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Shen J, Lima e Silva R, Zhang M, Luly KM, Hackett SF, Tzeng SY, Lowmaster SM, Shannon SR, Wilson DR, Green JJ, Campochiaro PA. Suprachoroidal gene transfer with nonviral nanoparticles in large animal eyes. Sci Adv 2024; 10:eadl3576. [PMID: 38457512 PMCID: PMC10923522 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adl3576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
Suprachoroidal nonviral gene therapy with biodegradable poly(β-amino ester) nanoparticles (NPs) provides widespread expression in photoreceptors and retinal pigmented epithelial (RPE) cells and therapeutic benefits in rodents. Here, we show in a human-sized minipig eye that suprachoroidal injection of 50 μl of NPs containing 19.2 μg of GFP expression plasmid caused GFP expression in photoreceptors and RPE throughout the entire eye with no toxicity. Two weeks after injection of 50, 100, or 200 μl, there was considerable within-eye and between-eye variability in expression that was reduced 3 months after injection of 200 μl and markedly reduced after three suprachoroidal injections at different locations around the eye. Reduction of bacterial CpG sequences in the expression plasmid resulted in a trend toward higher expression. These data indicate that nonviral suprachoroidal gene therapy with optimized polymer, expression plasmid, and injection approach has potential for treating photoreceptors throughout the entire retina of a human-sized eye.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jikui Shen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Raquel Lima e Silva
- Department of Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Mingliang Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Kathryn M. Luly
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Translational Tissue Engineering Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Sean F. Hackett
- Department of Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Stephany Y. Tzeng
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Translational Tissue Engineering Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Shirley M. Lowmaster
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Translational Tissue Engineering Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Sydney R. Shannon
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Translational Tissue Engineering Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - David R. Wilson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Translational Tissue Engineering Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jordan J. Green
- Department of Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Translational Tissue Engineering Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Peter A. Campochiaro
- Department of Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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2
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Kanan Y, Hackett SF, Hsueh HT, Khan M, Ensign LM, Campochiaro PA. Reduced inspired oxygen decreases retinal superoxide radicals and promotes cone function and survival in a model of retinitis pigmentosa. Free Radic Biol Med 2023; 198:118-122. [PMID: 36736930 PMCID: PMC10000309 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2023.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is caused by many different mutations that promote the degeneration of rod photoreceptors and have no direct effect on cones. After the majority of rods have died cone photoreceptors begin to slowly degenerate. Oxidative damage contributes to cone cell death and it has been hypothesized that tissue hyperoxia due to reduced oxygen consumption from the loss of rods is what initiates oxidative stress. Herein, we demonstrate in animal models of RP that reduction of retinal hyperoxia by reducing inspired oxygen to continuous breathing of 11% O2 reduced the generation of superoxide radicals in the retina and preserved cone structure and function. These data indicate that retinal hyperoxia is the initiating event that promotes oxidative damage, loss of cone function, and cone degeneration in the RP retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yogita Kanan
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Sean F Hackett
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Henry T Hsueh
- Center for Nanomedicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Mahmood Khan
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Laura M Ensign
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Center for Nanomedicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Infectious Diseases, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Peter A Campochiaro
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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3
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Kanan Y, Hackett SF, Taneja K, Khan M, Campochiaro PA. Oxidative stress-induced alterations in retinal glucose metabolism in Retinitis Pigmentosa. Free Radic Biol Med 2022; 181:143-153. [PMID: 35134532 PMCID: PMC8891093 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2022.01.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2021] [Revised: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Retinitis pigmentosa occurs due to mutations that cause rod photoreceptor degeneration. Once most rods are lost, gradual degeneration of cone photoreceptors occurs. Oxidative damage and abnormal glucose metabolism have been implicated as contributors to cone photoreceptor death. Herein, we show increased phosphorylation of key enzymes of glucose metabolism in the retinas of rd10 mice, a model of RP, and retinas of wild type mice with paraquat-induced oxidative stress, thereby inhibiting these key enzymes. Dietary supplementation with glucose and pyruvate failed to overcome the inhibition, but increased reducing equivalents in the retina and improved cone function and survival. Dichloroacetate reversed the increased phosphorylation of pyruvate dehydrogenase in rd10 retina and increased histone acetylation and levels of TP53-induced glycolysis and apoptosis regulator (TIGAR), which redirected glucose metabolism toward the pentose phosphate pathway. These data indicate that oxidative stress induced damage can be reversed by shifting glycolytic intermediates toward the pentose phosphate pathway which increases reducing equivalents and provides photoreceptor protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yogita Kanan
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Sean F Hackett
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Kamil Taneja
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Mahmood Khan
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Peter A Campochiaro
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Lorenc VE, Lima e Silva R, Hackett SF, Fortmann SD, Liu Y, Campochiaro PA. Hepatocyte growth factor is upregulated in ischemic retina and contributes to retinal vascular leakage and neovascularization. FASEB Bioadv 2020; 2:219-233. [PMID: 32259049 PMCID: PMC7133726 DOI: 10.1096/fba.2019-00074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2019] [Revised: 09/01/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In patients with macular edema due to ischemic retinopathy, aqueous levels of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) correlate with edema severity. We tested whether HGF expression and activity in mice with oxygen-induced ischemic retinopathy supports a role in macular edema. In ischemic retina, HGF was increased in endogenous cells and macrophages associated with retinal neovascularization (NV). HGF activator was increased in and around retinal vessels potentially providing vascular targeting. One day after intravitreous injection of HGF, VE-cadherin was reduced and albumin levels in retina and vitreous were significantly increased indicating vascular leakage. Injection of VEGF caused higher levels of vitreous albumin than HGF, and co-injection of both growth factors caused significantly higher levels than either alone. HGF increased the number of macrophages on the retinal surface, which was blocked by anti-c-Met and abrogated in chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2)-/- mice. Injection of anti-c-Met significantly decreased leakage within 24 hours and after 5 days it reduced retinal NV in mice with ischemic retinopathy, but had no effect on choroidal NV. These data indicate that HGF is a pro-permeability, pro-inflammatory, and pro-angiogenic factor and along with its activator is increased in ischemic retina providing support for a potential role of HGF in macular edema in ischemic retinopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria E. Lorenc
- Departments of Ophthalmology and NeuroscienceJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMDUSA
| | - Raquel Lima e Silva
- Departments of Ophthalmology and NeuroscienceJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMDUSA
| | - Sean F. Hackett
- Departments of Ophthalmology and NeuroscienceJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMDUSA
| | - Seth D. Fortmann
- Departments of Ophthalmology and NeuroscienceJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMDUSA
| | - Yuanyuan Liu
- Departments of Ophthalmology and NeuroscienceJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMDUSA
- Present address:
Department of OphthalmologyTianjin Medical University General HospitalTianjinChina
| | - Peter A. Campochiaro
- Departments of Ophthalmology and NeuroscienceJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMDUSA
