Onsite investigation at a mail-order hatchery following a multistate Salmonella illness outbreak linked to live poultry-United States, 2018

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), health departments, and other state and federal partners have linked contact with live poultry to 70 human Salmonella outbreaks in the United States from 2000 to 2017, which resulted in a total of 4,794 illnesses, 894 hospitalizations, and 7 deaths. During human salmonellosis outbreaks environmental sampling is rarely conducted as part of the outbreak investigation. CDC was contacted by state health officials on June 12, 2018, to provide support during an investigation of risk factors for Salmonella infections linked to live poultry originating at a mail-order hatchery. From January 1, 2018, to June 15, 2018, 13 human Salmonella infections in multiple states were attributed to exposure to live poultry from a single hatchery. Two serotypes of Salmonella were associated with these infections, Salmonella Enteritidis and Salmonella Litchfield. Molecular subtyping of the S. Enteritidis clinical isolates revealed they were closely related genetically (within 0 to 9 alleles) by core genome multi-locus sequence typing (cgMLST) to isolates obtained from environmental samples taken from hatchery shipping containers received at retail outlets. Environmental sampling and onsite investigation of practices was conducted at the mail-order hatchery during an investigation on June 19, 2018. A total of 45 environmental samples were collected, and 4 (9%) grew Salmonella. A chick box liner from a box in the pre-shipping area yielded an isolate closely related to the S. Enteritidis outbreak strain (within 1 to 9 alleles by cgMLST). The onsite investigation revealed lapses in biosecurity, sanitation, quality assurance, and education of consumers. Review of Salmonella serotype testing performed by the hatchery revealed that the number of samples and type of samples collected monthly varied. Also, S. Enteritidis was identified at the hatchery every year since testing began in 2016. Recommendations to the hatchery for biosecurity, testing, and sanitation measures were made to help reduce burden of Salmonella in the hatchery and breeding flocks, thereby reducing the occurrence of human illness.

PBRM1 loss is a late event during the development of cholangiocarcinoma

AIMS

Somatic mutations in genes encoding chromatin remodellers have been reported recently in several cancer types, including approximately half of cholangiocarcinomas. One of the most commonly mutated chromatin remodellers in cholangiocarcinoma is the Polybromo-1 (PBRM1) gene located on chromosome 3p21, which encodes a subunit of the SWI/SNF complex. The aim of this study was to determine the timing of PBRM1 mutations in biliary carcinogenesis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In order to accomplish this goal, we used immunohistochemistry to assess PBRM1 protein expression in a series of precursor lesions and invasive biliary carcinomas. Previous studies have correlated loss of protein expression on immunohistochemistry with inactivating mutations in this tumour suppressor gene. We found that PBRM1 loss occurred in approximately 26% of invasive cancers, but PBRM1 expression was retained in all biliary intra-epithelial neoplasia (BilIN) specimens, including 25 intrahepatic BilINs and 19 gallbladder BilINs.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that PBRM1 mutation (and resultant loss of expression) is a late event during biliary carcinogenesis. In addition, we confirm a lack of prognostic significance of PBRM1 status in invasive intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. This study provides important insights into the basic mechanisms of chromatin remodelling genes in carcinogenesis.

Protection against maternal infection-associated fetal growth restriction: proof-of-concept with a microbial-derived immunomodulator

Infection-associated inflammatory stress during pregnancy is the most common cause of fetal growth restriction and/or miscarriage. Treatment strategies for protection of at-risk mothers are limited to a narrow range of vaccines, which do not cover the bulk of the common pathogens most frequently encountered. Using mouse models, we demonstrate that oral treatment during pregnancy with a microbial-derived immunomodulator (OM85), currently used clinically for attenuation of infection-associated airway inflammatory symptoms in infants-adults, markedly reduces risk for fetal loss/growth restriction resulting from maternal challenge with bacterial lipopolysaccharide or influenza. Focusing on LPS exposure, we demonstrate that the key molecular indices of maternal inflammatory stress, notably high levels of RANTES, MIP-1α, CCL2, KC, and G-CSF (granulocyte colony-stimulating factor) in gestational tissues/serum, are abrogated by OM85 pretreatment. Systems-level analyses conducted in parallel using RNASeq revealed that OM85 pretreatment selectively tunes LPS-induced activation in maternal gestational tissues for attenuated expression of TNF, IL1, and IFNG-driven proinflammatory networks, without constraining Type1-IFN-associated networks central to first-line antimicrobial defense. This study suggests that broad-spectrum protection-of-pregnancy against infection-associated inflammatory stress, without compromising capacity for efficient pathogen eradication, represents an achievable therapeutic goal.

Pain management in cats—past, present and future. Part 2. Treatment of pain—clinical pharmacology

Opioids have an unjustified reputation for causing mania in cats, but with refinements in dosing they are now used successfully in this species. The mu-opioid agonists are generally considered the best analgesics. Morphine (0.1–0.3 mg/kg) is effective in a clinical setting. Methadone (up to 0.5 mg/kg) has a similar profile to morphine. Pethidine (Demerol, meperidine; 2–5 mg/kg) is a useful analgesic with a faster onset but shorter duration of action than morphine. Oxymorphone and hydromorphone (0.05–0.1 mg/kg) are widely used in the USA. These opioids are more potent (up to 10 times), and longer acting than morphine in cats. Butorphanol (0.1–0.4 mg/kg) is a mu-opioid antagonist that produces its analgesic actions through kappa agonist activity. It rapidly reaches a ceiling effect, is short acting and is a weaker analgesic than pure mu opioids. Buprenorphine (0.01–0.02 mg/kg), a partial mu-agonist, is the most popular opioid used in small animal practice in the UK, other parts of Europe, Australia and South Africa. In clinical studies it has produced better analgesia than several other opioids and appears to be highly suitable for perioperative pain management in cats. NSAIDs are also used in cats for pain management, although cats metabolise these differently from other species. With appropriate dosing, carprofen (1–4 mg/kg) and meloxicam (0.3 mg/kg) have proved highly effective with few side effects. The use of ketoprofen (2 mg/kg), tolfenamic acid (4 mg/kg) and vedaprofen (0.5 mg/kg) has been reported in cats. Other less traditional analgesics such as ketamine, medetomidine and local anaesthetics are also used for clinical pain management. The transmucosal, transdermal and epidural routes offer novel methods for administration of analgesic drugs and have considerable potential for improving techniques in feline pain management.

