus genomes (DVGs) are powerful inducers of innate immune responses both in vitro and in vivo They impact the outcome of natural infections, may help drive virus-host coevolution, and promote virus persistence. Due to their potent interfering and immunostimulatory properties, DVGs may also be used therapeutically as antivirals and vaccine adjuvants. However, little is known of the host cell restrictions which limit their amplification. We show here that the generation of copyback DVGs readily occurs during parainfluenza virus 5 (PIV5) replication, but that their subsequent amplification is restricted by the induction of innate intracellular responses. Molecular characterization of PIV5 copyback DVGs suggests that while there are no genome sequence-specific breaks or rejoin points for the generation of copyback DVGs, genome region, size, and structural preferences are selected for during their evolution and amplification.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andri Vasou
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Dan Young
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - John A L Short
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - David J Hughes
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Steve Goodbourn
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St. George's, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Richard E Randall
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, United Kingdom
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8
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Holthaus D, Vasou A, Bamford CGG, Andrejeva J, Paulus C, Randall RE, McLauchlan J, Hughes DJ. Direct Antiviral Activity of IFN-Stimulated Genes Is Responsible for Resistance to Paramyxoviruses in ISG15-Deficient Cells. J Immunol 2020; 205:261-271. [PMID: 32423918 PMCID: PMC7311202 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1901472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cell culture model of ISG15 deficiency replicates findings in ISG15−/− patient cells. Cause of resistance in ISG15−/− cells differs depending on duration of IFN treatment. ISG15−/− patients without serious viral disease do not prove ISGylation is unimportant.
IFNs, produced during viral infections, induce the expression of hundreds of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs). Some ISGs have specific antiviral activity, whereas others regulate the cellular response. Besides functioning as an antiviral effector, ISG15 is a negative regulator of IFN signaling, and inherited ISG15 deficiency leads to autoinflammatory IFNopathies, in which individuals exhibit elevated ISG expression in the absence of pathogenic infection. We have recapitulated these effects in cultured human A549-ISG15−/− cells and (using A549-UBA7−/− cells) confirmed that posttranslational modification by ISG15 (ISGylation) is not required for regulation of the type I IFN response. ISG15-deficient cells pretreated with IFN-α were resistant to paramyxovirus infection. We also showed that IFN-α treatment of ISG15-deficient cells led to significant inhibition of global protein synthesis, leading us to ask whether resistance was due to the direct antiviral activity of ISGs or whether cells were nonpermissive because of translation defects. We took advantage of the knowledge that IFN-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeats 1 (IFIT1) is the principal antiviral ISG for parainfluenza virus 5. Knockdown of IFIT1 restored parainfluenza virus 5 infection in IFN-α–pretreated, ISG15-deficient cells, confirming that resistance was due to the direct antiviral activity of the IFN response. However, resistance could be induced if cells were pretreated with IFN-α for longer times, presumably because of inhibition of protein synthesis. These data show that the cause of virus resistance is 2-fold; ISG15 deficiency leads to the early overexpression of specific antiviral ISGs, but the later response is dominated by an unanticipated, ISG15-dependent loss of translational control.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Holthaus
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9ST, United Kingdom; and
| | - Andri Vasou
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9ST, United Kingdom; and
| | - Connor G G Bamford
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, United Kingdom
| | - Jelena Andrejeva
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9ST, United Kingdom; and
| | - Christina Paulus
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9ST, United Kingdom; and
| | - Richard E Randall
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9ST, United Kingdom; and
| | - John McLauchlan
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, United Kingdom
| | - David J Hughes
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9ST, United Kingdom; and
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9
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Young DF, Wignall-Fleming EB, Busse DC, Pickin MJ, Hankinson J, Randall EM, Tavendale A, Davison AJ, Lamont D, Tregoning JS, Goodbourn S, Randall RE. The switch between acute and persistent paramyxovirus infection caused by single amino acid substitutions in the RNA polymerase P subunit. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007561. [PMID: 30742688 PMCID: PMC6386407 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Revised: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 01/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Paramyxoviruses can establish persistent infections both in vitro and in vivo, some of which lead to chronic disease. However, little is known about the molecular events that contribute to the establishment of persistent infections by RNA viruses. Using parainfluenza virus type 5 (PIV5) as a model we show that phosphorylation of the P protein, which is a key component of the viral RNA polymerase complex, determines whether or not viral transcription and replication becomes repressed at late times after infection. If the virus becomes repressed, persistence is established, but if not, the infected cells die. We found that single amino acid changes at various positions within the P protein switched the infection phenotype from lytic to persistent. Lytic variants replicated to higher titres in mice than persistent variants and caused greater infiltration of immune cells into infected lungs but were cleared more rapidly. We propose that during the acute phases of viral infection in vivo, lytic variants of PIV5 will be selected but, as the adaptive immune response develops, variants in which viral replication can be repressed will be selected, leading to the establishment of prolonged, persistent infections. We suggest that similar selection processes may operate for other RNA viruses. As well as causing acute infections that result in mild to serious disease, many RNA viruses can establish prolonged or persistent infections in some infected individuals, that occasionally lead to chronic or reactive disease. Little is known about the molecular mechanisms involved in the establishment of such infections. Using parainfluenza virus type 5 (PIV5) as a model, we show how lytic and persistent variants of the virus can be selected on the basis of single amino acid substitutions and propose that the selection of persistent variants as the adaptive immune response develops following an acute infection might be a mechanism these viruses have evolved to enhance their transmission rates. As well as being of fundamental interest, understanding the molecular basis by which RNA viruses establish persistent infections may improve our understanding of virus epidemiology (and hence improve the control of virus infections) and of virus:host interactions that influence the relationship between virus persistence and chronic/relapsing disease. Furthermore, the knowledge of how RNA viruses, such as PIV5, establish persistent infections may lead to improve vaccine design since vectors which can establish persistent infections may induce longer-lasting more robust immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan F. Young
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, BMS Building, North Haugh, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, United Kingdom
| | - Elizabeth B. Wignall-Fleming
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, BMS Building, North Haugh, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, United Kingdom
- MRC–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - David C. Busse
- Mucosal Infection and Immunity Group, Section of Virology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew J. Pickin
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St. George's, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jack Hankinson
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St. George's, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Elizabeth M. Randall
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, BMS Building, North Haugh, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, United Kingdom
| | - Amy Tavendale
- School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew J. Davison
- MRC–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Douglas Lamont
- School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - John S. Tregoning
- Mucosal Infection and Immunity Group, Section of Virology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Steve Goodbourn
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St. George's, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Richard E. Randall
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, BMS Building, North Haugh, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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10
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Te Velthuis AJW, Long JC, Bauer DLV, Fan RLY, Yen HL, Sharps J, Siegers JY, Killip MJ, French H, Oliva-Martín MJ, Randall RE, de Wit E, van Riel D, Poon LLM, Fodor E. Mini viral RNAs act as innate immune agonists during influenza virus infection. Nat Microbiol 2018; 3:1234-1242. [PMID: 30224800 PMCID: PMC6203953 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-018-0240-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The molecular processes that determine the outcome of influenza virus infection in humans are multifactorial and involve a complex interplay between host, viral and bacterial factors1. However, it is generally accepted that a strong innate immune dysregulation known as 'cytokine storm' contributes to the pathology of infections with the 1918 H1N1 pandemic or the highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses of the H5N1 subtype2-4. The RNA sensor retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) plays an important role in sensing viral infection and initiating a signalling cascade that leads to interferon expression5. Here, we show that short aberrant RNAs (mini viral RNAs (mvRNAs)), produced by the viral RNA polymerase during the replication of the viral RNA genome, bind to and activate RIG-I and lead to the expression of interferon-β. We find that erroneous polymerase activity, dysregulation of viral RNA replication or the presence of avian-specific amino acids underlie mvRNA generation and cytokine expression in mammalian cells. By deep sequencing RNA samples from the lungs of ferrets infected with influenza viruses, we show that mvRNAs are generated during infection in vivo. We propose that mvRNAs act as the main agonists of RIG-I during influenza virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aartjan J W Te Velthuis
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Joshua C Long
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - David L V Bauer
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Rebecca L Y Fan
- School of Public Health, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Hui-Ling Yen
- School of Public Health, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Jane Sharps
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Jurre Y Siegers
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marian J Killip
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Hollie French
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Richard E Randall
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Emmie de Wit
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Debby van Riel
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Leo L M Poon
- School of Public Health, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Ervin Fodor
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
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11
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Vasou A, Paulus C, Narloch J, Gage ZO, Rameix-Welti MA, Eléouët JF, Nevels M, Randall RE, Adamson CS. Modular cell-based platform for high throughput identification of compounds that inhibit a viral interferon antagonist of choice. Antiviral Res 2017; 150:79-92. [PMID: 29037975 PMCID: PMC5800491 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2017.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2017] [Revised: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 10/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Viral interferon (IFN) antagonists are a diverse class of viral proteins that counteract the host IFN response, which is important for controlling viral infections. Viral IFN antagonists are often multifunctional proteins that perform vital roles in virus replication beyond IFN antagonism. The critical importance of viral IFN antagonists is highlighted by the fact that almost all viruses encode one of these proteins. Inhibition of viral IFN antagonists has the potential to exert pleiotropic antiviral effects and thus this important protein class represents a diverse plethora of novel therapeutic targets. To exploit this, we have successfully developed and executed a novel modular cell-based platform that facilitates the safe and rapid screening for inhibitors of a viral IFN antagonist of choice. The platform is based on two reporter cell-lines that provide a simple method to detect activation of IFN induction or signaling via an eGFP gene placed under the control of the IFNβ or an ISRE-containing promoter, respectively. Expression of a target IFN antagonist in the appropriate reporter cell-line will block the IFN response and hence eGFP expression. We hypothesized that addition of a compound that inhibits IFN antagonist function will release the block imposed on the IFN response and hence restore eGFP expression, providing a measurable parameter for high throughput screening (HTS). We demonstrate assay proof-of-concept by (i) exploiting hepatitis C virus (HCV) protease inhibitors to inhibit NS3-4A's capacity to block IFN induction and (ii) successfully executing two HTS targeting viral IFN antagonists that block IFN signaling; NS2 and IE1 from human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and cytomegalovirus (CMV) respectively, two clinically important viruses for which vaccine development has thus far been unsuccessful and new antivirals are required. Both screens performed robustly and Z′ Factor scores of >0.6 were achieved. We identified (i) four hit compounds that specifically inhibit RSV NS2's ability to block IFN signaling by mediating STAT2 degradation and exhibit modest antiviral activity and (ii) two hit compounds that interfere with IE1 transcription and significantly impair CMV replication. Overall, we demonstrate assay proof-of-concept as we target viral IFN antagonists from unrelated viruses and demonstrate its suitability for HTS. Viral IFN antagonists represent a plethora of novel therapeutic targets not specifically targeted by current antivirals. We developed a novel modular cell-based screening platform that potentially targets any viral IFN antagonist of choice. The assay is based on eGFP reporter gene expression at the end-point of activated IFN induction and signaling pathways. We demonstrate assay proof-of-concept via HCV protease inhibitors, which block NS3-4A's capacity to block IFN induction. We successfully execute two high-throughput screens targeting IFN antagonists NS2 and IE1 from RSV and CMV, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andri Vasou
- School of Biology, Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
| | - Christina Paulus
- School of Biology, Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
| | - Janina Narloch
- School of Biology, Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
| | - Zoe O Gage
- School of Biology, Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
| | - Marie-Anne Rameix-Welti
- UMR INSERM U1173 2I, UFR des Sciences de la Santé Simone Veil-UVSQ, 78180, Montigny-Le-Bretonneux, France; AP-HP, Laboratoire de Microbiologie, Hôpital Ambroise Paré, 92104, Boulogne-Billancourt, France
| | - Jean-François Eléouët
- Unité de Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires (UR892), INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, 78352, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Michael Nevels
- School of Biology, Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
| | - Richard E Randall
- School of Biology, Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
| | - Catherine S Adamson
- School of Biology, Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 9ST, United Kingdom.