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Hackett SF, Fu J, Kim YC, Tsujinaka H, Shen J, Lima E Silva R, Khan M, Hafiz Z, Wang T, Shin M, Anders NM, He P, Ensign LM, Hanes J, Campochiaro PA. Sustained delivery of acriflavine from the suprachoroidal space provides long term suppression of choroidal neovascularization. Biomaterials 2020; 243:119935. [PMID: 32172031 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.119935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Revised: 02/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of choroidal neovascularization (NV) and is an appealing target because it increases multiple pro-angiogenic proteins and their receptors. Acriflavine (ACF) binds HIF-1α and HIF-2α preventing binding to HIF-1β and inhibiting transcriptional activity of HIF-1 and HIF-2. Delivery of ACF to the eye by multiple routes strongly, but transiently, suppresses choroidal NV. We overcame design challenges and loaded highly water soluble ACF into poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microparticles (PLGA-ACF MPs) that release ACF in vitro for up to 60 days. Intravitreous injection of PLGA-ACF MPs in mice suppressed choroidal NV for at least 9 weeks and suprachoroidal injection of PLGA-ACF in rats suppressed choroidal NV for at least 18 weeks. Intravitreous, but not suprachoroidal injection, of PLGA-ACF MPs containing 38 μg of ACF in rabbits resulted in modest reduction of full-field electroretinogram (ERG) function. Over the span of 28 days after suprachoroidal injection of PLGA-ACF MP, rabbits had normal appearing retinas on fundus photographs, normal electroretinogram scotopic a- and b-wave amplitudes, no increase in intraocular pressure, and normal retinal histology. The active component of ACF, trypaflavine, had steady-state levels in the low nM range in RPE/choroid > retina for at least 16 weeks with a gradient from the side of the eye where the injection was done to the opposite side. These data suggest that suprachoroidal injection of PLGA-ACF MPs has the potential to provide a durable new treatment for retinal and choroidal vascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean F Hackett
- The Center for Nanomedicine, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jie Fu
- The Center for Nanomedicine, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Yoo Chun Kim
- The Center for Nanomedicine, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Hiroki Tsujinaka
- The Center for Nanomedicine, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jikui Shen
- The Center for Nanomedicine, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Raquel Lima E Silva
- The Center for Nanomedicine, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Mahmood Khan
- The Center for Nanomedicine, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Zibran Hafiz
- The Center for Nanomedicine, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Tao Wang
- The Center for Nanomedicine, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Matthew Shin
- The Center for Nanomedicine, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Nicole M Anders
- Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ping He
- Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Laura M Ensign
- The Center for Nanomedicine, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Justin Hanes
- The Center for Nanomedicine, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Peter A Campochiaro
- The Center for Nanomedicine, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Ding K, Shen J, Hafiz Z, Hackett SF, Silva RLE, Khan M, Lorenc VE, Chen D, Chadha R, Zhang M, Van Everen S, Buss N, Fiscella M, Danos O, Campochiaro PA. AAV8-vectored suprachoroidal gene transfer produces widespread ocular transgene expression. J Clin Invest 2019; 129:4901-4911. [PMID: 31408444 DOI: 10.1172/jci129085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
There has been great progress in ocular gene therapy, but delivery of viral vectors to the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) and retina can be challenging. Subretinal injection, the preferred route of delivery for most applications, requires a surgical procedure that has risks. Herein we report a novel gene therapy delivery approach, suprachoroidal injection of AAV8 vectors, which is less invasive and could be done in an outpatient setting. Two weeks after suprachoroidal injection of AAV8.GFP in rats, GFP fluorescence covered 18.9% of RPE flat mounts and extended entirely around sagittal and transverse sections in RPE and photoreceptors. After 2 suprachoroidal injections of AAV8.GFP, GFP fluorescence covered 30.5% of RPE flat mounts. Similarly, widespread expression of GFP occurred in nonhuman primate and pig eyes after suprachoroidal injection of AAV8.GFP. Compared with subretinal injection in rats of RGX-314, an AAV8 vector expressing an anti-VEGF Fab, suprachoroidal injection of the same dose of RGX-314 resulted in similar expression of anti-VEGF Fab and similar suppression of VEGF-induced vascular leakage. Suprachoroidal AAV8 vector injection provides a noninvasive outpatient procedure to obtain widespread transgene expression in retina and RPE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Ding
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Jikui Shen
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Zibran Hafiz
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Sean F Hackett
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Raquel Lima E Silva
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Mahmood Khan
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Valeria E Lorenc
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Daiqin Chen
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Rishi Chadha
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Minie Zhang
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Peter A Campochiaro
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Khan SY, Ali M, Kabir F, Renuse S, Na CH, Talbot CC, Hackett SF, Riazuddin SA. Proteome Profiling of Developing Murine Lens Through Mass Spectrometry. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2018; 59:100-107. [PMID: 29332127 PMCID: PMC5769801 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.17-21601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose We previously completed a comprehensive profile of the mouse lens transcriptome. Here, we investigate the proteome of the mouse lens through mass spectrometry–based protein sequencing at the same embryonic and postnatal time points. Methods We extracted mouse lenses at embryonic day 15 (E15) and 18 (E18) and postnatal day 0 (P0), 3 (P3), 6 (P6), and 9 (P9). The lenses from each time point were preserved in three distinct pools to serve as biological replicates for each developmental stage. The total cellular protein was extracted from the lens, digested with trypsin, and labeled with isobaric tandem mass tags (TMT) for three independent TMT experiments. Results A total of 5404 proteins were identified in the mouse ocular lens in at least one TMT set, 4244 in two, and 3155 were present in all three TMT sets. The majority of the proteins exhibited steady expression at all six developmental time points; nevertheless, we identified 39 proteins that exhibited an 8-fold differential (higher or lower) expression during the developmental time course compared to their respective levels at E15. The lens proteome is composed of diverse proteins that have distinct biological properties and functional characteristics, including proteins associated with cataractogenesis and autophagy. Conclusions We have established a comprehensive profile of the developing murine lens proteome. This repository will be helpful in identifying critical components of lens development and processes essential for the maintenance of its transparency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahid Y Khan
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Muhammad Ali
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Firoz Kabir
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Santosh Renuse
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Chan Hyun Na
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - C Conover Talbot
- Institute for Basic Biomedical Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Sean F Hackett
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - S Amer Riazuddin
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
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Long D, Kanan Y, Shen J, Hackett SF, Liu Y, Hafiz Z, Khan M, Lu L, Campochiaro PA. VEGF/VEGFR2 blockade does not cause retinal atrophy in AMD-relevant models. JCI Insight 2018; 3:120231. [PMID: 29769445 PMCID: PMC6012504 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.120231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Intraocular injections of VEGF-neutralizing proteins provide tremendous benefits in patients with choroidal neovascularization (NV) due to age-related macular degeneration (AMD), but during treatment some patients develop retinal atrophy. Suggesting that VEGF is a survival factor for retinal neurons, a clinical trial group attributed retinal atrophy to VEGF suppression and cautioned against frequent anti-VEGF injections. This recommendation may contribute to poor outcomes in clinical practice from insufficient treatment. Patients with type 3 choroidal NV have particularly high risk of retinal atrophy, an unexplained observation. Herein we show in mouse models that VEGF signaling does not contribute to photoreceptor survival and functioning: (a) neutralization of VEGFR2 strongly suppresses choroidal NV without compromising photoreceptor function or survival; (b) VEGF does not slow loss of photoreceptor function or death in mice with inherited retinal degeneration, and there is no exacerbation by VEGF suppression; and (c) mice with type 3 choroidal NV develop retinal atrophy due to oxidative damage with no contribution from VEGF suppression. Intraocular injections of VEGF-neutralizing proteins, a highly effective treatment in patients with neovascular AMD, should not be withheld or reduced due to concern that they may contribute to long-term visual loss from retinal atrophy.