Seminal fluid and immune adaptation for pregnancy--comparative biology in mammalian species

Seminal fluid delivered to the female reproductive tract at coitus not only promotes the survival and fertilizing capacity of spermatozoa, but also contains potent signalling agents that influence female reproductive physiology to improve the chances of conception and reproductive success. Male to female seminal fluid signalling occurs in rodents, domestic and livestock animals, and all other mammals examined to date. Seminal plasma is instrumental in eliciting the female response, by provision of cytokines and prostaglandins synthesized in the male accessory glands. These agents bind to receptors on target cells in the cervix and uterus, activating changes in gene expression leading to functional adaptations in the female tissues. Sperm also interact with female tract cells, although the molecular basis of this interaction is not yet defined. The consequences are increased sperm survival and fertilization rates, conditioning of the female immune response to tolerate semen and the conceptus, and molecular and cellular changes in the endometrium that facilitate embryo development and implantation. Studies in porcine, equine, bovine, ovine and canine species all show evidence of male-female signalling function for seminal fluid. There are variations between species that relate to their different reproductive strategies and behaviours, particularly the site of seminal fluid deposition and female reproductive tract anatomy. Although the details of the molecular mechanisms require more study, the available data are consistent with both the sperm and plasma fractions of seminal fluid acting in a synergistic fashion to activate inflammation-like responses and downstream female tract changes in each of these species. Insight into the biological function and molecular basis of seminal fluid signalling in the female will inform new interventions and management practices to support optimal reproductive outcomes in domestic, livestock and endangered animal species.

Determinants of optimal mastectomy skin flap thickness

Background

There is a limited evidence base to guide surgeons on the ideal thickness of skin flaps during mastectomy. Here the literature relevant to optimizing mastectomy skin flap thickness is reviewed, including anatomical studies, oncological considerations, factors affecting viability, and the impact of surgical technique and adjuvant therapies.

Methods

A MEDLINE search was performed using the search terms ‘mastectomy’ and ‘skin flap’ or ‘flap thickness’. Titles and abstracts from peer-reviewed publications were screened for relevance.

Results

A subcutaneous layer of variable thickness that contains minimal breast epithelium lies between the dermis and breast tissue. The thickness of this layer may vary within and between breasts, and does not appear to be associated with obesity or age. The existence of a distinct layer of superficial fascia in the breast remains controversial and may be present in only up to 56 per cent of patients. When present, it may not be visible macroscopically, and can contain islands of breast tissue. As skin flap necrosis occurs in approximately 5 per cent of patients, a balance must be sought between removing all breast tissue at mastectomy and leaving reliably viable skin flaps.

Conclusion

The variable and unpredictable thickness of the breast subcutaneous layer means that a single specific universal thickness for mastectomy skin flaps cannot be recommended. It may be that the plane between the subdermal fat and breast parenchyma is a reasonable guide for mastectomy flap thickness, but this may not always correspond to a subcutaneous fascial layer.

Effect of butorphanol on thermal nociceptive threshold in healthy pony foals

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY

Pain management is an important component of foal nursing care, and no objective data currently exist regarding the analgesic efficacy of opioids in foals.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the somatic antinociceptive effects of 2 commonly used doses of intravenous (i.v.) butorphanol in healthy foals. Our hypothesis was that thermal nociceptive threshold would increase following i.v. butorphanol in a dose-dependent manner in both neonatal and older pony foals.

METHODS

Seven healthy neonatal pony foals (age 1-2 weeks), and 11 healthy older pony foals (age 4-8 weeks). Five foals were used during both age periods. Treatments, which included saline (0.5 ml), butorphanol (0.05 mg/kg bwt) and butorphanol (0.1 mg/kg bwt), were administered i.v. in a randomised crossover design with at least 2 days between treatments. Response variables included thermal nociceptive threshold, skin temperature and behaviour score. Data within each age period were analysed using a 2-way repeated measures ANOVA, followed by a Holm-Sidak multiple comparison procedure if warranted.

RESULTS

There was a significant (P<0.05) increase in thermal threshold, relative to Time 0, following butorphanol (0.1 mg/kg bwt) administration in both age groups. No significant time or treatment effects were apparent for skin temperature. Significant time, but not treatment, effects were evident for behaviour score in both age groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Butorphanol (0.1 mg/kg bwt, but not 0.05 mg/kg bwt) significantly increased thermal nociceptive threshold in neonatal and older foals without apparent adverse behavioural effects.

POTENTIAL RELEVANCE

Butorphanol shows analgesic potential in foals for management of somatic painful conditions.