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12
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Abstract
NS1 proteins of influenza A and B viruses share limited sequence homology, yet both are potent manipulators of host cell processes, particularly interferon (IFN) induction. Although many cellular partners are reported for A/NS1, only a few (e.g. PKR and ISG15) have been identified for B/NS1. Here, affinity-purification and mass spectrometry were used to expand the known host interactome of B/NS1. We identified 22 human proteins as new putative targets for B/NS1, validating several, including DHX9, ILF3, YBX1 and HNRNPC. Consistent with two RNA-binding domains in B/NS1, many of the identified factors bind RNA and some interact with B/NS1 in an RNA-dependent manner. Functional characterization of several B/NS1 interactors identified SNRNP200 as a potential positive regulator of host IFN responses, while ILF3 exhibited dual roles in both IFN induction and influenza B virus replication. These data provide a resource for future investigations into the mechanisms underpinning host cell modulation by influenza B virus NS1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinna Patzina
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zurich 8057, Switzerland
| | - Catherine H. Botting
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Adolfo García-Sastre
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Richard E. Randall
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Benjamin G. Hale
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zurich 8057, Switzerland
- *Correspondence: Benjamin G. Hale,
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13
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Vasou A, Sultanoglu N, Goodbourn S, Randall RE, Kostrikis LG. Targeting Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRR) for Vaccine Adjuvantation: From Synthetic PRR Agonists to the Potential of Defective Interfering Particles of Viruses. Viruses 2017; 9:v9070186. [PMID: 28703784 PMCID: PMC5537678 DOI: 10.3390/v9070186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2017] [Revised: 07/11/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Modern vaccinology has increasingly focused on non-living vaccines, which are more stable than live-attenuated vaccines but often show limited immunogenicity. Immunostimulatory substances, known as adjuvants, are traditionally used to increase the magnitude of protective adaptive immunity in response to a pathogen-associated antigen. Recently developed adjuvants often include substances that stimulate pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), essential components of innate immunity required for the activation of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), which serve as a bridge between innate and adaptive immunity. Nearly all PRRs are potential targets for adjuvants. Given the recent success of toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists in vaccine development, molecules with similar, but additional, immunostimulatory activity, such as defective interfering particles (DIPs) of viruses, represent attractive candidates for vaccine adjuvants. This review outlines some of the recent advances in vaccine development related to the use of TLR agonists, summarizes the current knowledge regarding DIP immunogenicity, and discusses the potential applications of DIPs in vaccine adjuvantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andri Vasou
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cyprus, 1 University Avenue, Aglatzia, Nicosia 2109, Cyprus.
| | - Nazife Sultanoglu
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cyprus, 1 University Avenue, Aglatzia, Nicosia 2109, Cyprus.
| | - Stephen Goodbourn
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's, University of London, London SW17 0RE, UK.
| | - Richard E Randall
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, The North Haugh, St Andrews KY16 9ST, UK.
| | - Leondios G Kostrikis
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cyprus, 1 University Avenue, Aglatzia, Nicosia 2109, Cyprus.
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14
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Duncan CJA, Mohamad SMB, Young DF, Skelton AJ, Leahy TR, Munday DC, Butler KM, Morfopoulou S, Brown JR, Hubank M, Connell J, Gavin PJ, McMahon C, Dempsey E, Lynch NE, Jacques TS, Valappil M, Cant AJ, Breuer J, Engelhardt KR, Randall RE, Hambleton S. Human IFNAR2 deficiency: Lessons for antiviral immunity. Sci Transl Med 2016; 7:307ra154. [PMID: 26424569 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aac4227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Type I interferon (IFN-α/β) is a fundamental antiviral defense mechanism. Mouse models have been pivotal to understanding the role of IFN-α/β in immunity, although validation of these findings in humans has been limited. We investigated a previously healthy child with fatal encephalitis after inoculation of the live attenuated measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine. By targeted resequencing, we identified a homozygous mutation in the high-affinity IFN-α/β receptor (IFNAR2) in the proband, as well as a newborn sibling, that rendered cells unresponsive to IFN-α/β. Reconstitution of the proband's cells with wild-type IFNAR2 restored IFN-α/β responsiveness and control of IFN-attenuated viruses. Despite the severe outcome of systemic live vaccine challenge, the proband had previously shown no evidence of heightened susceptibility to respiratory viral pathogens. The phenotype of IFNAR2 deficiency, together with similar findings in STAT2-deficient patients, supports an essential but narrow role for IFN-α/β in human antiviral immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J A Duncan
- Primary Immunodeficiency Group, Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 4LP, UK. Department of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Royal Victoria Infirmary, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 4LP, UK.
| | - Siti M B Mohamad
- Primary Immunodeficiency Group, Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 4LP, UK. Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
| | - Dan F Young
- School of Biology, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Andrew J Skelton
- Bioinformatics Support Unit, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 4LP, UK
| | - T Ronan Leahy
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Our Lady's Children's Hospital, Crumlin, Dublin 12, Ireland
| | - Diane C Munday
- School of Biology, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Karina M Butler
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Our Lady's Children's Hospital, Crumlin, Dublin 12, Ireland
| | - Sofia Morfopoulou
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Julianne R Brown
- Virology Department, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children National Health Service (NHS) Foundation Trust, London WC1N 3JH, UK. National Institutes of Health Research Biomedical Research Centre, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Foundation Trust, London WC1N 3JH, UK
| | - Mike Hubank
- Molecular Haematology and Cancer Biology Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Jeff Connell
- National Virus Reference Laboratory, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Patrick J Gavin
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Our Lady's Children's Hospital, Crumlin, Dublin 12, Ireland
| | - Cathy McMahon
- Department of Pediatric Intensive Care and Anaesthetics, Our Lady's Children's Hospital, Crumlin, Dublin 12, Ireland
| | - Eugene Dempsey
- INFANT Centre, Cork University Maternity Hospital, University College Cork, Ireland
| | - Niamh E Lynch
- Department of Pediatrics, Bon Secours Hospital, Cork, Ireland
| | - Thomas S Jacques
- Developmental Biology and Cancer Programme, University College London Institute of Child Health, London WC1N 1EH, UK
| | - Manoj Valappil
- Public Health England, Royal Victoria Infirmary, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 4LP, UK
| | - Andrew J Cant
- Primary Immunodeficiency Group, Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 4LP, UK. Pediatric Immunology Service, Great North Children's Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 4LP, UK
| | - Judith Breuer
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK. Virology Department, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children National Health Service (NHS) Foundation Trust, London WC1N 3JH, UK
| | - Karin R Engelhardt
- Primary Immunodeficiency Group, Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 4LP, UK
| | - Richard E Randall
- School of Biology, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Sophie Hambleton
- Primary Immunodeficiency Group, Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 4LP, UK. Pediatric Immunology Service, Great North Children's Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 4LP, UK.