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Ding K, Eaton L, Bowley D, Rieser M, Chang Q, Harris MC, Clabbers A, Dong F, Shen J, Hackett SF, Touw DS, Bixby J, Zhong S, Benatuil L, Bose S, Grinnell C, Preston GM, Iyer R, Sadhukhan R, Marchie S, Overmeyer G, Ghayur T, van Riet DA, Tang S, Campochario PA, Gu J. Generation and characterization of ABBV642, a dual variable domain immunoglobulin molecule (DVD-Ig) that potently neutralizes VEGF and PDGF-BB and is designed for the treatment of exudative age-related macular degeneration. MAbs 2017; 9:269-284. [PMID: 27929753 DOI: 10.1080/19420862.2016.1268305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Exudative age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the most common cause of moderate and severe vision loss in developed countries. Intraocular injections of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF or VEGF-A)-neutralizing proteins provide substantial benefit, but frequent, long-term injections are needed. In addition, many patients experience initial visual gains that are ultimately lost due to subretinal fibrosis. Preclinical studies and early phase clinical trials suggest that combined suppression of VEGF and platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB) provides better outcomes than suppression of VEGF alone, due to more frequent regression of neovascularization (NV) and suppression of subretinal fibrosis. We generated a dual variable domain immunoglobulin molecule, ABBV642 that specifically and potently binds and neutralizes VEGF and PDGF-BB. ABBV642 has been optimized for treatment of exudative AMD based on the following design characteristics: 1) high affinity binding to all VEGF-A isoforms and both soluble and extracellular matrix (ECM)-associated PDGF-BB; 2) potential for extended residence time in the vitreous cavity to decrease the frequency of intraocular injections; 3) rapid clearance from systemic circulation compared with molecules with wild type Fc region for normal FcRn binding, which may reduce the risk of systemic complications; and 4) low risk of potential effector function. The bispecificity of ABBV642 allows for a single injection of a single therapeutic agent, and thus a more streamlined development and regulatory path compared with combination products. In a mouse model of exudative AMD, ABBV642 was observed to be more effective than aflibercept. ABBV642 has potential to improve efficacy with reduced injection frequency in patients with exudative AMD, thereby reducing the enormous disease burden for patients and society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Ding
- a John Hopkins Wilmer Eye Institute , Baltimore , MD , USA.,b State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University , Guangzhou , China
| | - Lucia Eaton
- c Immunology Discovery, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA
| | - Diana Bowley
- d Global Biologics, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA
| | | | - Qing Chang
- c Immunology Discovery, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA.,d Global Biologics, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA
| | - Maria C Harris
- d Global Biologics, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA
| | - Anca Clabbers
- d Global Biologics, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA
| | - Feng Dong
- c Immunology Discovery, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA.,d Global Biologics, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA
| | - Jikui Shen
- a John Hopkins Wilmer Eye Institute , Baltimore , MD , USA
| | - Sean F Hackett
- a John Hopkins Wilmer Eye Institute , Baltimore , MD , USA
| | - Debra S Touw
- d Global Biologics, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA
| | - Jacqueline Bixby
- d Global Biologics, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA
| | - Suju Zhong
- d Global Biologics, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA
| | - Lorenzo Benatuil
- d Global Biologics, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA
| | - Sahana Bose
- d Global Biologics, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA
| | | | | | - Ramesh Iyer
- d Global Biologics, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA
| | | | - Susan Marchie
- d Global Biologics, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA
| | - Gary Overmeyer
- d Global Biologics, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA
| | - Tariq Ghayur
- c Immunology Discovery, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA
| | - Deborah A van Riet
- c Immunology Discovery, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA
| | - Shibo Tang
- f Aier School of Ophthalmology, Central South University , Changsha , China
| | | | - Jijie Gu
- c Immunology Discovery, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA.,d Global Biologics, AbbVie Bioresearch Center , Worcester , MA , USA
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Hackett SF, Seidel C, Abraham S, Chadha R, Fortmann SD, Campochiaro PA, Cooke JP. The Nicotinic Cholinergic Pathway Contributes to Retinal Neovascularization in a Mouse Model of Retinopathy of Prematurity. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2017; 58:1296-1303. [PMID: 28241318 PMCID: PMC6020715 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.16-20670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose To investigate the role of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in retinal vascular development and ischemia-induced retinal neovascularization (NV). Methods The expression of nAChR subtypes and VEGF signaling pathway components was assessed in mice with and without oxygen-induced ischemic retinopathy by comparing expression levels at postnatal day (P) 14 and P17 in mice exposed to 75% oxygen from P7 to P12 and returned to room air versus mice pups that were exposed to ambient oxygen levels during the same period. The effect of topical or intraocular injection of mecamylamine, a nonspecific nAChR antagonist, or targeted deletion of α7- or α9-nAChRs on ischemia-induced retinal NV was determined by comparing the amount of retinal NV at P17 in these mice versus appropriate controls. Results The expression of nAChR subunits and components of the VEGF signaling pathways was increased in ischemic retina. Topical application or intraocular injection of mecamylamine decreased retinal NV in this model. Mecamylamine had no effect on normal retinal vascular development or on revascularization of the central retinal area of nonperfusion in mice with ischemic retinopathy. Targeted deletion of α9, but not α7, nAChR receptor subunits reduced retinal NV in mice with ischemic retinopathy. Conclusion These data suggest that nAChR signaling, primarily through the α9 nAChR subunit, contributes to ischemia-induced retinal NV, but not retinal vascular development. Mecamylamine or a specific α9 nAChR antagonist could be considered for treatment of retinopathy of prematurity and other ischemic retinopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean F Hackett
- Wilmer Eye Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Christopher Seidel
- Wilmer Eye Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Sheena Abraham
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States
| | - Rishi Chadha
- Wilmer Eye Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Seth D Fortmann
- Wilmer Eye Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Peter A Campochiaro
- Wilmer Eye Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - John P Cooke
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, Methodist Hospital System, Houston, Texas, United States
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11
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Zeng M, Shen J, Liu Y, Lu LY, Ding K, Fortmann SD, Khan M, Wang J, Hackett SF, Semenza GL, Campochiaro PA. The HIF-1 antagonist acriflavine: visualization in retina and suppression of ocular neovascularization. J Mol Med (Berl) 2016; 95:417-429. [PMID: 28004126 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-016-1498-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Revised: 11/14/2016] [Accepted: 12/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Acriflavine, a fluorescent drug previously used for bacterial and trypanosomal infections, reduces hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) and HIF-2 transcriptional activity. In mice with oxygen-induced ischemic retinopathy, intraocular or intraperitoneal injections of acriflavine caused dose-dependent suppression of retinal neovascularization (NV) and significantly reduced expression of HIF-1-responsive genes. Intraocular injection of 100 ng caused inner retina fluorescence within 1 h that was seen throughout the entire retina between 1 and 5 days, and at 7 days after injection, strongly suppressed choroidal NV at Bruch's membrane rupture sites. After suprachoroidal injection of 300 ng in rats, there was retinal fluorescence in the quadrant of the injection at 1 h that spread throughout the entire retina and choroid by 1 day, was detectable for 5 days, and dramatically reduced choroidal NV 14 days after rupture of Bruch's membrane. After topical administration of acriflavine in mice, fluorescence was seen in the retina and retinal pigmented epithelium within 5 min and was detectable for 6-12 h. Administration of 0.5% drops to the cornea twice a day significantly reduced choroidal NV in mice. Electroretinographic b-wave amplitudes were normal 7 days after intravitreous injection of 100 ng of acriflavine in mice, showed mild threshold reductions at highest stimulus intensities after injection of 250 ng, and more extensive changes after injection of 500 ng. These data provide additional evidence for an important role for HIF-1 in retinal and choroidal NV and suggest that acriflavine can target HIF-1 through a variety of modes of administration and has good potential to provide a novel therapy for retinal and choroidal vascular diseases. KEY MESSAGE Acriflavine, an inhibitor of HIF-1, suppresses retinal and choroidal neovascularization. HIF-1 plays a critical role in ocular neovascularization. Acriflavine's fluorescence provides a mean to track its entry and exit from the retina. Acriflavine has therapeutic potential for the treatment of ocular neovascularization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingbing Zeng