Tyrosines 868, 966, and 972 in the kinase domain of JAK2 are autophosphorylated and required for maximal JAK2 kinase activity

Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) is activated by a majority of cytokine family receptors including receptors for GH, leptin, and erythropoietin. To identify novel JAK2-regulatory and/or -binding sites, we set out to identify autophosphorylation sites in the kinase domain of JAK2. Two-dimensional phosphopeptide mapping of in vitro autophosphorylated JAK2 identified tyrosines 868, 966, and 972 as sites of autophosphorylation. Phosphorylated tyrosines 868 and 972 were also identified by mass spectrometry analysis of JAK2 activated by an erythropoietin-bound chimeric erythropoietin receptor/leptin receptor. Phosphospecific antibodies suggest that the phosphorylation of all three tyrosines increases in response to GH. Compared with wild-type JAK2, which is constitutively active when overexpressed, JAK2 lacking tyrosine 868, 966, or 972 has substantially reduced activity. Coexpression with GH receptor and protein tyrosine phosphatase1B allowed us to investigate GH-dependent activation of these mutated JAK2s in human embryonic kidney 293T cells. All three mutated JAK2s are activated by GH, although to a lesser extent than wild-type JAK2. The three mutated JAK2s also mediate GH activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (Stat3), signal transducer and activator of transcription 5b (Stat5b) and ERK1, but at reduced levels. Coexpression with Src-homology 2B1beta (SH2B1beta), like coexpression with GH-bound GH receptor, partially restores the activity of all three JAK2 mutants. Based on these results and the crystal structure of the JAK2 kinase domain, we hypothesize that small changes in the conformation of the regions of JAK2 surrounding tyrosines 868, 966, and 972 due to e.g. phosphorylation, binding to a ligand-bound cytokine receptor, and/or binding to Src-homology 2B1, may be essential for JAK2 to assume a maximally active conformation.

Two approaches to discovering and developing new drugs for Chagas disease

This review will focus on two general approaches carried out at the Sandler Center, University of California, San Francisco, to address the challenge of developing new drugs for the treatment of Chagas disease. The first approach is target-based drug discovery, and two specific targets, cytochrome P450 CYP51 and cruzain (aka cruzipain), are discussed. A 'proof of concept' molecule, the vinyl sulfone inhibitor K777, is now a clinical candidate. The preclinical assessment compliance for filing as an Investigational New Drug with the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is presented, and an outline of potential clinical trials is given. The second approach to identifying new drug leads is parasite phenotypic screens in culture. The development of an assay allowing high throughput screening of Trypanosoma cruzi amastigotes in skeletal muscle cells is presented. This screen has the advantage of not requiring specific strains of parasites, so it could be used with field isolates, drug resistant strains or laboratory strains. It is optimized for robotic liquid handling and has been validated through a screen of a library of FDA-approved drugs identifying 65 hits.

Effect of systemic lidocaine on visceral and somatic nociception in conscious horses

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY

Commonly used analgesics (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents, opioids and alpha2-agonists) have unwanted side effects. An effective alternative with minimal adverse effects would benefit clinical equine pain management.

OBJECTIVES

To compare the effect of lidocaine or saline on duodenal and rectal distension threshold pressure and somatic thermal threshold in conscious mature horses.

HYPOTHESIS

Systemically administered lidocaine would increase somatic and visceral nociceptive thresholds.

METHODS

Lidocaine (2 mg/kg bwt bolus followed by 50 microg/kg bwt/min for 2 h) or saline was administered to 6 horses each carrying a permanently implanted gastric cannula, in a randomised, blinded cross-over design. Thermal threshold was measured using a probe containing a heater element placed over the withers which supplied heat until the horse responded. A barostatically controlled intraduodenal balloon was distended until a discomfort response was obtained. A rectal balloon was inflated until extruded or signs of discomfort noted.

RESULTS

Thermal threshold was increased significantly 30 and 90 mins after the start of lidocaine infusion. There was no change in duodenal distension pressure and a small but clinically insignificant change in colorectal distension pressure in the lidocaine group.

CONCLUSIONS

At the dose used, systemically administered lidocaine produced thermal antinociception but minimal changes in visceral nociception.

POTENTIAL RELEVANCE

At these doses, lidocaine may play a role in somatic analgesia in horses.

Functional consequences of the human leptin receptor (LEPR) Q223R transversion

Perturbations in the functional integrity of the leptin axis are obvious candidates for mediation of altered adiposity. In a large number of genetic association studies in humans, the nonconservative LEPR Q223R allele has been inconsistently associated with adiposity. Subtle, long-term effects of such genetic variants can be obscured by effects of the environment and other confounders that render definitive inferences difficult to reach. We directly assessed the biological effects of this variant in 129P3/J mice segregating for the humanized Lepr allele at codon 223. No effects of this allele were detected on body weight, composition, or energy expenditure in animals fed diets of varying fat content over periods as long as 235 days. In vitro, Q223R did not affect leptin signaling as reflected by activation of STAT3. We conclude that Q223R is unlikely to play a significant role in regulation of human adiposity. This approach to vetting of human allelic variation might be more widely used.

Molecular and neural mediators of leptin action

The adipose tissue-derived hormone, leptin, acts via its receptor (LepRb) in the brain to regulate energy balance and neuroendocrine function. Parsing the biology of leptin requires understanding LepRb signaling and the roles for specific signaling pathways in neural and physiological leptin action. Since the leptin acts via a broadly distributed network of LepRb-expressing neurons, understanding the function of each of these LepRb neural populations will also be crucial. Here, we review the status of knowledge regarding the molecular mediators of leptin action and the neural substrate via which leptin acts to regulate physiologic processes.