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15
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Gage ZO, Vasou A, Gray DW, Randall RE, Adamson CS. Identification of Novel Inhibitors of the Type I Interferon Induction Pathway Using Cell-Based High-Throughput Screening. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 21:978-88. [PMID: 27358388 PMCID: PMC5030734 DOI: 10.1177/1087057116656314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Production of type I interferon (IFN) is an essential component of the innate immune response against invading pathogens. However, its production must be tightly regulated to avoid harmful effects. Compounds that modulate the IFN response are potentially valuable for a variety of applications due to IFN’s beneficial and detrimental roles. We developed and executed a cell-based high-throughput screen (HTS) targeting components that participate in and/or regulate the IRF3 and nuclear factor (NF)–κB branches of the IFN induction pathway. The assay detects activation of the IFN induction pathway via an enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) reporter gene under the control of the IFNβ promoter and was optimized, miniaturized, and demonstrated suitable for HTS as robust Z′ factor scores of >0.6 were consistently achieved. A diversity screening set of 15,667 small molecules was assayed and two novel hit compounds validated that specifically inhibit the IFN induction pathway. We demonstrate that one of these compounds acts at or upstream of IRF3 phosphorylation. A second cell-based assay to detect activation of the IFN signaling (Jak-Stat) pathway via an eGFP reporter gene under the control of an IFN-stimulated response element (ISRE) containing MxA promoter also performed well (robust Z′ factor >0.7) and may therefore be similarly used to identify small molecules that modulate the IFN signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoe O Gage
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, UK Biomedical Sciences Research Complex (BSRC), University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, UK
| | - Andri Vasou
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, UK Biomedical Sciences Research Complex (BSRC), University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, UK
| | - David W Gray
- Drug Discovery Unit, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Richard E Randall
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, UK Biomedical Sciences Research Complex (BSRC), University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, UK
| | - Catherine S Adamson
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, UK Biomedical Sciences Research Complex (BSRC), University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, UK
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16
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Brennan B, Weber F, Kormelink R, Schnettler E, Bouloy M, Failloux AB, Weaver SC, Fazakerley JK, Fragkoudis R, Harris M, Barr JN, Palese P, García-Sastre A, Dalziel RG, Dutia BM, Lowen AC, Steel J, Randall RE, Paul Duprex W, Rice CM, Tesh RB, Murphy FA, Ebihara H, Vasconcelos PFC, Nunes MR, Fooks AR, Smith GL, Goodfellow I, Pappu HR, Lamb RA, Paterson RG, Higgs S, Vanlandingham DL, Dietzgen RG, Stephen Lodmell J, Nichol ST, Daly J, Ullman DE, Plyusnin A, Plyusnina A, Efstathiou S, Hewson R, Tordo N, Cherry S, Boutell C, Hosie MJ, Murcia PR, Neil JC, Palmarini M, Patel AH, Willett BJ, Kohl A, McLauchlan J. In memoriam--Richard M. Elliott (1954-2015). J Gen Virol 2015; 96:1975-1978. [PMID: 26315040 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Brennan
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, UK
| | - Friedemann Weber
- Institute for Virology, FB10 - Veterinary Medicine, Justus-Liebig University, 35392 Gießen, Germany
| | - Richard Kormelink
- Laboratory of Virology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Esther Schnettler
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, UK
| | - Michèle Bouloy
- Institut Pasteur, 25-28 rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France
| | | | - Scott C Weaver
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston National Laboratory, Galveston, TX 77555-0610, USA
| | | | | | - Mark Harris
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - John N Barr
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Peter Palese
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, , New York, NY 10029, USA
| | | | - Robert G Dalziel
- The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | | | - Anice C Lowen
- Emory University School of Medicine, Rollins Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia, GA 30322, USA
| | - John Steel
- Emory University School of Medicine, Rollins Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia, GA 30322, USA
| | - Richard E Randall
- Biomolecular Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews KY16 9ST, UK
| | - W Paul Duprex
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University School of Medicine and National Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratories, Boston University, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Charles M Rice
- Laboratory of Virology & Infectious Disease, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Robert B Tesh
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, USA
| | - Frederick A Murphy
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, USA
| | - Hideki Ebihara
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT 59840, USA
| | - Pedro F C Vasconcelos
- Seção de Arbovirologia e Febres Haemorrágicas, Instituto Evandro Chagas, Ministério da Saúde, CEP 67030000, Ananindeua, Pará, Brasil
| | - Marcio R Nunes
- Seção de Arbovirologia e Febres Haemorrágicas, Instituto Evandro Chagas, Ministério da Saúde, CEP 67030000, Ananindeua, Pará, Brasil
| | - Anthony R Fooks
- APHA Weybridge, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK
| | - Ian Goodfellow
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK
| | - Hanu R Pappu
- Department of Plant Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
| | - Robert A Lamb
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Reay G Paterson
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Stephen Higgs
- Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-7600, USA
| | - Dana L Vanlandingham
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, KS 66506, USA
| | | | - J Stephen Lodmell
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Stuart T Nichol
- Viral Special Pathogens Branch, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, , Atlanta, GA 30329-4027, USA
| | - Janet Daly
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Leicestershire LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Diane E Ullman
- Department of Entomology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | | | | | - Stacey Efstathiou
- National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Blanche Lane, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN6 3QG, UK
| | - Roger Hewson
- Public Health England - Microbiology Services, , Porton Down, Salisbury SP4 0JG, UK
| | - Noël Tordo
- WHO Collaborative Centre for Arboviruses and Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers, OIE Reference Laboratory for RVFV and CCHFV, Institut Pasteur, 25 rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France
| | - Sara Cherry
- University of Pennsylvania, 304K Lynch Laboratories, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Chris Boutell
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, UK
| | - Margaret J Hosie
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, UK
| | - Pablo R Murcia
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, UK
| | - James C Neil
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, UK
| | - Massimo Palmarini
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, UK
| | - Arvind H Patel
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, UK
| | - Brian J Willett
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, UK
| | - Alain Kohl
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, UK
| | - John McLauchlan
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, UK
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17
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Abstract
We summarise the literature regarding activation of the IFN response by influenza viruses. We consider evidence concerning the identity of the viral RNA responsible for IFN induction. The link between IFN induction and defective virus genomes is discussed.
The host interferon (IFN) response represents one of the first barriers that influenza viruses must surmount in order to establish an infection. Many advances have been made in recent years in understanding the interactions between influenza viruses and the interferon system. In this review, we summarise recent work regarding activation of the type I IFN response by influenza viruses, including attempts to identify the viral RNA responsible for IFN induction, the stage of the virus life cycle at which it is generated and the role of defective viruses in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marian J Killip
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, UK; Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK.
| | - Ervin Fodor
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK
| | - Richard E Randall
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, UK
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18
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Abstract
Virus replication efficiency is influenced by two conflicting factors, kinetics of the cellular interferon (IFN) response and induction of an antiviral state versus speed of virus replication and virus-induced inhibition of the IFN response. Disablement of a virus's capacity to circumvent the IFN response enables both basic research and various practical applications. However, such IFN-sensitive viruses can be difficult to grow to high-titer in cells that produce and respond to IFN. The current default option for growing IFN-sensitive viruses is restricted to a limited selection of cell-lines (e.g. Vero cells) that have lost their ability to produce IFN. This study demonstrates that supplementing tissue-culture medium with an IFN inhibitor provides a simple, effective and flexible approach to increase the growth of IFN-sensitive viruses in a cell-line of choice. We report that IFN inhibitors targeting components of the IFN response (TBK1, IKK2, JAK1) significantly increased virus replication. More specifically, the JAK1/2 inhibitor Ruxolitinib enhances the growth of viruses that are sensitive to IFN due to (i) loss of function of the viral IFN antagonist (due to mutation or species-specific constraints) or (ii) mutations/host cell constraints that slow virus spread such that it can be controlled by the IFN response. This was demonstrated for a variety of viruses, including, viruses with disabled IFN antagonists that represent live-attenuated vaccine candidates (Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV), Influenza Virus), traditionally attenuated vaccine strains (Measles, Mumps) and a slow-growing wild-type virus (RSV). In conclusion, supplementing tissue culture-medium with an IFN inhibitor to increase the growth of IFN-sensitive viruses in a cell-line of choice represents an approach, which is broadly applicable to research investigating the importance of the IFN response in controlling virus infections and has utility in a number of practical applications including vaccine and oncolytic virus production, virus diagnostics and techniques to isolate newly emerging viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire E. Stewart
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Richard E. Randall
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Catherine S. Adamson
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife, Scotland, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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19