- Institute for Cell Engineering, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Departments of Pediatrics, Medicine, Oncology, Radiation Oncology, and Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Hainan Eye Hospital, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jikui Shen
- Institute for Cell Engineering, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Departments of Pediatrics, Medicine, Oncology, Radiation Oncology, and Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Yuanyuan Liu
- Institute for Cell Engineering, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Departments of Pediatrics, Medicine, Oncology, Radiation Oncology, and Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Lucy Yang Lu
- Institute for Cell Engineering, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Departments of Pediatrics, Medicine, Oncology, Radiation Oncology, and Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Kun Ding
- Institute for Cell Engineering, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Departments of Pediatrics, Medicine, Oncology, Radiation Oncology, and Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Seth D Fortmann
- Institute for Cell Engineering, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Departments of Pediatrics, Medicine, Oncology, Radiation Oncology, and Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Mahmood Khan
- Institute for Cell Engineering, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Departments of Pediatrics, Medicine, Oncology, Radiation Oncology, and Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Jiangxia Wang
- Institute for Cell Engineering, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Sean F Hackett
- Institute for Cell Engineering, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Departments of Pediatrics, Medicine, Oncology, Radiation Oncology, and Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Gregg L Semenza
- Institute for Cell Engineering, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Departments of Pediatrics, Medicine, Oncology, Radiation Oncology, and Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Peter A Campochiaro
- Institute for Cell Engineering, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA.
- Departments of Pediatrics, Medicine, Oncology, Radiation Oncology, and Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA.
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Abstract
Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are emerging as an important player in the regulation of genome integrity and gene expression, and they have been implicated in the pathogenesis of many diseases. The aim of the present study is to identify the repertoire of ncRNAs expressed in the developing mouse lens. We previously reported the mouse lens transcriptome, including mRNA and microRNA (miRNA) profiling at two embryonic (E15 and E18) and four postnatal (P0, P3, P6, and P9) time points. We analyzed the data from small RNA-Seq and mRNA-Seq libraries to investigate the ncRNA profile. Our analysis revealed expression of 12 different classes of ncRNA in the murine lens at six developmental time points. Annotation of small RNA data showed expression of 1,756 antisense ncRNA (asncRNA) in the mouse lens transcriptome. Likewise, we identified 82 P-element-induced wimpy testis (PIWI)-interacting RNA (piRNA), 345 transfer RNA (tRNA), 12 small nuclear RNA (snRNA), 167 small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA), 19 small Cajal body-specific RNA (scaRNA), six ribosomal RNA (rRNA), 18 tRNA-like structures, one MALAT1-associated small cytoplasmic RNA (mascRNA), one Vault RNA (vtRNA), and one Y RNA expressed in the developing mouse lens. In parallel, bioinformatic investigation of mRNA-Seq data identified expression of 1,952 long intergenic ncRNA (lincRNA) in the developing mouse lens. In conclusion, we report a comprehensive ncRNA profile in the murine lens at six developmental time points. To the best of our knowledge, this is first report investigating different classes of ncRNAs in the developing mouse lens and will be monumental in elucidating processes essential for the development of the ocular lens and the maintenance of its transparency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahid Y Khan
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Sean F Hackett
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - S Amer Riazuddin
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA.
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13
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Khan SY, Hackett SF, Lee MCW, Pourmand N, Talbot CC, Riazuddin SA. Transcriptome Profiling of Developing Murine Lens Through RNA Sequencing. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2015. [PMID: 26225632 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.14-16253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Transcriptome is the entire repertoire of transcripts present in a cell at any particular time. We undertook a next-generation whole transcriptome sequencing approach to gain insight into the transcriptional landscape of the developing mouse lens. METHODS We ascertained mouse lenses at six developmental time points including two embryonic (E15 and E18) and four postnatal stages (P0, P3, P6, and P9). The ocular tissue at each time point was maintained as two distinct pools serving as biological replicates for each developmental stage. The mRNA and small RNA libraries were paired-end sequenced on Illumina HiSeq 2000 and subsequently analyzed using bioinformatics tools. RESULTS Mapping of mRNA and small RNA libraries generated 187.56 and 154.22 million paired-end reads, respectively. We detected a total of 14,465 genes in the mouse ocular lens at the above-mentioned six developmental stages. Of these, 46 genes exhibited a 40-fold differential (higher or lower) expression at one the five developmental stages (E18, P0, P3, P6, and P9) compared with their expression level at E15. Likewise, small RNA profiling identified 379 microRNAs (miRNAs) expressed in mouse lens at six developmental time points. Of these, 49 miRNAs manifested an 8-fold differential (higher or lower) expression at one the five developmental stages, as mentioned above compared with their expression level at E15. CONCLUSIONS We report a comprehensive profile of developing murine lens transcriptome including both mRNA and miRNA through next-generation RNA sequencing. A complete repository of the lens transcriptome of six developmental time points will be monumental in elucidating processes essential for the development of the ocular lens and maintenance of its transparency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahid Y Khan
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Sean F Hackett
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Mei-Chong W Lee
- Departpart of Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Santa Cruz, California, United States
| | - Nader Pourmand
- Departpart of Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Santa Cruz, California, United States
| | - C Conover Talbot
- Institute for Basic Biomedical Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - S Amer Riazuddin
- The Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
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14
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Shen J, Frye M, Lee BL, Reinardy JL, McClung JM, Ding K, Kojima M, Xia H, Seidel C, Lima e Silva R, Dong A, Hackett SF, Wang J, Howard BW, Vestweber D, Kontos CD, Peters KG, Campochiaro PA. Targeting VE-PTP activates TIE2 and stabilizes the ocular vasculature. J Clin Invest 2014; 124:4564-76. [PMID: 25180601 DOI: 10.1172/jci74527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 07/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Retinal and choroidal neovascularization (NV) and vascular leakage contribute to visual impairment in several common ocular diseases. The angiopoietin/TIE2 (ANG/TIE2) pathway maintains vascular integrity, and negative regulators of this pathway are potential therapeutic targets for these diseases. Here, we demonstrated that vascular endothelial-protein tyrosine phosphatase (VE-PTP), which negatively regulates TIE2 activation, is upregulated in hypoxic vascular endothelial cells, particularly in retinal NV. Intraocular injection of an anti-VE-PTP antibody previously shown to activate TIE2 suppressed ocular NV. Furthermore, a small-molecule inhibitor of VE-PTP catalytic activity (AKB-9778) activated TIE2, enhanced ANG1-induced TIE2 activation, and stimulated phosphorylation of signaling molecules in the TIE2 pathway, including AKT, eNOS, and ERK. In mouse models of neovascular age-related macular degeneration, AKB-9778 induced phosphorylation of TIE2 and strongly suppressed NV. Ischemia-induced retinal NV, which is relevant to diabetic retinopathy, was accentuated by the induction of ANG2 but inhibited by AKB-9778, even in the presence of high levels of ANG2. AKB-9778 also blocked VEGF-induced leakage from dermal and retinal vessels and prevented exudative retinal detachments in double-transgenic mice with high expression of VEGF in photoreceptors. These data support targeting VE-PTP to stabilize retinal and choroidal blood vessels and suggest that this strategy has potential for patients with a wide variety of retinal and choroidal vascular diseases.