411. Macrophage abundance and phenotype in the mammary gland fluctuates throughout the estrous cycle

Macrophages are versatile cells with roles in the generation and execution of immune responses, tissue breakdown and remodelling and production of regulatory cytokines. These cells are implicated in development of reproductive tract tissues that mature after birth. Descriptive and knockout studies indicates that macrophages play multiple roles in epithelial cell proliferation, phagocytosis and tissue remodelling during pubertal mammary gland development, pregnancy, lactation, and involution. However, the role of macrophages in remodelling over the course of the ovarian cycle has not been previously investigated. Oestrus cycles were monitored in C57/Bl6 mice by daily vaginal smears, and mammary glands were analysed for the abundance and location of macrophages in all four stages of the cycle (n = 6–8 per group). Absolute number of macrophages was quantified by FACs analysis of digested mammary gland tissue stained with macrophage-specific antibody F4/80. The location of macrophages was investigated in fixed, paraffin embedded tissue by immunohistochemistry using F4/80 antibody. H&E staining revealed that the most differentiated epithelial ducts and alveoli structures appeared in diestrus and proestrus. Whilst there was no difference in the absolute number of macrophages at any stage, the location of these macrophages varied. Macrophages accumulated around the more highly differentiated epithelial ducts, leading to significantly more macrophages around the ducts during proestrus compared with metestrus (P < 0.05). These macrophages were in close contact with the epithelium, and displayed long projections and widespread cytoplasm. In contrast, macrophages on the edge of the gland within the collagen-rich connective tissue were characteristically round in shape. These results indicate that macrophages are present in the adult virgin mammary gland, and fluctuate in location and phenotype over the course of the oestrous cycle. Further analysis of the phenotypes of macrophages present in these different locations is required for a more comprehensive understanding of the role of macrophages in mammary tissue homeostasis.

207. Effect of TGFB1 on mammary gland development is dependent on cellular source of gene expression

The cytokine TGFB1 is implicated in development of the mammary gland through regulation of epithelial cell proliferation and differentiation during puberty and pregnancy. We have compared mammary gland morphogenesis in virgin Tgfb1+/+, Tgfb1+/− and Tgfb1−/− mice, and transplanted Tgfb1+/+ and Tgfb1−/− epithelium to determine the impact of TGFB1 deficiency on development. When mammary gland tissue was evaluated respective to timing of puberty, invasion through the mammary fat pad of the ductal epithelium progressed similarly irrespective of genotype, albeit fewer terminal end buds were observed in mammary glands from Tgfb1−/− mice. The terminal end buds appeared morphologically normal, and a comparable amount of epithelial proliferation was evident. However, when transplanted into wildtype recipients, Tgfb1−/− epithelium showed accelerated invasion compared with Tgfb1+/+ epithelium. This suggests that the normal rate of ductal extension in Tgfb1−/− null mutant mice is the net result of impaired endocrine or paracrine support acting to limit the consequences of unrestrained epithelial growth. By adulthood, mammary glands in cycling virgin Tgfb1−/− mice were morphologically similar to those in Tgfb1+/+ and Tgfb1+/− animals, a normal branching pattern was observed, and the tissue differentiated into early alveolar structures in the diestrus phase of the ovarian cycle. Transplanted mammary gland epithelium showed a similar extent of ductal branching and evidence of secretory differentiation of luminal cells in pregnancy. These results reveal two opposing actions of TGFB1 during pubertal mammary gland morphogenesis, dependent on the cellular source of gene expression. When expressed in the epithelium, TGFB1 inhibits epithelial ductal growth, when expressed systemically, TGFB1 promotes epithelial ductal growth.

412. The role of macrophages in regulating uterine epithelial cell proliferation

During the oestrous cycle, uterine epithelial cells respond to ovarian steroid hormones by producing an array of cytokines and chemokines that cause macrophage recruitment into the uterus and regulate macrophage activation phenotype. In turn, growth factors and cytokines synthesised by macrophages potentially impact epithelial cell proliferation, secretory function and receptivity to embryo attachment. To investigate the hypothesis that uterine macrophages are essential contributors to the proliferation of uterine epithelial cells, we have used an ovariectomy and steroid replacement model in CD11b-DTR ‘Mac-terminator' mice. These mice are engineered for CD11b promoter-driven expression of the monkey diphtheria toxin (DT) receptor, allowing acute systemic ablation of macrophages by administration of human diphtheria toxin (DT). CD11b-DTR mice were ovariectomised, then 2–4 weeks later were primed with E 2, followed by administration of DT (25 ng/g, ip) to effect macrophage depletion, and BrDU to label proliferating cells. Control mice were given PBS instead of DT. Uterine tissues were stained with F4/80 to detect macrophages, and anti-BrDU to detect BrDU+ epithelial cell nuclei. DT treatment was associated with a depletion of >90% of F4/80+ uterine macrophages. However, the numbers of BrDU+ epithelial cells and the architecture of the luminal epithelial surface and abundance of epithelial glands were similar in control and DT-treated uterine tissues. These data suggest that resident macrophages may not be essential for oestrogen-driven uterine epithelial cell proliferation. In ongoing experiments we are assessing the effect of macrophage depletion on epithelial cell expression of functional markers including those involved in regulation of embryo attachment.

Use of a transdermal matrix patch of buprenorphine in cats: preliminary pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data

Six domestic shorthair cats, aged three to four years and weighing 5.1 to 7.4 kg, were used to assess the thermal antinociceptive effect of a transdermal buprenorphine patch, designed to supply 35 mug buprenorphine/hour, which was applied to the shaved thorax. The cats' thermal thresholds were tested before the patch was applied and two, four, six, eight, 10, 12, 14 and 16 hours after it had been applied, and then every six hours until it was removed after 72 hours, and for a further 24 hours afterwards. Blood was collected at each time to measure the plasma concentration of buprenorphine. The patches did not produce a significant change in the thermal thresholds of the cats throughout the testing period. The mean (sd) peak plasma buprenorphine concentration was 10 (0.81) ng/ml.