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Pérez-Cidoncha M, Killip MJ, Asensio VJ, Fernández Y, Bengoechea JA, Randall RE, Ortín J. Generation of replication-proficient influenza virus NS1 point mutants with interferon-hyperinducer phenotype. PLoS One 2014; 9:e98668. [PMID: 24887174 PMCID: PMC4041880 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0098668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2014] [Accepted: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The NS1 protein of influenza A viruses is the dedicated viral interferon (IFN)-antagonist. Viruses lacking NS1 protein expression cannot multiply in normal cells but are viable in cells deficient in their ability to produce or respond to IFN. Here we report an unbiased mutagenesis approach to identify positions in the influenza A NS1 protein that modulate the IFN response upon infection. A random library of virus ribonucleoproteins containing circa 40 000 point mutants in NS1 were transferred to infectious virus and amplified in MDCK cells unable to respond to interferon. Viruses that activated the interferon (IFN) response were subsequently selected by their ability to induce expression of green-fluorescent protein (GFP) following infection of A549 cells bearing an IFN promoter-dependent GFP gene. Using this approach we isolated individual mutant viruses that replicate to high titers in IFN-compromised cells but, compared to wild type viruses, induced higher levels of IFN in IFN-competent cells and had a reduced capacity to counteract exogenous IFN. Most of these viruses contained not previously reported NS1 mutations within either the RNA-binding domain, the effector domain or the linker region between them. These results indicate that subtle alterations in NS1 can reduce its effectiveness as an IFN antagonist without affecting the intrinsic capacity of the virus to multiply. The general approach reported here may facilitate the generation of replication-proficient, IFN-inducing virus mutants, that potentially could be developed as attenuated vaccines against a variety of viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maite Pérez-Cidoncha
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
- Ciber de Enfermedades Respiratorias (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
| | - Marian J. Killip
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Víctor J. Asensio
- Fundació d'Investigació Sanitària de les Illes Balears (FISIB), Bunyola, Mallorca, Spain
| | - Yolanda Fernández
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
- Ciber de Enfermedades Respiratorias (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
| | - José A. Bengoechea
- Laboratory Microbial Pathogenesis, Fundació d'Investigació Sanitària de les Illes Balears (FISIB), Bunyola, Mallorca, Spain
- Ciber de Enfermedades Respiratorias (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
| | - Richard E. Randall
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Juan Ortín
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
- Ciber de Enfermedades Respiratorias (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
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20
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Abstract
The DExD/H box RNA helicases retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I) and melanoma differentiation associated gene-5 (mda-5) sense viral RNA in the cytoplasm of infected cells and activate signal transduction pathways that trigger the production of type I interferons (IFNs). Laboratory of genetics and physiology 2 (LGP2) is thought to influence IFN production by regulating the activity of RIG-I and mda-5, although its mechanism of action is not known and its function is controversial. Here we show that expression of LGP2 potentiates IFN induction by polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid [poly(I:C)], commonly used as a synthetic mimic of viral dsRNA, and that this is particularly significant at limited levels of the inducer. The observed enhancement is mediated through co-operation with mda-5, which depends upon LGP2 for maximal activation in response to poly(I:C). This co-operation is dependent upon dsRNA binding by LGP2, and the presence of helicase domain IV, both of which are required for LGP2 to interact with mda-5. In contrast, although RIG-I can also be activated by poly(I:C), LGP2 does not have the ability to enhance IFN induction by RIG-I, and instead acts as an inhibitor of RIG-I-dependent poly(I:C) signaling. Thus the level of LGP2 expression is a critical factor in determining the cellular sensitivity to induction by dsRNA, and this may be important for rapid activation of the IFN response at early times post-infection when the levels of inducer are low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kay S. Childs
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, St. George's, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Richard E. Randall
- School of Biology, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen Goodbourn
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, St. George's, University of London, London, United Kingdom
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21
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Andrejeva J, Norsted H, Habjan M, Thiel V, Goodbourn S, Randall RE. ISG56/IFIT1 is primarily responsible for interferon-induced changes to patterns of parainfluenza virus type 5 transcription and protein synthesis. J Gen Virol 2012; 94:59-68. [PMID: 23052390 PMCID: PMC3542720 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.046797-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Interferon (IFN) induces an antiviral state in cells that results in alterations of the patterns and levels of parainfluenza virus type 5 (PIV5) transcripts and proteins. This study reports that IFN-stimulated gene 56/IFN-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeats 1 (ISG56/IFIT1) is primarily responsible for these effects of IFN. It was shown that treating cells with IFN after infection resulted in an increase in virus transcription but an overall decrease in virus protein synthesis. As there was no obvious decrease in the overall levels of cellular protein synthesis in infected cells treated with IFN, these results suggested that ISG56/IFIT1 selectively inhibits the translation of viral mRNAs. This conclusion was supported by in vitro translation studies. Previous work has shown that ISG56/IFIT1 can restrict the replication of viruses lacking a 2′-O-methyltransferase activity, an enzyme that methylates the 2′-hydroxyl group of ribose sugars in the 5′-cap structures of mRNA. However, the data in the current study strongly suggested that PIV5 mRNAs are methylated at the 2′-hydroxyl group and thus that ISG56/IFIT1 selectively inhibits the translation of PIV5 mRNA by some as yet unrecognized mechanism. It was also shown that ISG56/IFIT1 is primarily responsible for the IFN-induced inhibition of PIV5.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Andrejeva
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, BMS Building, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, UK
| | - H Norsted
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, BMS Building, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, UK
| | - M Habjan
- Kantonal Hospital St Gallen, Institute of Immunobiology, CH-9007 St Gallen, Switzerland
| | - V Thiel
- Kantonal Hospital St Gallen, Institute of Immunobiology, CH-9007 St Gallen, Switzerland
| | - S Goodbourn
- Division of Basic Medical Sciences, St George's, University of London, London SW17 0RE, UK
| | - R E Randall
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, BMS Building, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, UK
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22
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Hoeve MA, Nash AA, Jackson D, Randall RE, Dransfield I. Influenza virus A infection of human monocyte and macrophage subpopulations reveals increased susceptibility associated with cell differentiation. PLoS One 2012; 7:e29443. [PMID: 22238612 PMCID: PMC3251590 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2011] [Accepted: 11/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza virus infection accounts for significant morbidity and mortality world-wide. Interactions of the virus with host cells, particularly those of the macrophage lineage, are thought to contribute to various pathological changes associated with poor patient outcome. Development of new strategies to treat disease therefore requires a detailed understanding of the impact of virus infection upon cellular responses. Here we report that human blood-derived monocytes could be readily infected with the H3N2 influenza virus A/Udorn/72 (Udorn), irrespective of their phenotype (CD14(++)/CD16(-), CD14(++)/CD16(+) or CD14(dim)CD16(++)), as determined by multi-colour flow cytometry for viral haemagglutinin (HA) expression and cell surface markers 8-16 hours post infection. Monocytes are relatively resistant to influenza-induced cell death early in infection, as approximately 20% of cells showed influenza-induced caspase-dependent apoptosis. Infection of monocytes with Udorn also induced the release of IL-6, IL-8, TNFα and IP-10, suggesting that NS1 protein of Udorn does not (effectively) inhibit this host defence response in human monocytes. Comparative analysis of human monocyte-derived macrophages (Mph) demonstrated greater susceptibility to human influenza virus than monocytes, with the majority of both pro-inflammatory Mph1 and anti-inflammatory/regulatory Mph2 cells expressing viral HA after infection with Udorn. Influenza infection of macrophages also induced cytokine and chemokine production. However, both Mph1 and Mph2 phenotypes released comparable amounts of TNFα, IL-12p40 and IP-10 after infection with H3N2, in marked contrast to differential responses to LPS-stimulation. In addition, we found that influenza virus infection augmented the capacity of poorly phagocytic Mph1 cells to phagocytose apoptotic cells by a mechanism that was independent of either IL-10 or the Mer receptor tyrosine kinase/Protein S pathway. In summary, our data reveal that influenza virus infection of human macrophages causes functional alterations that may impact on the process of resolution of inflammation, with implications for viral clearance and lung pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marieke A. Hoeve
- MRC Centre for Inflammation and Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Anthony A. Nash
- Centre for Infectious Diseases, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - David Jackson
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Richard E. Randall
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Ian Dransfield
- MRC Centre for Inflammation and Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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23
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Killip MJ, Young DF, Precious BL, Goodbourn S, Randall RE. Activation of the beta interferon promoter by paramyxoviruses in the absence of virus protein synthesis. J Gen Virol 2011; 93:299-307. [PMID: 22049094 PMCID: PMC3352343 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.037531-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Conflicting reports exist regarding the requirement for virus replication in interferon (IFN) induction by paramyxoviruses. Our previous work has demonstrated that pathogen-associated molecular patterns capable of activating the IFN-induction cascade are not normally generated during virus replication, but are associated instead with the presence of defective interfering (DI) viruses. We demonstrate here that DIs of paramyxoviruses, including parainfluenza virus 5, mumps virus and Sendai virus, can activate the IFN-induction cascade and the IFN-β promoter in the absence of virus protein synthesis. As virus protein synthesis is an absolute requirement for paramyxovirus genome replication, our results indicate that these DI viruses do not require replication to activate the IFN-induction cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Killip
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, BMS Building, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, UK
| | - D F Young
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, BMS Building, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, UK
| | - B L Precious
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, BMS Building, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, UK