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15
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Shen J, Choy DF, Yoshida T, Iwase T, Hafiz G, Xie B, Hackett SF, Arron JR, Campochiaro PA. Interleukin-18 has antipermeablity and antiangiogenic activities in the eye: reciprocal suppression with VEGF. J Cell Physiol 2014; 229:974-83. [PMID: 24515951 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.24575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2013] [Accepted: 02/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-18 (IL-18) is increased along with IL-1β by activation of the inflammasome and has been implicated in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, but its role in the eye is uncertain. In patients with macular edema due to retinal vein occlusion, intraocular IL-18 levels increased significantly (P < 0.001) after treatment with ranibizumab particularly in patients with high baseline IL-18 which correlated with good visual outcome (P < 0.05). In mice with ischemic retinopathy, suppression of VEGF caused an increase in IL18 mRNA due to an increase in IL-18-positive myeloid cells. VEGF significantly and specifically inhibited IL-18 production by myeloid cells stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (P < 0.001). Intraocular injection of IL-18 reduced VEGF-induced leakage and neovascularization, and reversed VEGF-induced suppression of Claudin5 expression and Claudin 5 labeling of vascular tight junctions. Injection of IL-18 also increased expression of Thrombospondin 1 and reduced ischemia-induced retinal neovascularization relevant to diabetic retinopathy and subretinal neovascularization relevant to neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Thus, VEGF and IL-18 suppress each other's production and effects on the vasculature suggesting that IL-18 may provide benefit in multiple retinal/choroidal vascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jikui Shen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
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Lu L, Seidel CP, Iwase T, Stevens RK, Gong YY, Wang X, Hackett SF, Campochiaro PA. Suppression of GLUT1; A new strategy to prevent diabetic complications. J Cell Physiol 2012; 228:251-7. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.24133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Ohnaka M, Miki K, Gong YY, Stevens R, Iwase T, Hackett SF, Campochiaro PA. Long-term expression of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor slows, but does not stop retinal degeneration in a model of retinitis pigmentosa. J Neurochem 2012; 122:1047-53. [PMID: 22726126 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2012.07842.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Retinitis pigmentosa is a group of diseases in which one of hundreds of mutations causes death of rod photoreceptor cells and then cones gradually die from oxidative damage. As different mutations cause rod cell death by different mechanisms, mutation-specific treatments are needed. Another approach is to use a neurotrophic factor to promote photoreceptor survival regardless of the mechanism of cell death, and previous studies have demonstrated encouraging short-term results with gene transfer of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF). We generated rd10 mice with doxycycline-inducible expression of GDNF in photoreceptors (Tet/IRBP/GDNF-rd10 mice) or retinal pigmented epithelial cells (Tet/VMD2/GDNF-rd10 mice). In doxycycline-treated Tet/IRBP/GDNF-rd10 mice, there was a 9.3 × 10(4) -fold increase in Gdnf mRNA at P35 and although it decreased over time, it was still increased by 9.4 × 10(3) -fold at P70. Gdnf mRNA was increased 4.5 × 10(2) -fold in doxycycline-treated Tet/VMD2/GDMF-rd10 mice at P35 and was not significantly decreased at P70. GDNF protein levels were increased about 2.3-fold at P35 and 30% at P70 in Tet/IRBP/GDNF-rd10 mice, and in Tet/VMD2/GDNF-rd10 mice they were increased 30% at P35 and not significantly increased at P70. Despite the difference in expression, Tet/IRBP/GDNF-rd10 and Tet/VMD2/GDNF-rd10 mice had comparable significant increases in outer nuclear layer thickness and mean photopic and scotopic ERG b-wave amplitudes compared with rd10 mice at P35 which decreased, but was still significant at P70. Compared with rd10 mice, Tet/IRBP/GDNF-rd10 and Tet/VMD2/GDNF-rd10 mice had comparable significant improvements in cone density at P50 that decreased, but were still significant at P70. These data indicate that despite a large difference in expression of GDNF, Tet/IRBP/GDNF-rd10 and Tet/VMD2/GDNF-rd10 provide comparable slowing of photoreceptor degeneration, but cannot stop the degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayuki Ohnaka
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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18
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Oveson BC, Iwase T, Hackett SF, Lee SY, Usui S, Sedlak TW, Snyder SH, Campochiaro PA, Sung JU. Constituents of bile, bilirubin and TUDCA, protect against oxidative stress-induced retinal degeneration. J Neurochem 2010; 116:144-53. [PMID: 21054389 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.07092.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Two constituents of bile, bilirubin and tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA), have antioxidant activity. However, bilirubin can also cause damage to some neurons and glial cells, particularly immature neurons. In this study, we tested the effects of bilirubin and TUDCA in two models in which oxidative stress contributes to photoreceptor cell death, prolonged light exposure and rd10+/+ mice. In albino BALB/c mice, intraperitoneal injection of 5 mg/kg of bilirubin or 500 mg/kg of TUDCA prior to exposure to 5000 lux of white light for 8 h significantly reduced loss of rod and cone function assessed by electroretinograms. Both treatments also reduced light-induced accumulation of superoxide radicals in the outer retina, rod cell death assessed by outer nuclear layer thickness, and disruption of cone inner and outer segments. In rd10+/+ mice, intraperitoneal injections of 5 or 50 mg/kg of bilirubin or 500 mg/kg of TUDCA every 3 days starting at postnatal day (P) 6, caused significant preservation of cone cell number and cone function at P50. Rods were not protected at P50, but both bilirubin and TUDCA provided modest preservation of outer nuclear layer thickness and rod function at P30. These data suggest that correlation of serum bilirubin levels with rate of vision loss in patients with retinitis pigmentosa could provide a useful strategy to test the hypothesis that cones die from oxidative damage in patients with retinitis pigmentosa. If proof-of-concept is established, manipulation of bilirubin levels and administration of TUDCA could be tested in interventional trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian C Oveson
- Department of Ophthalmology Johns Hopkins University Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Lima e Silva R, Shen J, Gong YY, Seidel CP, Hackett SF, Kesavan K, Jacoby DB, Campochiaro PA. Agents that bind annexin A2 suppress ocular neovascularization. J Cell Physiol 2010; 225:855-64. [PMID: 20607799 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.22296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
TM601 is a synthetic polypeptide with sequence derived from the venom of the scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus that has anti-neoplastic activity. It has recently been demonstrated to bind annexin A2 on cultured tumor and vascular endothelial cells and to suppress blood vessel growth on chick chorioallantoic membrane. In this study, we investigated the effects of TM601 in models of ocular neovascularization (NV). When administered by intraocular injection, intravenous injections, or periocular injections, TM601 significantly suppressed the development of choroidal NV at rupture sites in Bruch's membrane. Treatment of established choroidal NV with TM601 caused apoptosis of endothelial cells and regression of the NV. TM601 suppressed ischemia-induced and vascular endothelial growth factor-induced retinal NV and reduced excess vascular permeability induced by vascular endothelial growth factor. Immunostaining with an antibody directed against TM601 showed that after intraocular or periocular injection, TM601 selectively bound to choroidal or retinal NV and co-localized with annexin A2, which is undetectable in normal retinal and choroidal vessels, but is upregulated in endothelial cells participating in choroidal or retinal NV. Intraocular injection of plasminogen or tissue plasminogen activator, which like TM601 bind to annexin A2, also suppressed retinal NV. This study supports the hypothesis that annexin A2 is an important target for treatment of neovascular diseases and suggests that TM601, through its interaction with annexin A2, causes suppression and regression of ocular NV and reduces vascular leakage and thus may provide a new treatment for blinding diseases such as neovascular age-related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Lima e Silva