Seminal plasma regulates ovarian progesterone production, leukocyte recruitment and follicular cell responses in the pig

Seminal plasma (SP) acts to influence the uterine endometrium after mating, activating synthesis of embryotrophic cytokines and inflammatory changes that condition the tract for embryo implantation and establishing pregnancy. The objective of this study was to investigate in pigs whether the ovary might also be responsive to SP exposure. Prepubertal gilts were synchronised with exogenous gonadotrophins and received transcervical treatment with pooled boar SP or PBS; then the ovarian tissue was recovered at 34 h (preovulation) and on days 5 and 9 after treatment. The ovarian response was assessed by measuring ovulation rate, number and size of corpora lutea, ovarian leukocyte populations, progesterone production in vivo, as well as responses of retrieved granulosa cells cultured in vitro. In SP-treated gilts, leukocyte recruitment into the ovarian tissues was increased fourfold at 34 h, with macrophages comprising the most abundant cell lineage. There was no effect of SP on the number of oocytes ovulated; however, the weight of corpora lutea was increased in SP-treated gilts. SP also induced an increase in plasma progesterone content seen from day 5 to at least day 9 after treatment. In addition, granulosa cells and thecal tissue retrieved from preovulatory follicles of SP-treated gilts were more responsive in vitro to growth factor- and gonadotrophin-stimulated cell proliferation and progesterone synthesis. These results suggest that uterine exposure to SP influences immune cell trafficking in the ovary and enhances steroidogenesis in early pregnancy. The effects of SP on ovarian function potentially contribute to reproductive success in the pig.

Seminal fluid signaling in the female reproductive tract: lessons from rodents and pigs

Seminal fluid contains potent signaling agents that influence female reproductive physiology to improve the chances of conception and pregnancy success. Cytokines and prostaglandins synthesized in the male accessory glands are transferred to the female at insemination, where they bind to receptors on target cells in the cervix and uterus, activating changes in gene expression that lead to modifications in structure and function of the female tissues. The consequences are increased sperm survival and fertilization rates, conditioning of the female immune response to tolerate semen and the conceptus, and molecular and cellular changes in the endometrium that facilitate embryo development and implantation. Male-female tract signaling occurs in rodents, livestock animals, and all other mammals examined thus far, including humans. In mice, the key signaling moieties in seminal plasma are identified as members of the transforming growth factor-beta family. Recent studies indicate a similar signaling function for boar factors in the pig, whereby the sperm and plasma fractions of seminal fluid appear to synergize in activating an inflammatory response and downstream changes in the female tract after insemination. Seminal plasma elicits endometrial changes, with induction of proinflammatory cytokines and cyclooxygenase-2, causing recruitment of macrophages and dendritic cells. Sperm contribute by interacting with seminal plasma factors to modulate neutrophil influx into the luminal cavity. The cascade of changes in local leukocyte populations and cytokine synthesis persists throughout the preimplantation period. Exposure to seminal fluid alters the dynamics of preimplantation embryo development, with an increase in the number of fertilized oocytes attaining the viable blastocyst stage. There is also evidence that seminal factors influence the timing of ovulation, corpus luteum development, and progesterone synthesis. Insight into the molecular basis of seminal fluid signaling in the female reproductive tract may inform new interventions and management practices to ensure maximal fertility and reduce embryo mortality in pigs and, potentially, other livestock species.

Ovarian leukocyte distribution and cytokine/chemokine mRNA expression in follicular fluid cells in women with polycystic ovary syndrome

BACKGROUND

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) affects 5-10% of reproductive-aged women and is commonly associated with anovulatory infertility. Leukocytes, together with granulosa cells, may contribute to the pathogenesis of PCOS via their ability to secrete an array of cytokines implicated in follicle growth. The aim of this study was to examine leukocyte subtypes in follicular phase ovaries and to quantify cytokine and chemokine mRNA expression in follicular fluid cells obtained at the time of oocyte retrieval before IVF in women with and without PCOS.

METHODS

Ovaries were immunostained for various leukocyte markers [CD3, CD4, CD14, CD15, CD45, CD45RA, CD45RO, CD57 and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II]. In addition, follicular fluid cells were subjected to quantitative RT-PCR to evaluate colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1), granulocyte-macrophage (GM)-CSF, interleukins (IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-8 and IL-10), monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP-1) and tumour necrosis factor (TNFalpha) mRNA expression relative to beta-actin.

RESULTS

CD45RO+ cells (activated/memory T lymphocytes) were reduced by 60% in the theca layer of follicles from PCOS women. The relative abundance of macrophages and neutrophils was unchanged. Cytokine and chemokine mRNA transcripts examined were not affected by PCOS status. There was an association between high BMI and high TNFalpha and low IL-6 mRNA expression in follicular cells. IL-6 expression was higher in women who subsequently achieved pregnancy.

CONCLUSIONS

T lymphocytes potentially play a role in the local pathological mechanisms of PCOS. Further studies are required to identify their contribution to the aetiology of this common condition.

Ventilatory and intensive care requirements following oesophageal resection

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this study was to analyse the results of early postoperative extubation following oesophagectomy.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

All patients who had undergone oesophageal resection between 1994 and 2001 were identified from a prospectively collected database. Their records were then reviewed in order to analyse morbidity and mortality along with intensive care unit (ICU) and ventilatory requirements. All patients were extubated immediately following surgery and monitored on a surgical high dependency unit (HDU).

RESULTS

A total of 98 resections were undertaken (76 men; mean age, 64.3 years; range, 40-80 years). Surgical procedures were Ivor-Lewis (71), left thoraco-abdominal (15) and transhiatal (12) oesophagectomies. Overall, 8 patients died and 13 patients had anastomotic leaks. Sixteen patients required ventilation and admission to ICU, of whom 5 died. Three patients died on HDU following an elective decision not to transfer to ICU. Reasons for ventilation and ICU admission were anastomotic leaks (6), respiratory problems (6), left ventricular failure (1), cardiac arrest (1), small bowel herniation through the hiatus (1) and ischaemic stomach requiring revision of anastomosis (1). No patient required ventilation and admission to ICU within 48 h of original surgery.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients undergoing oesophageal resection can be safely managed on a surgical HDU without routine postoperative ventilation. Although ventilation and ICU will be required in a significant number due to postoperative complications, this is unlikely to occur in the first 48 h. The requirement for an ICU bed to be available on the day of surgery should, therefore, no longer be considered necessary. This has important implications for the scheduling of elective oesophageal surgery.