| | - S Goodbourn
- Division of Basic Medical Sciences, St George's, University of London, London SW17 0RE, UK
| | - R E Randall
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, BMS Building, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, UK
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24
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Killip MJ, Young DF, Ross CS, Chen S, Goodbourn S, Randall RE. Failure to activate the IFN-β promoter by a paramyxovirus lacking an interferon antagonist. Virology 2011; 415:39-46. [PMID: 21511322 PMCID: PMC3107429 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2011.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2011] [Revised: 03/21/2011] [Accepted: 03/31/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
It is generally thought that pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) responsible for triggering interferon (IFN) induction are produced during virus replication and, to limit the activation of the IFN response by these PAMPs, viruses encode antagonists of IFN induction. Here we have studied the induction of IFN by parainfluenza virus type 5 (PIV5) at the single-cell level, using a cell line expressing GFP under the control of the IFN-β promoter. We demonstrate that a recombinant PIV5 (termed PIV5-VΔC) that lacks a functional V protein (the viral IFN antagonist) does not activate the IFN-β promoter in the majority of infected cells. We conclude that viral PAMPs capable of activating the IFN induction cascade are not produced or exposed during the normal replication cycle of PIV5, and suggest instead that defective viruses are primarily responsible for inducing IFN during PIV5 infection in this system.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Killip
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, North Haugh, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, UK
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25
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Kerry PS, Ayllon J, Taylor MA, Hass C, Lewis A, García-Sastre A, Randall RE, Hale BG, Russell RJ. A transient homotypic interaction model for the influenza A virus NS1 protein effector domain. PLoS One 2011; 6:e17946. [PMID: 21464929 PMCID: PMC3065461 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0017946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2010] [Accepted: 02/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus NS1 protein is a multifunctional virulence factor consisting of an RNA binding domain (RBD), a short linker, an effector domain (ED), and a C-terminal 'tail'. Although poorly understood, NS1 multimerization may autoregulate its actions. While RBD dimerization seems functionally conserved, two possible apo ED dimers have been proposed (helix-helix and strand-strand). Here, we analyze all available RBD, ED, and full-length NS1 structures, including four novel crystal structures obtained using EDs from divergent human and avian viruses, as well as two forms of a monomeric ED mutant. The data reveal the helix-helix interface as the only strictly conserved ED homodimeric contact. Furthermore, a mutant NS1 unable to form the helix-helix dimer is compromised in its ability to bind dsRNA efficiently, implying that ED multimerization influences RBD activity. Our bioinformatical work also suggests that the helix-helix interface is variable and transient, thereby allowing two ED monomers to twist relative to one another and possibly separate. In this regard, we found a mAb that recognizes NS1 via a residue completely buried within the ED helix-helix interface, and which may help highlight potential different conformational populations of NS1 (putatively termed 'helix-closed' and 'helix-open') in virus-infected cells. 'Helix-closed' conformations appear to enhance dsRNA binding, and 'helix-open' conformations allow otherwise inaccessible interactions with host factors. Our data support a new model of NS1 regulation in which the RBD remains dimeric throughout infection, while the ED switches between several quaternary states in order to expand its functional space. Such a concept may be applicable to other small multifunctional proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip S. Kerry
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, United Kingdom
| | - Juan Ayllon
- Department of Microbiology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Margaret A. Taylor
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, United Kingdom
| | - Claudia Hass
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Lewis
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, United Kingdom
| | - Adolfo García-Sastre
- Department of Microbiology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Richard E. Randall
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin G. Hale
- Department of Microbiology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Rupert J. Russell
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, United Kingdom
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26
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Chen S, Short JAL, Young DF, Killip MJ, Schneider M, Goodbourn S, Randall RE. Heterocellular induction of interferon by negative-sense RNA viruses. Virology 2010; 407:247-55. [PMID: 20833406 PMCID: PMC2963793 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2010.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2010] [Accepted: 08/11/2010] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The infection of cells by RNA viruses is associated with the recognition of virus PAMPs (pathogen-associated molecular patterns) and the production of type I interferon (IFN). To counter this, most, if not all, RNA viruses encode antagonists of the IFN system. Here we present data on the dynamics of IFN production and response during developing infections by paramyxoviruses, influenza A virus and bunyamwera virus. We show that only a limited number of infected cells are responsible for the production of IFN, and that this heterocellular production is a feature of the infecting virus as opposed to an intrinsic property of the cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Chen
- School of Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, BMS Building, North Haugh, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, UK
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27
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Abstract
Experimentally, paramyxoviruses are conventionally considered good inducers of type I interferons (IFN-alpha/beta), and have been used as agents in the commercial production of human IFN-alpha. However, in the last few years it has become clear that viruses in general mount a major challenge to the IFN system, and paramyxoviruses are no exception. Indeed, most paramyxoviruses encode mechanisms to inhibit both the production of, and response to, type I IFN. Here we review our knowledge of the type I IFN-inducing signals (by so-called pathogen-associated molecular patterns, or PAMPs) produced during paramyxovirus infections, and discuss how paramyxoviruses limit the production of PAMPs and inhibit the cellular responses to PAMPs by interfering with the activities of the pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), mda-5, and RIG-I, as well as downstream components in the type I IFN induction cascades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Goodbourn
- Division of Basic Medical Sciences, St. George's, University of London, London, United Kingdom
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28
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Young DF, Galiano MC, Lemon K, Chen YH, Andrejeva J, Duprex WP, Rima BK, Randall RE. Mumps virus Enders strain is sensitive to interferon (IFN) despite encoding a functional IFN antagonist. J Gen Virol 2009; 90:2731-2738. [PMID: 19625458 PMCID: PMC2885035 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.013722-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the Enders strain of mumps virus (MuV) encodes a functional V protein that acts as an interferon (IFN) antagonist, in multi-cycle growth assays MuV Enders grew poorly in naïve ('IFN-competent' Hep2) cells but grew to high titres in 'IFN-compromised' Hep2 cells. Even so, the growth rate of MuV Enders was significantly slower in 'IFN-compromised' Hep2 cells when compared with its replication rate in Vero cells and with the replication rate of parainfluenza virus type 5 (a closely related paramyxovirus) in both naïve and 'IFN-compromised' Hep2 cells. This suggests that a consequence of slower growth is that the IFN system of naïve Hep2 cells can respond quickly enough to control the growth of MuV Enders. This is supported by the finding that rapidly growing variants of MuV Enders that were selected on 'IFN-compromised' Hep2 cells (i.e. in the absence of any selection pressure exerted by the IFN response) also grew to high titres on naïve Hep2 cells. Sequencing of the complete genome of one of these variants identified a single point mutation that resulted in a substitution of a conserved asparagine by histidine at position 498 of the haemagglutinin-neuraminidase protein, although this mutation was not present in all rapidly growing variants. These results support the concept that there is a race between the ability of a cell to detect and respond to virus infection and the ability of a virus to block the IFN response. Importantly, this emphasizes that factors other than viral IFN antagonists influence the sensitivity of viruses to IFN.
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Affiliation(s)
- D F Young
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, UK
| | - M C Galiano
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, UK
| | - K Lemon
- Centre for Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, The Queen's University of Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Y-H Chen
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, UK
| | - J Andrejeva
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, UK
| | - W P Duprex
- Centre for Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, The Queen's University of Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK
| | - B K Rima
- Centre for Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, The Queen's University of Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK
| | - R E Randall
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, UK
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Carlos TS, Young DF, Schneider M, Simas JP, Randall RE. Parainfluenza virus 5 genomes are located in viral cytoplasmic bodies whilst the virus dismantles the interferon-induced antiviral state of cells. J Gen Virol 2009; 90:2147-56. [PMID: 19458173 PMCID: PMC2885057 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.012047-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the replication cycle of parainfluenza virus type 5 (PIV5) is initially severely impaired in cells in an interferon (IFN)-induced antiviral state, the virus still targets STAT1 for degradation. As a consequence, the cells can no longer respond to IFN and after 24−48 h, they go out of the antiviral state and normal virus replication is established. Following infection of cells in an IFN-induced antiviral state, viral nucleocapsid proteins are initially localized within small cytoplasmic bodies, and appearance of these cytoplasmic bodies correlates with the loss of STAT1 from infected cells. In situ hybridization, using probes specific for the NP and L genes, demonstrated the presence of virus genomes within these cytoplasmic bodies. These viral cytoplasmic bodies do not co-localize with cellular markers for stress granules, cytoplasmic P-bodies or autophagosomes. Furthermore, they are not large insoluble aggregates of viral proteins and/or nucleocapsids, as they can simply and easily be dispersed by ‘cold-shocking’ live cells, a process that disrupts the cytoskeleton. Given that during in vivo infections, PIV5 will inevitably infect cells in an IFN-induced antiviral state, we suggest that these cytoplasmic bodies are areas in which PIV5 genomes reside whilst the virus dismantles the antiviral state of the cells. Consequently, viral cytoplasmic bodies may play an important part in the strategy that PIV5 uses to circumvent the IFN system.