- Department of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287-9277, USA
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Miki K, Miki A, Matsuoka M, Muramatsu D, Hackett SF, Campochiaro PA. Effects of intraocular ranibizumab and bevacizumab in transgenic mice expressing human vascular endothelial growth factor. Ophthalmology 2009; 116:1748-54. [PMID: 19643496 DOI: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2009.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2009] [Revised: 05/11/2009] [Accepted: 05/12/2009] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study compared the effects of intraocular injections of ranibizumab (RBZ) and bevacizumab (BVZ) in transgenic mouse models in which human vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) causes subretinal neovascularization (NV) or exudative retinal detachment. DESIGN Randomized trials in animal models. PARTICIPANTS Transgenic mice in which the rhodopsin promoter drives expression of human VEGF in photoreceptors (rho/VEGF mice) and double transgenic mice with doxycycline-inducible expression of human VEGF in photoreceptors (Tet/opsin/VEGF mice). METHODS Rho/VEGF mice received intraocular injections of RBZ, BVZ, or vehicle, and after various time periods the area of subretinal NV was measured. Tet/opsin/VEGF mice were given an intraocular injection of RBZ, BVZ, or vehicle, and after 5 days of doxycycline treatment the presence or absence of retinal detachment was determined. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Area of subretinal NV per retina in rho/VEGF mice and the occurrence of retinal detachment in Tet/opsin/VEGF mice. RESULTS In rho/VEGF mice, intraocular injections of RBZ or BVZ strongly suppressed subretinal NV, but the duration of effect was greater for BVZ. Three injections of 10 microg of BVZ over the course of 2 weeks not only suppressed subretinal NV in the injected eye but also caused significant suppression in the fellow eye, indicating a systemic effect. In doxycycline-treated Tet/opsin/VEGF mice, intraocular injection of 10 microg of BVZ significantly reduced the incidence of exudative retinal detachment compared with injection of 10 microg of RBZ. Injection of 25 microg of BVZ reduced the incidence of retinal detachment in both eyes. CONCLUSIONS Intraocular injections of RBZ and BVZ had similar efficacy in rho/VEGF mice, but the duration of effect was greater for BVZ. In Tet/opsin/VEGF mice, in which expression levels of human VEGF are very high and the phenotype is severe, BVZ showed greater efficacy than RBZ. In both models, higher doses or repeated injections of BVZ, but not RBZ, resulted in a systemic effect. These data suggest that BVZ is not inferior to RBZ for treatment of subretinal NV in mice and is superior in a severe model. The systemic effects of BVZ after intraocular injection deserve further study and consideration of their potential consequences. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S) Proprietary or commercial disclosure may be found after the references.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsuaki Miki
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21287-9277, USA
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Abstract
Mice deficient in superoxide dismutase 1 (Sod1(-/-) mice) develop many features seen in patients with age-related macular degeneration (AMD) including choroidal neovascularization (NV). We sought to determine if the absence of SOD1 contributes to the pro-angiogenic environment in the subretinal space or whether it is completely secondary to other changes in Bruch's membrane and the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) that precede the development of choroidal NV. In an ischemic retinopathy model or a transgenic model in which the rhodopsin promoter drives expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in photoreceptor there was significantly more NV in Sod1(-/-) compared to Sod1(+/+) mice. The compromised antioxidant defense system in Sod1(-/-) mice contributes to the pro-angiogenic environment, because treatment of Sod1(-/-) mice with a mixture of antioxidants caused a significant reduction in ischemia-induced retinal NV. Wild-type mice treated with the same antioxidants also showed reduced ischemia-induced retinal NV, reduced VEGF-induced subretinal NV, and reduced choroidal NV at Bruch's membrane rupture sites. These data suggest that reactive oxygen species contribute to several types of ocular NV. This could explain why in the Age-Related Eye Disease Trial, antioxidant treatment reduced conversion from non-neovascular to neovascular AMD and severe vision loss, and suggest that potent antioxidants should be considered for other diseases complicated by ocular NV. J. Cell. Physiol. 219: 544-552, 2009. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aling Dong
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins, University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Xie B, Shen J, Dong A, Swaim M, Hackett SF, Wyder L, Worpenberg S, Barbieri S, Campochiaro PA. An Adam15 amplification loop promotes vascular endothelial growth factor-induced ocular neovascularization. FASEB J 2008; 22:2775-83. [PMID: 18381816 DOI: 10.1096/fj.07-099283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Proteins with a disintegrin and a metalloproteinase domain (ADAMs) are a family of membrane-bound proteinases that bind integrins through their disintegrin domain. In this study, we have found modest expression of ADAM15 in pericytes in normal retina and strong up-regulation of ADAM15 in retinal vascular endothelial cells in ischemic retina. Increased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the retina in the absence of ischemia also increased ADAM15 levels, and knockdown of Vegf mRNA in ischemic retina reduced Adam15 mRNA. Mice deficient in ADAM15 showed a significant reduction in ischemia-induced retinal neovascularization, choroidal neovascularization at rupture sites in Bruch's membrane, and VEGF-induced subretinal neovascularization. ADAM15-deficient mice also showed reduced levels of VEGF(164), VEGF receptor 1, and VEGF receptor 2 in ischemic retina. These data suggest that ADAM15 and VEGF participate in an amplification loop; VEGF increases expression of ADAM15, which in turn increases expression of VEGF and its receptors. Perturbation of the loop by elimination of ADAM15 suppresses ocular neovascularization in 3 different model systems, and thus ADAM15 provides a new therapeutic target for diseases complicated by neovascularization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Xie
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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23
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Dong A, Shen J, Krause M, Hackett SF, Campochiaro PA. Increased expression of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor protects against oxidative damage-induced retinal degeneration. J Neurochem 2007; 103:1041-52. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.04839.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Shen J, Xie B, Dong A, Swaim M, Hackett SF, Campochiaro PA. In vivo immunostaining demonstrates macrophages associate with growing and regressing vessels. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2007; 48:4335-41. [PMID: 17724225 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.07-0113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to identify ways to improve qualitative and quantitative assessments of retinal vessels and neovascularization (NV). METHODS At postnatal day (P) 17, mice with oxygen-induced ischemic retinopathy were injected intravitreously with one of a variety of FITC-labeled or unlabeled antibodies and humanely killed 12 hours later. Retinas were flat mounted (retinas from eyes injected with labeled antibodies) or incubated with secondary antibody and then flat mounted (retinas from eyes injected with unlabeled antibodies). RESULTS Retinas from eyes injected with labeled anti-platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule 1 (PECAM1) showed good resolution of the fine structure of retinal NV, including filopodia at the tips of sprouts. New vessels originated from superficial retinal vessels, something that is widely recognized, but they also arose from deep retinal capillaries and from large retinal vessels, which is not generally known. Retinas from eyes injected with unlabeled anti-PECAM1 antibody and then incubated with labeled secondary antibody showed selective staining of retinal NV with little or no background, greatly facilitating identification and quantification of the NV by image analysis software. Double labeling with anti-PECAM1 antibody and one of three other antibodies--anti-CD45, F4/80, or anti-CXCR4--showed exquisite localization of various populations of bone marrow-derived cells with respect to the vasculature and demonstrated close association of macrophages with NV and regressing vessels. Double labeling with anti-PECAM1 antibody and anti-placental growth factor (PlGF) showed high levels of PlGF in growing and regressing vessels but no detectable signal elsewhere in the retina. CONCLUSIONS This study describes techniques that facilitate measurements and detailed structural analysis of retinal NV and that allow identification and quantification of populations of bone marrow-derived cells and support the view that macrophages contribute to the growth and regression of vessels in the eye.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jikui Shen