Influence of semen on inflammatory modulators of embryo implantation

Insemination transmits to the female reproductive tract constituents of seminal plasma that target uterine epithelial cells to activate a cascade of inflammatory and immunological changes. Experiments in rodents show seminal factor signalling acts to 'condition' the female immune response to tolerate the conceptus, and to organise molecular and cellular changes in the endometrium to facilitate embryo development and implantation. The active factors in seminal plasma are identified as members of the transforming growth factor-beta family, with the relative balance of active moieties influencing the precise character of the female tract response. Experiments in rodents show that disruption of seminal plasma priming causes foetal growth retardation and changes in placental structure, with long-term consequences for the growth of the neonate. Recent studies indicate a similar physiological function and molecular basis for seminal plasma actions in the pig. In gilts, seminal plasma elicits an endometrial response characterised by recruitment of inflammatory leukocytes and induction of several pro-inflammatory cytokines and cyclo-oxygenase-2. The consequences are evident throughout the pre-implantation period of early pregnancy with altered leukocyte populations and cytokine parameters seen for at least 9 days. Exposure to semen also alters the dynamics in pre-implantation embryo development with an increase in the number of embryos and in their viability. Furthermore seminal plasma influences the temporal kinetics of ovulation, corpus luteum development and steroid production in the ovary. Dissecting the actions of seminal plasma may facilitate development of strategies to ensure maximal fertility and reduce embryo mortality in the pig.

PK-PD modeling of buprenorphine in cats: intravenous and oral transmucosal administration1

The pharmacokinetics and thermal antinociceptive effects of buprenorphine after intravenous (i.v.) or oral transmucosal (OTM) administration were studied in six adult cats. Plasma buprenorphine concentrations were measured using radioimmunoassay in a crossover study after a dose of 20 microg/kg given by the i.v. or OTM route. Oral pH was measured. Blood for drug analyses was collected before, and at 1, 2, 4, 6, 10, 15, 30, and 60 min and at 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, and 24 h after treatment. Thermal thresholds were measured before treatment, then following treatment every 30 min to 6 h, every 1 hour to 12 h and at 24 hours postadministration. Plasma buprenorphine concentration effect relationships were analyzed using a log-linear effect model. Oral pH was 9 in each cat. Peak plasma buprenorphine concentration was lower and occurred later in the OTM group but median bioavailability was 116.3%. Thermal thresholds increased significantly between 30 and 360 min in both groups. Peak effect was at 90 min and there was no difference at any time between the two groups. There was distinct hysteresis between plasma drug concentration and effect in both groups. Overall, OTM administration of buprenorphine is as effective as i.v. treatment and offers a simple, noninvasive method of administration which produces thermal antinociception for up to 6 h in cats.

Simultaneous measurement of specific serum IgG responses to five select agents

Select Agents are defined by CDC and the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) as biological agents or toxins deemed a threat to public, animal, or plant health, or to animal or plant products. They are classified on the basis of their ease of dissemination, mortality/morbidity rate, and potential for social disruption. A subset of these agents includes Bacillus anthracis, Yersinia pestis, Francisella tularensis, ricin toxin (RT), and staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB). Infection or intoxication with these agents has been shown to elicit an antigen-specific serum IgG response. We describe a fluorescent covalent microsphere immunoassay (FCMIA) for measurement of specific IgG antibodies to seven different antigens from five different select agents; B. anthracis [protective antigen (PA) and lethal factor (LF)], Y. pestis (F1 and V antigens), F. tularensis, RT and SEB simultaneously in human B. anthracis vaccinee sera (containing anti-PA and anti-LF IgG) which had been spiked with animal specific IgG antibodies to the other select agents. Inter-assay and intra-assay coefficients of variation were 6.5 and 13.4%, respectively (N = 4). There were no significant differences (P > 0.70) between assay responses when the assays were performed individually or multiplexed. When the observed versus expected interpolated concentrations were compared, highly linear relationships were observed (r2 values from 0.981 to 0.999, P < 0.001). Minimum detectable concentrations (MDC) ranged from 0.3 ng mL(-1) (Y. pestis F1) to 300 ng mL(-1) (RT). Finally, the curves showed responses were linear for most analytes from their MDC to 125 (SEB) to 1,300 (Y. pestis F1) x their MDC. These data indicate that multiplexed FCMIA is a sensitive and accurate method for simultaneous measurement of specific IgG in serum to CDC select agents and may be of value in screening either decontamination workers or the general population for exposure to/infection with these agents.

Wnt-independent activation of β-catenin mediated by a Dkk1-Fz5 fusion protein

An XWnt8-Fz5 fusion protein synergizes with LRP6 to potently activate beta-catenin-dependent signaling. Here, we generated a fusion in which XWnt8 was fused to the N-terminus of LRP6 and show it synergizes with both Fz4 and Fz5 to potently transactivate beta-catenin-dependent Wnt signaling. Based on this, we hypothesized that the main function of Wnt is to nucleate the formation of a physical complex between LRP6 and a Frizzled. Dkk1, but not the related Dkk3, binds LRP6 and inhibits canonical Wnt signaling by blocking the interaction of Wnt and LRP6. Therefore, we reasoned that a covalent fusion of Dkk1 to Fz5 (Dkk1-Fz5) would mimic Wnt ligand by nucleating the formation of a complex containing Fz5 and LRP6, while Dkk3 (Dkk3-Fz5) would not. We found that Dkk1-Fz5, but not Dkk3-Fz5, potently synergized with LRP6 to activate signaling in a dishevelled-dependent manner.