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Affiliation(s)
- T S Carlos
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, Scotland, UK
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Gallacher M, Brown SG, Hale BG, Fearns R, Olver RE, Randall RE, Wilson SM. Cation currents in human airway epithelial cells induced by infection with influenza A virus. J Physiol 2009; 587:3159-73. [PMID: 19403603 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2009.171223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A viruses cause lung disease via an incompletely understood mechanism that involves the accumulation of liquid within the lungs. The accumulation of lung liquid is normally prevented by epithelial Na(+) absorption, a transport process regulated via several pathways including phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K). Since the influenza A virus encodes a non-structural protein (NS1) that can activate this kinase, we now explore the effects of NS1 upon the biophysical properties of human airway epithelial cells. Transient expression of NS1 depolarized electrically isolated cells maintained in glucocorticoid-free medium by activating a cation conductance identical to the glucocorticoid-induced conductance seen in single cells. This response involved PI3K-independent and PI3K-dependent mechanisms. Infecting glucocorticoid-deprived cells with influenza A virus disrupted the normal electrical coupling between neighbouring cells, but also activated a conductance identical to that induced by NS1. This response to virus infection was only partially dependent upon NS1-mediated activation of PI3K. The presence of NS1 allows influenza A to modify the biophysical properties of infected cells by activating a Na(+)-permeable conductance. Whilst the activation of Na(+)-permeable channels may be expected to increase the rate of Na(+) absorption and thus reduce the volume of liquid in the lung, liquid does normally accumulate in influenza A-infected lungs. The overall effect of influenza A on lung liquid volume may therefore reflect a balance between the activation and inhibition of Na(+)-permeable channels.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Gallacher
- Centre for Cardiovascular and Lung Research, University of Dundee, UK
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Abstract
The non-structural (NS1) protein of influenza A viruses is a non-essential virulence factor that has multiple accessory functions during viral infection. In recent years, the major role ascribed to NS1 has been its inhibition of host immune responses, especially the limitation of both interferon (IFN) production and the antiviral effects of IFN-induced proteins, such as dsRNA-dependent protein kinase R (PKR) and 2'5'-oligoadenylate synthetase (OAS)/RNase L. However, it is clear that NS1 also acts directly to modulate other important aspects of the virus replication cycle, including viral RNA replication, viral protein synthesis, and general host-cell physiology. Here, we review the current literature on this remarkably multifunctional viral protein. In the first part of this article, we summarize the basic biochemistry of NS1, in particular its synthesis, structure, and intracellular localization. We then discuss the various roles NS1 has in regulating viral replication mechanisms, host innate/adaptive immune responses, and cellular signalling pathways. We focus on the NS1-RNA and NS1-protein interactions that are fundamental to these processes, and highlight apparent strain-specific ways in which different NS1 proteins may act. In this regard, the contributions of certain NS1 functions to the pathogenicity of human and animal influenza A viruses are also discussed. Finally, we outline practical applications that future studies on NS1 may lead to, including the rational design and manufacture of influenza vaccines, the development of novel antiviral drugs, and the use of oncolytic influenza A viruses as potential anti-cancer agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin G Hale
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Richard E Randall
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Juan Ortín
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CSIC), Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - David Jackson
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, UK
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Potter JA, Randall RE, Taylor GL. Crystal structure of human IPS-1/MAVS/VISA/Cardif caspase activation recruitment domain. BMC Struct Biol 2008; 8:11. [PMID: 18307765 PMCID: PMC2291057 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6807-8-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2007] [Accepted: 02/28/2008] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Background IPS-1/MAVS/VISA/Cardif is an adaptor protein that plays a crucial role in the induction of interferons in response to viral infection. In the initial stage of the intracellular antiviral response two RNA helicases, retinoic acid inducible gene-I (RIG-I) and melanoma differentiation-association gene 5 (MDA5), are independently able to bind viral RNA in the cytoplasm. The 62 kDa protein IPS-1/MAVS/VISA/Cardif contains an N-terminal caspase activation and recruitment (CARD) domain that associates with the CARD regions of RIG-I and MDA5, ultimately leading to the induction of type I interferons. As a first step towards understanding the molecular basis of this important adaptor protein we have undertaken structural studies of the IPS-1 MAVS/VISA/Cardif CARD region. Results The crystal structure of human IPS-1/MAVS/VISA/Cardif CARD has been determined to 2.1Å resolution. The protein was expressed and crystallized as a maltose-binding protein (MBP) fusion protein. The MBP and IPS-1 components each form a distinct domain within the structure. IPS-1/MAVS/VISA/Cardif CARD adopts a characteristic six-helix bundle with a Greek-key topology and, in common with a number of other known CARD structures, contains two major polar surfaces on opposite sides of the molecule. One face has a surface-exposed, disordered tryptophan residue that may explain the poor solubility of untagged expression constructs. Conclusion The IPS-1/MAVS/VISA/Cardif CARD domain adopts the classic CARD fold with an asymmetric surface charge distribution that is typical of CARD domains involved in homotypic protein-protein interactions. The location of the two polar areas on IPS-1/MAVS/VISA/Cardif CARD suggest possible types of associations that this domain makes with the two CARD domains of MDA5 or RIG-I. The N-terminal CARD domains of RIG-I and MDA5 share greatest sequence similarity with IPS-1/MAVS/VISA/Cardif CARD and this has allowed modelling of their structures. These models show a very different charge profile for the equivalent surfaces compared to IPS-1/MAVS/VISA/Cardif CARD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane A Potter
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, UK.
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Randall RE, Goodbourn S. Interferons and viruses: an interplay between induction, signalling, antiviral responses and virus countermeasures. J Gen Virol 2008; 89:1-47. [PMID: 18089727 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.83391-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1203] [Impact Index Per Article: 75.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The interferon (IFN) system is an extremely powerful antiviral response that is capable of controlling most, if not all, virus infections in the absence of adaptive immunity. However, viruses can still replicate and cause disease in vivo, because they have some strategy for at least partially circumventing the IFN response. We reviewed this topic in 2000 [Goodbourn, S., Didcock, L. & Randall, R. E. (2000). J Gen Virol 81, 2341-2364] but, since then, a great deal has been discovered about the molecular mechanisms of the IFN response and how different viruses circumvent it. This information is of fundamental interest, but may also have practical application in the design and manufacture of attenuated virus vaccines and the development of novel antiviral drugs. In the first part of this review, we describe how viruses activate the IFN system, how IFNs induce transcription of their target genes and the mechanism of action of IFN-induced proteins with antiviral action. In the second part, we describe how viruses circumvent the IFN response. Here, we reflect upon possible consequences for both the virus and host of the different strategies that viruses have evolved and discuss whether certain viruses have exploited the IFN response to modulate their life cycle (e.g. to establish and maintain persistent/latent infections), whether perturbation of the IFN response by persistent infections can lead to chronic disease, and the importance of the IFN system as a species barrier to virus infections. Lastly, we briefly describe applied aspects that arise from an increase in our knowledge in this area, including vaccine design and manufacture, the development of novel antiviral drugs and the use of IFN-sensitive oncolytic viruses in the treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard E Randall
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, The North Haugh, St Andrews KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Stephen Goodbourn
- Division of Basic Medical Sciences, St George's, University of London, London SW17 0RE, UK
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Hale BG, Batty IH, Downes CP, Randall RE. Binding of influenza A virus NS1 protein to the inter-SH2 domain of p85 suggests a novel mechanism for phosphoinositide 3-kinase activation. J Biol Chem 2007; 283:1372-1380. [PMID: 18029356 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m708862200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus NS1 protein stimulates host-cell phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling by binding to the p85beta regulatory subunit of PI3K. Here, in an attempt to establish a mechanism for this activation, we report further on the functional interaction between NS1 and p85beta. Complex formation was found to be independent of NS1 RNA binding activity and is mediated by the C-terminal effector domain of NS1. Intriguingly, the primary direct binding site for NS1 on p85beta is the inter-SH2 domain, a coiled-coil structure that acts as a scaffold for the p110 catalytic subunit of PI3K. In vitro kinase activity assays, together with protein binding competition studies, reveal that NS1 does not displace p110 from the inter-SH2 domain, and indicate that NS1 can form an active heterotrimeric complex with PI3K. In addition, it was established that residues at the C terminus of the inter-SH2 domain are essential for mediating the interaction between p85beta and NS1. Equivalent residues in p85alpha have previously been implicated in the basal inhibition of p110. However, such p85alpha residues were unable to substitute for those in p85beta with regards NS1 binding. Overall, these data suggest a model by which NS1 activates PI3K catalytic activity by masking a normal regulatory element specific to the p85beta inter-SH2 domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin G Hale
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, United Kingdom.
| | - Ian H Batty
- Division of Molecular Physiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - C Peter Downes
- Division of Molecular Physiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Richard E Randall
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
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Abstract
Recent work has demonstrated that the PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase) signalling pathway is important for efficient influenza A virus replication. Activation of PI3K in virus-infected cells is mediated by the viral NS1 protein, which binds directly to the p85beta regulatory subunit of PI3K and causes the PI3K-dependent phosphorylation of Akt (protein kinase B). Given that recombinant influenza A viruses unable to activate PI3K signalling are attenuated in tissue culture, the PI3K pathway could be a novel target for the development of future anti-influenza drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- B G Hale
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, UK.
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36
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Precious BL, Carlos TS, Goodbourn S, Randall RE. Catalytic turnover of STAT1 allows PIV5 to dismantle the interferon-induced anti-viral state of cells. Virology 2007; 368:114-21. [PMID: 17640695 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2007.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2007] [Revised: 05/30/2007] [Accepted: 06/15/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