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287-9277, USA
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25
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Abstract
Epidemiologic studies have suggested that elderly patients who consumed diets rich in antioxidants throughout their lives are less likely to be afflicted with age-related macular degeneration (AMD). This led to the Age-Related Eye Disease Study, which showed that supplements containing antioxidant vitamins and zinc reduce the risk of progression to severe stages of AMD. Despite these data that indirectly implicate oxidative damage in the pathogenesis of AMD, there has not been any direct demonstration of increased oxidative damage in the retinas of patients with AMD. In this study, we used biomarkers of oxidative damage in postmortem eyes from patients with AMD and comparably aged patients without AMD to directly assess for oxidative damage. Sections from 4 eyes with no pathologic features of AMD showed no immunofluorescent staining for markers of oxidative damage, while sections from 8 of 12 eyes with advanced geographic atrophy showed evidence of widespread oxidative damage in both posterior and anterior retina. Only 2 of 8 eyes with choroidal neovascularization and 2 of 16 eyes with diffuse drusen and no other signs of AMD showed evidence of oxidative damage. These data suggest that widespread oxidative damage occurs in the retina of some patients with AMD and is more likely to be seen in patients with advanced geographic atrophy. This does not rule out oxidative damage as a pathogenic mechanism in patients with CNV, but suggests that a subpopulation of patients with geographic atrophy may have a major deficiency in the oxidative defense system that puts the majority of cells in the retina at risk for oxidative damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- J K Shen
- The Department of Ophthalmology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Maumenee, Baltimore, Maryland 21287-9277, USA
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26
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Shen J, Xie B, Hatara CM, Hackett SF, Campochiaro PA. Vegf or EphA2 antisense polyamide-nucleic acids; vascular localization and suppression of retinal neovascularization. Mol Ther 2007; 15:1924-30. [PMID: 17680030 DOI: 10.1038/sj.mt.6300276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Localized gene knockdown is a valuable tool for investigating the function of gene products in tissues. It may also be a good therapeutic strategy for selective targeting of a gene product implicated in disease pathogenesis. While small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) are useful for localized gene knockdown and have achieved well-deserved attention, other strategies may also have applications. Polyamide nucleic acids (PNAs) are DNA-protein chimeric molecules that can be designed with modifications so as to allow good cell entry and high affinity binding to complementary RNA. After intraocular injection of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-labeled antisense PNAs directed against Vegf or EphA2 (genes that are highly expressed in retinal vessels), labeling was observed to persist in retinal blood vessels even after staining elsewhere in the retina had faded. This did not occur after injection of FITC-labeled antisense human cAMP responsive element binding protein 1 (hCreb) PNA. Subretinal injection of antisense EphA2 PNA was seen to label choroidal blood vessels. Intraocular injection of antisense Vegf PNA or antisense EphA2 PNA significantly reduced their respective target messenger RNAs (mRNAs) in ischemic retinas and suppressed retinal neovascularization (NV). These data suggest that signaling through EphA2 contributes to retinal NV, and that antisense PNAs may be an advantageous way to target EphA2 and other endothelial cell receptors that contribute to ocular NV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jikui Shen
- The Department of Ophthalmology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287-9277, USA
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Wu Z, Lauer TW, Sick A, Hackett SF, Campochiaro PA. Oxidative stress modulates complement factor H expression in retinal pigmented epithelial cells by acetylation of FOXO3. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:22414-25. [PMID: 17558024 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m702321200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the leading cause of severe vision loss in the elderly, is a complex disease that results from genetic modifications that increase susceptibility to environmental exposures. Smoking, a major source of oxidative stress, increases the incidence and severity of AMD, and antioxidants slow progression, suggesting that oxidative stress plays a major role. Polymorphisms in the complement factor H (CFH) gene that reduce activity of CFH increase the risk of AMD. In this study we demonstrate an interaction between these two risk factors, because oxidative stress reduces the ability of an inflammatory cytokine, interferon-gamma, to increase CFH expression in retinal pigmented epithelial cells. The interferon-gamma-induced increase in CFH is mediated by transcriptional activation by STAT1, and its suppression by oxidative stress is mediated by acetylation of FOXO3, which enhances FOXO3 binding to the CFH promoter, reduces its binding to STAT1, inhibits STAT1 interaction with the CFH promoter, and reduces expression of CFH. Expression of SIRT1, a mammalian homolog of NAD-dependent protein deacetylase sir2, attenuated FOXO3 recruitment to the CFH regulatory region and reversed the H(2)O(2)-induced repression of CFH gene expression. These data suggest an important interaction between environmental exposure and genetic susceptibility in the pathogenesis of AMD and, by elucidating molecular signaling involved in the interaction, provide potential targets for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihao Wu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287-9277, USA
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28
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Lima e Silva R, Shen J, Hackett SF, Kachi S, Akiyama H, Kiuchi K, Yokoi K, Hatara MC, Lauer T, Aslam S, Gong YY, Xiao WH, Khu NH, Thut C, Campochiaro PA. The SDF‐1/CXCR4 ligand/receptor pair is an important contributor to several types of ocular neovascularization. FASEB J 2007; 21:3219-30. [PMID: 17522382 DOI: 10.1096/fj.06-7359com] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Hypoxia causes increased expression of several proteins that have the potential to promote neovascularization. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is up-regulated by hypoxia in the retina and plays a central role in the development of several types of ocular neovascularization, but the effects of other hypoxia-regulated proteins are less clear. Stromal-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) and its receptor, CXCR4, have hypoxia response elements in the promoter regions of their genes and are increased in hypoxic liver and heart. In this study, we found that SDF-1 and CXCR4 are increased in hypoxic retina, with SDF-1 localized in glial cells primarily near the surface of the retina and CXCR4 localized in bone marrow-derived cells. Glial cells also expressed CXCR4, which suggested the possibility of autocrine stimulation, but influx of bone marrow-derived cells is the major source of increased levels of CXCR4. High levels of VEGF in the retina in the absence of hypoxia also increased levels of Cxcr4 and Sdf1 mRNA. CXCR4 antagonists reduced influx of bone marrow-derived cells into ischemic retina and strongly suppressed retinal neovascularization, VEGF-induced subretinal neovascularization, and choroidal neovascularization. These data suggest that SDF-1 and CXCR4 contribute to the involvement of bone marrow-derived cells and collaborate with VEGF in the development of several types of ocular neovascularization. They provide new targets for therapeutic intervention that may help to bolster and supplement effects obtained with VEGF antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Lima e Silva