Spectral karyotyping of sarcomas and fibroblasts derived from Ink4a/Arf-deficient mice reveals chromosomal instability in vitro

The Ink4a/Arf locus is functionally linked to the Rb and p53 pathways through the action of its two gene products. Mouse models null for this locus show rapid onset of cancer with a preponderance of lymphomas and sarcomas. We report on a study of cell lines derived from sarcomas arising in Ink4a/Arf null mice. The cytogenetics of these lines was monitored over the course of serial passage. Results indicate that early passage cells are relatively normal. However, after multiple passages chromosomal instability becomes apparent as evidenced by increasing tetraploidy and aneuploidy, and the concomitant loss of clonality. To further evaluate the effect of Ink4a/Arf-deficiency on chromosomal stability in vitro, we isolated Ink4a/Arf deficient primary murine embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), serially passaged them, and analyzed their chromosomal stability by spectral karyotyping (a 24-color chromosome paint-FISH technique). We found that chromosomal instability in Ink4a/Arf deficient MEFs developed with the same timing as seen in cell lines derived from Ink4a/Arf deficient sarcomas. Thus, chromosomal instability seen in Ink4a/Arf deficient tumors in vitro may be unrelated to the original phenotype of the tumor in vivo. Therefore, interpretation of cytogenetic data from cell lines derived from Ink4a/Arf deficient tumors should be done on early passage cells.

Relationship between plasma concentrations and analgesia after intravenous fentanyl and disposition after other routes of administration in cats1

Data allowing rational use of analgesics in cats are limited. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of fentanyl were studied in cats. Plasma fentanyl concentrations were measured using radioimmunoassay in a crossover study in six cats after 10 microg/kg (i.v.) or by application of fentanyl in pluronic lecithin organogel (PLO) to the inner ear pinna. On a separate occasion thermal thresholds were measured after i.v. fentanyl (10 microg/kg) or saline. Plasma fentanyl concentrations reached 4.7-8.31 ng/mL 2 min after i.v. administration and were undetectable after 95 min. Fentanyl was not detected in plasma at any time after PLO use. Thermal thresholds did not change following saline administration but were increased above baseline from 5 to 110 min after i.v. fentanyl. In this model a plasma concentration of >1.07 ng/mL was required to provide analgesia. Plasma concentrations were measured in additional cats after intranasal or oral dosing (2 microg/kg) and after 30 microg/kg in PLO gel. After oral and nasal dosing, Cmax values were 0.96 and 1.48 ng/mL at 5 and 2 min, respectively. Plasma fentanyl was not detected after application of the higher dose of fentanyl in PLO.

Pain management in cats--past, present and future. Part 1. The cat is unique

Cats are popular pets but until recently their perioperative and traumatic pain was seriously underestimated and under treated. There are several causes of this under treatment. First, it may be difficult to detect pain in cats, because they do not demonstrate overt pain-associated behaviour. Secondly, there are relatively few analgesic drugs with market authorization for cats. Thirdly, cats have an unfortunate reputation for toxicity from analgesic drugs, particularly opioid-induced mania and classical non steroidal anti inflammatory drug toxicity. Fourthly, cats are deficient in some metabolic pathways used to metabolise analgesic drugs in other species; this may lead to genuine toxicity or to lack of effect. Recently, understanding of feline behaviour and physiology has improved, leading to better clinical management of this enigmatic species. Behavioural methods are proving to be the best means of assessing pain, and knowledge of unique feline physiology has enabled rational treatment protocols to be developed specifically for cats.

Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic evaluation of intravenous hydromorphone in cats1

This study describes the pharmacokinetics of intravenous hydromorphone in cats and the simultaneous measurement of antinociceptive pharmacodynamic effects using a thermal threshold testing system. Following establishment of a baseline thermal threshold, six adult cats were administered 0.1 mg/kg of hydromorphone intravenously. Thermal threshold testing and blood collection were conducted simultaneously at predetermined time points. Plasma hydromorphone concentrations were determined by a liquid chromatographic-mass spectral method and pharmacokinetic analysis was performed by nonlinear least squares regression analysis. Plasma hydromorphone concentrations declined rapidly over time, and were below the limit of quantification of the assay (LOQ = 1.0 ng/mL) by 360 min. In contrast, thermal thresholds rose from a pretreatment value of 40.9 +/- 0.65 degrees C (mean +/- SEM) to instrument cut-out (55 degrees C) within 15 min and remained significantly elevated from 15-450 min after treatment. Inspection of the data revealed no direct correlation between plasma hydromorphone concentrations and the antinociceptive effect of this drug in cats. These findings support the importance of conducting pharmacokinetic studies in parallel with objective measurements of drug effect.

Seminal plasma regulates endometrial cytokine expression, leukocyte recruitment and embryo development in the pig

In pigs, uterine exposure to the constituents of semen is known to increase litter size but the underlying physiological mechanisms remain undefined. Studies in rodents and humans implicate immune modulating moieties in seminal plasma as likely candidates, acting through enhancing the receptivity of the female tract. In this study, the acute and longer term effects of seminal plasma on cytokine expression and leukocyte abundance in the pig endometrium during early pregnancy have been characterised. The reproductive tracts of gonadotrophin-primed pre-pubertal gilts treated with intrauterine infusions of either pooled seminal plasma or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) were retrieved at 34 h, or on day 5 and day 9 after treatment. Seminal plasma elicited an endometrial inflammatory infiltrate comprised of predominantly macrophages and major histocompatibility complex class II+-activated macrophages and dendritic cells. The abundance of these cells was greatest at the pre-ovulatory (34 h) time-point and their increase relative to PBS-treated tissues was maintained until day 9 after seminal plasma treatment. Seminal plasma induced the expression of the cytokines, granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor, interleukin-6 and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, and the eicosanoid-synthesising enzyme cyclo-oxygenase-2. Expression was maximal 34 h after treatment but altered expression patterns as a consequence of seminal plasma induction persisted through early pregnancy. These changes were accompanied by altered dynamics in pre-implantation embryo development with an increase in the number of embryos and in their viability after seminal plasma treatment. Together, these findings implicate factors in seminal plasma in programming the trajectory of uterine cytokine expression and leukocyte trafficking during early pregnancy and in regulating pre-implantation embryo development in the pig.