A dynamic model of STAT1 degradation by the V protein of parainfluenza virus 5 (PIV5; formerly SV5) has been proposed. In it, the V protein functions as a bipartite adaptor linking DDB1, a component of a cellular SCF-like ubiquitin E3 ligase complex, to STAT2, which in turn binds STAT1 and presents STAT1 to the E3 ligase complex for ubiquitination and subsequent degradation. Furthermore, it appears that loss of STAT1 from the complex results in decreased affinity of V for STAT2 such that STAT2 either dissociates from V or is displaced by STAT1/STAT2 complexes, facilitating the cycling of the DDB1/PIV5 V containing E3 complex for further rounds of STAT1 ubiquitination and degradation. By determining the approximate number of molecules of V, DDB1, STAT1 and STAT2 present in IFN-treated 2fTGH cells, we provide additional evidence for this dynamic model of STAT1 degradation. These results show that (i) in IFN-treated cells there is approximately 4-fold less STAT2 and 15-fold less DDB1 than STAT1 per cell and thus DDB1 and STAT2 must repeatedly acquire more STAT1 for degradation to go to completion, and (ii) approximately 600 molecules of V protein per cell can target as many as 120,000 molecules of STAT1 for degradation in the absence of either viral or cellular protein synthesis. The importance of this mechanism in terms of the ability of the virus to dismantle the IFN-induced anti-viral state of cells is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- B L Precious
- School of Biology, University of St. Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, Scotland, UK
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Young DF, Carlos TS, Hagmaier K, Fan L, Randall RE. AGS and other tissue culture cells can unknowingly be persistently infected with PIV5; a virus that blocks interferon signalling by degrading STAT1. Virology 2007; 365:238-40. [PMID: 17509637 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2007.03.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2007] [Accepted: 03/27/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Whilst screening various cell lines for their ability to respond to interferon (IFN), we noted that in comparison to other tissue culture cells AGS tumour cells, which are widely used in biomedical research, had very low levels of STAT1. Subsequent analysis showed that the reason for this is that AGS cells are persistently infected with parainfluenza virus type 5 (PIV5; formally known as SV5), a virus that blocks the interferon (IFN) response by targeting STAT1 for proteasome-mediated degradation. Virus protein expression in AGS is altered in comparison to the normal pattern of virus protein synthesis observed in acutely infected cells, suggesting that the AGS virus is defective. We discuss the relevance of these results in terms of the need to screen cell lines for persistent virus infections that can alter cellular functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- D F Young
- School of Biology, University of St. Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, Scotland, UK
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Sherwood V, Burgert HG, Chen YH, Sanghera S, Katafigiotis S, Randall RE, Connerton I, Mellits KH. Improved growth of enteric adenovirus type 40 in a modified cell line that can no longer respond to interferon stimulation. J Gen Virol 2007; 88:71-76. [PMID: 17170438 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.82445-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Human enteric adenoviruses propagate poorly in conventional human cell lines used to grow other adenovirus serotypes. As human enteric adenoviruses have a defect in counteracting the cellular interferon (IFN) response in cell culture, to aid in growth of the virus, a 293-based cell line defective in its ability to respond to IFN was constructed. This cell line (293-SV5/V) constitutively expresses V-protein of the paramyxovirus Simian virus 5, which degrades the signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) and thereby prevents the STAT1-mediated IFN response. Analysis of human enteric adenovirus type 40 (HAdV-40)-infected 293-SV5/V cells compared with parental 293 cells shows that the recombinant line allows more rapid production of virus and results in higher titres. These results suggest that the defect in HAdV-40 in counteracting the IFN response can be overcome at least partially through the use of 293-SV5/V cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Sherwood
- Division of Food Sciences, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonnington Campus, Loughborough LE12 5RD, UK
| | | | - Yun-Hsiang Chen
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS, UK
| | - Sandeep Sanghera
- Division of Food Sciences, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonnington Campus, Loughborough LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Socrates Katafigiotis
- Division of Food Sciences, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonnington Campus, Loughborough LE12 5RD, UK
| | | | - Ian Connerton
- Division of Food Sciences, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonnington Campus, Loughborough LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Kenneth H Mellits
- Division of Food Sciences, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonnington Campus, Loughborough LE12 5RD, UK
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Carlos TS, Young D, Stertz S, Kochs G, Randall RE. Interferon-induced inhibition of parainfluenza virus type 5; the roles of MxA, PKR and oligo A synthetase/RNase L. Virology 2007; 363:166-73. [PMID: 17307214 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2007.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2006] [Revised: 12/21/2006] [Accepted: 01/10/2007] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We have previously reported that the addition of interferon (IFN) to the culture medium of Vero cells (which cannot produce IFN) that were infected with the CPI- strain of parainfluenza virus 5 (PIV5, formally known as SV5), that fails to block IFN signaling, rapidly induces alterations in the relative levels of virus mRNA and protein synthesis. In addition, IFN treatment also caused a rapid redistribution of virus proteins and enhanced the formation of cytoplasmic viral inclusion bodies. The most studied IFN-induced genes with known anti-viral activity are MxA, PKR and the Oligo A synthetase/RNase L system. We therefore examined the effects of these proteins on the replication cycle of PIV5. These studies revealed that while these proteins had some anti-viral activity against PIV5 they were not primarily responsible for the very rapid alteration in virus protein synthesis observed following IFN treatment, nor for the IFN-induced formation of virus inclusion bodies, in CPI- infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- T S Carlos
- School of Biology, University of St. Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, Scotland, UK
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40
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Hale BG, Jackson D, Chen YH, Lamb RA, Randall RE. Influenza A virus NS1 protein binds p85beta and activates phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase signaling. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:14194-9. [PMID: 16963558 PMCID: PMC1599933 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0606109103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 240] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus NS1 is a multifunctional protein, and in virus-infected cells NS1 modulates a number of host-cell processes by interacting with cellular factors. Here, we report that NS1 binds directly to p85beta, a regulatory subunit of phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K), but not to the related p85alpha subunit. Activation of PI3K in influenza virus-infected cells depended on genome replication, and showed kinetics that correlated with NS1 expression. Additionally, it was found that expression of NS1 alone was sufficient to constitutively activate PI3K, causing the phosphorylation of a downstream mediator of PI3K signal transduction, Akt. Mutational analysis of a potential SH2-binding motif within NS1 indicated that the highly conserved tyrosine at residue 89 is important for both the interaction with p85beta, and the activation of PI3K. A mutant influenza virus (A/Udorn/72) expressing NS1 with the Y89F amino acid substitution exhibited a small-plaque phenotype, and grew more slowly in tissue culture than WT virus. These data suggest that activation of PI3K signaling in influenza A virus-infected cells is important for efficient virus replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin G. Hale
- *Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, United Kingdom; and
| | - David Jackson
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208-3500
| | - Yun-Hsiang Chen
- *Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, United Kingdom; and
| | - Robert A. Lamb
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208-3500
| | - Richard E. Randall
- *Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, United Kingdom; and
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Hilton L, Moganeradj K, Zhang G, Chen YH, Randall RE, McCauley JW, Goodbourn S. The NPro product of bovine viral diarrhea virus inhibits DNA binding by interferon regulatory factor 3 and targets it for proteasomal degradation. J Virol 2006; 80:11723-32. [PMID: 16971436 PMCID: PMC1642611 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01145-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 203] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is a pestivirus that can establish a persistent infection in the developing fetus and has the ability to disable the production of type I interferon. In this report, we extend our previous observations that BVDV encodes a protein able to specifically block the activity of interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3), a transcription factor essential for interferon promoter activation, by demonstrating that this is a property of the N-terminal protease fragment (NPro) of the BVDV polyprotein. Although BVDV infections cause relocalization of cellular IRF-3 from the cytoplasm to the nucleus early in infection, NPro blocks IRF-3 from binding to DNA. NPro has the additional property of targeting IRF-3 for polyubiquitination and subsequent destruction by cellular multicatalytic proteasomes. The autoprotease activity of NPro is not required for the inhibition of type I interferon induction or the targeting of IRF-3 for degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Hilton
- Division of Basic Medical Sciences, St. George's, University of London, London SW17 0RE, United Kingdom
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42
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Bissonnette MLZ, Connolly SA, Young DF, Randall RE, Paterson RG, Lamb RA. Analysis of the pH requirement for membrane fusion of different isolates of the paramyxovirus parainfluenza virus 5. J Virol 2006; 80:3071-7. [PMID: 16501116 PMCID: PMC1395469 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.80.6.3071-3077.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Paramyxoviruses enter cells by fusing their envelopes with the plasma membrane, a process that occurs at neutral pH. Recently, it has been found that there is an exception to this dogma in that a porcine isolate of the paramyxovirus parainfluenza virus 5 (PIV5), known as SER, requires a low-pH step for fusion (S. Seth, A. Vincent, and R. W. Compans, J. Virol. 77: 6520-6527, 2003). As a low-pH activation mechanism for fusion would greatly facilitate biophysical studies of paramyxovirus-mediated membrane fusion, we have reexamined the triggering of the PIV5 SER fusion protein. Using multiple assays, we could not find a requirement for low-pH triggering of PIV5 SER fusion. The challenge of discovering how the paramyxovirus receptor binding protein (HN, H, or G) activates the metastable fusion protein to cause membrane fusion at neutral pH remains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Lin Z Bissonnette
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Cell Biology, Northwestern University, 2205 Tech Drive, Evanston, Illinois 60208-3500, USA
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Carlos TS, Fearns R, Randall RE. Interferon-induced alterations in the pattern of parainfluenza virus 5 transcription and protein synthesis and the induction of virus inclusion bodies. J Virol 2006; 79:14112-21. [PMID: 16254346 PMCID: PMC1280230 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.22.14112-14121.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Although parainfluenza virus 5 (simian virus 5 [SV5]) circumvents the interferon (IFN) response by blocking IFN signaling and by reducing the amount of IFN released by infected cells, its ability to circumvent the IFN response is not absolute. The effects of IFN on SV5 infection were examined in Vero cells, which do not produce but can respond to IFN, using a strain of SV5 (CPI-) which does not block IFN signaling. Thus, by infecting Vero cells with CPI- and subsequently treating the cells with exogenous IFN, it was possible to observe the effects that IFN had on SV5 infection in the absence of virus countermeasures. IFN rapidly (within 6 h) induced alterations in the relative levels of virus mRNA and protein synthesis and caused a redistribution of virus proteins within infected cells that led to the enhanced formation of virus cytoplasmic inclusion bodies. IFN induced a steeper gradient of mRNA transcription from the 3' to the 5' end of the genome and the production of virus mRNAs with longer poly(A) tails, suggesting that the processivity of the virus polymerase was altered in cells in an IFN-induced antiviral state. Additional evidence is presented which suggests that these findings also apply to the replication of strains of SV5, parainfluenza virus type 2, and mumps virus that block IFN signaling when they infect cells that are already in an IFN-induced antiviral state.