Changes in thermal threshold response in eight cats after administration of buprenorphine, butorphanol and morphine

Thermal thresholds were measured in eight cats after the intramuscular administration of morphine (0.2 mg/kg), buprenorphine (0.01 mg/kg) or butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg), doses commonly used in clinical practice; 0.9 per cent saline (0.3 ml) was injected as a control. Groups of six cats were used and each cat participated in at least two treatments, according to a randomised design. The investigator was blinded to the treatments. The thermal thresholds were measured with a testing device developed specifically for cats, and measurements were made before and five, 30, 45 and 60 minutes and two, four, six, 12 and 24 hours after the injections. There was no significant change in thermal threshold after the injection of saline. With butorphanol, the threshold was increased only at five minutes after the injection and was decreased two hours after the injection; with morphine it was increased from between four and six hours after the injection, and with buprenorphine it was increased from between four and 12 hours after the injection.

Systemic uptake of buprenorphine by cats after oral mucosal administration

The plasma concentration of buprenorphine was measured by radioimmunoassay in six female cats after the administration of 0.01 mg/kg (0.033 ml/kg) buprenorphine hydrochloride solution into the side of the cat's mouth. Blood samples were taken through a preplaced jugular catheter before and one, two, four, six, 10, 15, 30, 45 and 60 minutes, and two, four, six, 12 and 24 hours after the dose was administered. The buprenorphine was accepted well by all the cats and did not cause salivation or vomiting. Its median peak plasma concentration was 7.5 ng/ml and was reached after 15 minutes. The pharmacokinetic data were similar to the pharmacokinetic data obtained after the intramuscular and intravenous administration of buprenorphine to cats from the same colony, suggesting that the mucosal route of administration should be as effective as intravenous and intramuscular injections. In addition, the pH of the oral cavity of 26 cats was measured with pH paper, and 100 cat owners were asked their preferred method of administering drugs to cats. The pH of the cats' mouths was between 8 and 9, and the technique preferred by the cat owners was the use of drops placed in the mouth.

Altered placental development in interleukin-10 null mutant mice

Placental morphogenesis and nutrient transfer function are regulated by growth factors at the foeto-maternal interface. Interleukin (IL)-10, expressed in the decidua and placenta, is implicated in regulating extravillous cytotrophoblast invasion through inhibiting matrix metalloproteinase expression and influencing the quality of the maternal immune response. Our laboratory has previously found that IL-10 deficiency in both the mother and foetus increases foetal weight at day 18 without altering placental weight suggesting that the placenta has a greater functional capacity when IL-10 is absent. The present study has used IL-10 null mutant (IL-10-/-) mice to investigate the role of IL-10 in placental development. Placental structure was assessed in adult virgin IL-10-/- or wild-type (IL-10+/+) mice mated with males of the same genotype and sacrificed at day 18 of gestation. Mid-sagittal cross sections of placental tissue were stained with Masson's trichrome or immuno-labelled with MTS-12 and pan-cytokeratin reactive antibodies to identify foetal endothelial cells and trophoblasts, respectively, and examined with video image analysis. IL-10 deficiency increased the total cross sectional area of the placenta by 28 per cent (IL-10-/- n=22 placentae from 8 dams, IL-10+/+n =21 placentae from 9 dams, P=0.026), principally through increasing the cross sectional area of placental labyrinth by 37 per cent (P=0.025). The proportion of maternal blood space in the labyrinth was increased by 26 per cent (P=0.001) and that of trophoblast was decreased by 16 per cent (P=0.001) in IL-10-/- placentae. The surface area of trophoblast per gram of labyrinth was increased by 41 per cent (P=0.0005) in IL-10-/- placentae. In the absence of IL-10, structural correlates of placental function are enhanced consistent with concomitant increases in foetal growth. These data indicate that IL-10 is a regulator of placental morphogenesis, acting to retard expansion of the placental labyrinth and to modify the architecture of the maternal blood sinuses. Since previous studies have paradoxically shown that postnatal growth is impaired in IL-10 null mutants, these observations are consistent with a role for IL-10 in regulating placental development and foetal programming.

A thermal threshold testing device for evaluation of analgesics in cats

A thermal analgesiometric device was developed for unrestrained cats. Heat was provided by an electrical element potted together with a temperature sensor in thermally conductive epoxy in a 5 gm probe. This was attached to an elasticated band round the cat's thorax with an inflated bladder maintaining constant pressure between probe and skin. A safety cut-off was set at 60 degrees C. End point was a skin flick, turning, or jumping. Threshold temperatures in untreated cats were around 40 degrees C and repeatable to 4 degrees C with 5, 10 or 15 minutes between tests. Threshold temperature was stable in tests at 15 minutes intervals without false positives or negatives. Tests repeated at weekly intervals were repeatable to within 4 degrees C. Treatment with the opioid analgesic pethidine increased the threshold temperatures 10.2 (6.7) degrees C 45 minutes after treatment. The device was well tolerated for at least 24 hours and the analgesic effect of an opioid was detected. The system appears suitable for use in investigations into analgesic pharmacology in cats.