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Affiliation(s)
- T S Carlos
- School of Biology, University of St. Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS, Scotland, United Kingdom
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Precious B, Childs K, Fitzpatrick-Swallow V, Goodbourn S, Randall RE. Simian virus 5 V protein acts as an adaptor, linking DDB1 to STAT2, to facilitate the ubiquitination of STAT1. J Virol 2005; 79:13434-41. [PMID: 16227264 PMCID: PMC1262611 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.21.13434-13441.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The V protein of simian virus 5 (SV5) facilitates the ubiquitination and subsequent proteasome-mediated degradation of STAT1. Here we show, by visualizing direct protein-protein interactions and by using the yeast two-hybrid system, that while the SV5 V protein fails to bind to STAT1 directly, it binds directly and independently to both DDB1 and STAT2, two cellular proteins known to be essential for SV5-mediated degradation of STAT1. We also demonstrate that STAT1 and STAT2 interact independently of SV5 V and show that SV5 V protein acts as an adaptor molecule linking DDB1 to STAT2/STAT1 heterodimers, which in the presence of additional accessory cellular proteins, including Cullin 4a, can ubiquitinate STAT1. Additionally, we show that the avidity of STAT2 for V is relatively weak but is significantly enhanced by the presence of both STAT1 and DDB1, i.e., the complex of STAT1, STAT2, DDB1, and SV5 V is more stable than a complex of STAT2 and V. From these studies we propose a dynamic model in which SV5 V acts as a bridge, bringing together a DDB1/Cullin 4a-containing ubiquitin ligase complex and STAT1/STAT2 heterodimers, which leads to the degradation of STAT1. The loss of STAT1 results in a decrease in affinity of binding of STAT2 for V such that STAT2 either dissociates from V or is displaced from V by STAT1/STAT2 complexes, thereby ensuring the cycling of the DDB1 and SV5 V containing E3 complex for continued rounds of STAT1 ubiquitination and degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Precious
- School of Biology, University of St. Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS, United Kingdom
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Precious B, Young DF, Andrejeva L, Goodbourn S, Randall RE. In vitro and in vivo specificity of ubiquitination and degradation of STAT1 and STAT2 by the V proteins of the paramyxoviruses simian virus 5 and human parainfluenza virus type 2. J Gen Virol 2005; 86:151-158. [PMID: 15604442 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.80263-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous work has documented that the V protein of simian virus 5 (SV5) targets STAT1 for proteasome-mediated degradation, whilst the V protein of human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hPIV2) targets STAT2. Here, it was shown that the processes of ubiquitination and degradation could be reconstructed in vitro by using programmed rabbit reticulocyte lysates. Using this system, the addition of bacterially expressed and purified SV5 V protein to programmed lysates was demonstrated to result in the polyubiquitination and degradation of in vitro-translated STAT1, but only if human STAT2 was also present. Surprisingly, in the same assay, purified hPIV2 V protein induced the polyubiquitination of both STAT1 and STAT2. In the light of these in vitro results, the specificity of degradation of STAT1 and STAT2 by SV5 and hPIV2 in tissue-culture cells was re-examined. As previously reported, STAT1 could not be detected in human cells that expressed SV5 V protein constitutively, whilst STAT2 could not be detected in human cells that expressed hPIV2 V protein, although the levels of STAT1 may also have been reduced in some human cells infected with hPIV2. In contrast, STAT1 could not be detected, whereas STAT2 remained present, in a variety of animal cells, including canine (MDCK) cells, that expressed the V protein of either SV5 or hPIV2. Thus, the V protein of SV5 appears to be highly specific for STAT1 degradation, but the V protein of hPIV2 is more promiscuous.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Precious
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS, UK
| | - D F Young
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS, UK
| | - L Andrejeva
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS, UK
| | - S Goodbourn
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, St George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London SW17 0RE, UK
| | - R E Randall
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS, UK
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Andrejeva J, Childs KS, Young DF, Carlos TS, Stock N, Goodbourn S, Randall RE. The V proteins of paramyxoviruses bind the IFN-inducible RNA helicase, mda-5, and inhibit its activation of the IFN-beta promoter. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101:17264-9. [PMID: 15563593 PMCID: PMC535396 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0407639101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 779] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2004] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Most paramyxoviruses circumvent the IFN response by blocking IFN signaling and limiting the production of IFN by virus-infected cells. Here we report that the highly conserved cysteine-rich C-terminal domain of the V proteins of a wide variety of paramyxoviruses binds melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 (mda-5) product. mda-5 is an IFN-inducible host cell DExD/H box helicase that contains a caspase recruitment domain at its N terminus. Overexpression of mda-5 stimulated the basal activity of the IFN-beta promoter in reporter gene assays and significantly enhanced the activation of the IFN-beta promoter by intracellular dsRNA. Both these activities were repressed by coexpression of the V proteins of simian virus 5, human parainfluenza virus 2, mumps virus, Sendai virus, and Hendra virus. Similar results to the reporter assays were obtained by measuring IFN production. Inhibition of mda-5 by RNA interference or by dominant interfering forms of mda-5 significantly inhibited the activation of the IFN-beta promoter by dsRNA. It thus appears that mda-5 plays a central role in an intracellular signal transduction pathway that can lead to the activation of the IFN-beta promoter, and that the V proteins of paramyxoviruses interact with mda-5 to block its activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Andrejeva
- School of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Building, North Haugh, University of St. Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS, United Kingdom
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Chatziandreou N, Stock N, Young D, Andrejeva J, Hagmaier K, McGeoch DJ, Randall RE. Relationships and host range of human, canine, simian and porcine isolates of simian virus 5 (parainfluenza virus 5). J Gen Virol 2004; 85:3007-3016. [PMID: 15448364 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.80200-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Sequence comparison of the V/P and F genes of 13 human, canine, porcine and simian isolates of simian virus 5 (SV5) revealed a surprising lack of sequence variation at both the nucleotide and amino acid levels (0–3 %), even though the viruses were isolated over 30 years and originated from countries around the world. Furthermore, there were no clear distinguishing amino acid or nucleotide differences among the isolates that correlated completely with the species from which they were isolated. In addition, there was no evidence that the ability of the viruses to block interferon signalling by targeting STAT1 for degradation was confined to the species from which they were isolated. All isolates had an extended cytoplasmic tail in the F protein, compared with the original W3A and WR monkey isolates. Sequence analysis of viruses that were derived from human bone-marrow cells isolated in London in the 1980s revealed that, whilst they were related more closely to one another than to the other isolates, they all had identifying differences, suggesting that they were independent isolates. These results therefore support previous data suggesting that SV5 can infect humans persistently, although the relationship of SV5 to any human disease remains highly contentious. Given that SV5 has been isolated on multiple occasions from different species, it is proposed that the term simian virus 5 is inappropriate and suggested that the virus should be renamed parainfluenza virus 5.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Chatziandreou
- School of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Building, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS, UK
| | - N Stock
- School of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Building, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS, UK
| | - D Young
- School of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Building, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS, UK
| | - J Andrejeva
- School of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Building, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS, UK
| | - K Hagmaier
- School of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Building, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS, UK
| | - D J McGeoch
- MRC Virology Unit, Institute of Virology, University of Glasgow, Church Street, Glasgow G11 5JR, UK
| | - R E Randall
- School of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Building, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS, UK
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Kohl A, Clayton RF, Weber F, Bridgen A, Randall RE, Elliott RM. Bunyamwera virus nonstructural protein NSs counteracts interferon regulatory factor 3-mediated induction of early cell death. J Virol 2003; 77:7999-8008. [PMID: 12829839 PMCID: PMC161919 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.14.7999-8008.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The genome of Bunyamwera virus (BUN; family Bunyaviridae, genus Orthobunyavirus) consists of three segments of negative-sense RNA. The smallest segment, S, encodes two proteins, the nonstructural protein NSs, which is nonessential for viral replication and transcription, and the nucleocapsid protein N. Although a precise role in the replication cycle has yet to be attributed to NSs, it has been shown that NSs inhibits the induction of alpha/beta interferon, suggesting that it plays a part in counteracting the host antiviral defense. A defense mechanism to limit viral spread is programmed cell death by apoptosis. Here we show that a recombinant BUN that does not express NSs (BUNdelNSs) induces apoptotic cell death more rapidly than wild-type virus. Screening for apoptosis pathways revealed that the proapoptotic transcription factor interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3) was activated by both wild-type BUN and BUNdelNSs infection, but only wild-type BUN was able to suppress signaling downstream of IRF-3. Studies with a BUN minireplicon system showed that active replication induced an IRF-3-dependent promoter, which was suppressed by the NSs protein. In a cell line (P2.1) defective in double-stranded RNA signaling due to low levels of IRF-3, induction of apoptosis was similar for wild-type BUN and BUNdelNSs. These data suggest that the BUN NSs protein can delay cell death in the early stages of BUN infection by inhibiting IRF-3-mediated apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alain Kohl
- Division of Virology, Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G11 5JR, Scotland, United Kingdom
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Young DF, Andrejeva L, Livingstone A, Goodbourn S, Lamb RA, Collins PL, Elliott RM, Randall RE. Virus replication in engineered human cells that do not respond to interferons. J Virol 2003; 77:2174-81. [PMID: 12525652 PMCID: PMC140963 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.3.2174-2181.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The V protein of the paramyxovirus simian virus 5 blocks interferon (IFN) signaling by targeting STAT1 for proteasome-mediated degradation. Here we report on the isolation of human cell lines that express the V protein and can no longer respond to IFN. A variety of viruses, particularly slow-growing wild-type viruses and vaccine candidate viruses (which are attenuated due to mutations that affect virus replication, virus spread, or ability to circumvent the IFN response), form bigger plaques and grow to titers that are increased as much as 10- to 4,000-fold in these IFN-nonresponsive cells. We discuss the practical applications of using such cells in vaccine development and manufacture, virus diagnostics and isolation of newly emerging viruses, and studies on host cell tropism and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- D F Young
- School of Biology, University of St. Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS, United Kingdom
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Abstract
In this article we show that the paramyxovirus SV5 is a poor inducer of interferon-beta (IFN-beta). This inefficient induction is a consequence of the expression of an intact viral V protein. In the absence of the viral V protein cysteine-rich C-terminal domain, IFN-beta mRNA is strongly induced and the transcription factors NF-kappaB and IRF-3 are activated significantly. The V protein can work in isolation from SV5 to block intracellular dsRNA signaling. The mechanism of block to dsRNA signaling is distinct from that previously observed for blocking IFN signaling in that proteolysis of candidate factors cannot be detected, and furthermore, the respective blocks require distinct protein domains. Blocking of the induction of IFN-beta by dsRNA requires the C-terminal cysteine-rich domain, a feature that is highly conserved among paramyxoviruses. We demonstrate that the V proteins from other paramyxoviruses have equivalent functions and speculate that limiting the yield of IFN-beta during infection may be a general property of paramyxoviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Poole
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, St. George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London, SW17 0RE, United Kingdom
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