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287-9277, USA
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29
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Wu Z, Rogers B, Kachi S, Hackett SF, Sick A, Campochiaro PA. Reduction of p66Shc suppresses oxidative damage in retinal pigmented epithelial cells and retina. J Cell Physiol 2007; 209:996-1005. [PMID: 16972253 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.20819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The largest isoform of the Shc adapter protein, p66Shc, has been implicated in oxidative damage-induced apoptosis in vital organs, because mice deficient in p66Shc have a 30% increase in life span and are resistant to the lethal effects of systemically administered paraquat, a source of severe oxidative damage. In this study, we utilized siRNA directed against the CH2 domain of Shc, to reduce p66Shc, but not p52Shc nor p46Shc in retinal pigmented epithelial (RPE) cells. RPE cells deficient in p66Shc had reduced susceptibility to oxidative stress-induced apoptosis. Compared to control cells, those with reduced p66Shc had increased basal and oxidative stress-induced NF-kappaB transcriptional activity, increased levels of antioxidant enzymes, and less generation of reactive oxygen species when challenged with H(2)O(2). The increase in oxidative stress-induced NF-kappaB activity was mediated by activation of ERK. Compared to eyes injected with GFP siRNA, those injected with p66Shc siRNA showed less loss of retinal function as assessed by electroretinograms from paraquat-induced oxidative stress. These data suggest that p66Shc and molecular signals involved in its regulation provide therapeutic targets for retinal degenerations in which oxidative-damage plays a major role, including age-related macular degeneration and cone cell death in retinitis pigmentosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihao Wu
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
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30
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Lima e Silva R, Kachi S, Akiyama H, Shen J, Hatara MC, Aslam S, Gong YY, Khu NH, Lauer TW, Hackett SF, Marton LJ, Campochiaro PA. Trans-scleral delivery of polyamine analogs for ocular neovascularization. Exp Eye Res 2006; 83:1260-7. [PMID: 16950258 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2006.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2006] [Revised: 05/26/2006] [Accepted: 07/01/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Periocular injections of the polyamine analog CGC-11144 three times a week causes regression of choroidal neovascularization. This regimen was selected to maximize chances of success for proof of concept, but is not ideal for clinical application. In this study we explored other regimens for periocular delivery of CGC-11144, and 2 other polyamine analogs, CGC-11047 and CGC-11093. A single periocular injection of 200 microg of CGC-11144, 2 mg of CGC-11047, or 1.5 mg of CGC-11093 caused significant suppression and regression of laser-induced choroidal neovascularization. An injection of 2 mg of CGC-11047 or 1.5 mg of CGC-11093 one or two weeks before, but not 3 weeks before, rupture of Bruch's membrane also caused significant suppression. Periocular injection of polyamine analogs also caused strong inhibition of retinal or subretinal neovascularization in mice with oxygen-induced ischemic retinopathy or Rhodopsin promoter/VEGF transgenic mice, respectively. These data suggest that periocular injection of one of 3 different polyamine analogs inhibits retinal or choroidal neovascularization and a single injection provides inhibitory activity for at least 2 to 3 weeks, which could provide the basis for a feasible treatment regimen for clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Lima e Silva
- The Departments of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Maumenee 719, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21287-9277, USA
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31
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Shen J, Samul R, Silva RL, Akiyama H, Liu H, Saishin Y, Hackett SF, Zinnen S, Kossen K, Fosnaugh K, Vargeese C, Gomez A, Bouhana K, Aitchison R, Pavco P, Campochiaro PA. Suppression of ocular neovascularization with siRNA targeting VEGF receptor 1. Gene Ther 2006; 13:225-34. [PMID: 16195704 DOI: 10.1038/sj.gt.3302641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we used small interfering RNA (siRNA) directed against vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1 (vegfr1) mRNA to investigate the role of VEGFR1 in ocular neovascularization (NV). After evaluating many siRNAs, Sirna-027 was identified; it cleaved vegfr1 mRNA at the predicted site and reduced its levels in cultured endothelial cells and in mouse models of retinal and choroidal neovascularization (CNV). Compared to injection of an inverted control sequence, quantitative reverse transcriptase-PCR demonstrated statistically significant reductions of 57 and 40% in vegfr1 mRNA after intravitreous or periocular injection of Sirna-027, respectively. Staining showed uptake of 5-bromodeoxyuridine-labeled Sirna-027 in retinal cells that lasted between 3 and 5 days after intravitreous injection and was still present 5 days after periocular injection. In a CNV model, intravitreous or periocular injections of Sirna-027 resulted in significant reductions in the area of NV ranging from 45 to 66%. In mice with ischemic retinopathy, intravitreous injection of 1.0 mug of Sirna-027 reduced retinal NV by 32% compared to fellow eyes treated with 1.0 mug of inverted control siRNA. These data suggest that VEGFR1 plays an important role in the development of retinal and CNV and that targeting vegfr1 mRNA with siRNA has therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Shen
- 1The Departments of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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32
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Akiyama H, Kachi S, Silva RLE, Umeda N, Hackett SF, McCauley D, McCauley T, Zoltoski A, Epstein DM, Campochiaro PA. Intraocular injection of an aptamer that binds PDGF-B: a potential treatment for proliferative retinopathies. J Cell Physiol 2006; 207:407-12. [PMID: 16419035 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.20583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Platelet-derived growth factor-B (PDGF-B) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of proliferative retinopathies and other scarring disorders in the eye. In this study, we sought to test the therapeutic potential of an aptamer that selectively binds PDGF-B, ARC126, and its PEGylated derivative, ARC127. Both ARC126 and ARC127 blocked PDGF-B-induced proliferation of cultured fibroblasts with an IC50 of 4 nM. Pharmacokinetic studies in rabbits showed similar peak vitreous concentrations of approximately 110 microM after intravitreous injection of 1 mg of either ARC126 or ARC127, but the terminal half-life was longer for ARC127 (98 versus 43 h). Efficacy was tested in rho/PDGF-B transgenic mice that express PDGF-B in photoreceptors and develop severe proliferative retinopathy resulting in retinal detachment. Compared to eyes injected with 20 microg of scrambled aptamer in which five of six developed detachments (three total and two partial), eyes injected with ARC126 (no detachment in five of six and one partial detachment), or ARC127 (no detachment in six of six) had significantly fewer retinal detachments. They also showed a significant reduction in epiretinal membrane formation. These data demonstrate that a single intravitreous injection of an aptamer that specifically binds PDGF-B is able to significantly reduce epiretinal membrane formation and retinal detachment in rho/PDGF-B mice. These striking effects in an aggressive model of proliferative retinopathy suggest that ARC126 and ARC127 should be considered for treatment of diseases in which PDGF-B has been implicated, including ischemic retinopathies such as proliferative diabetic retinopathy, proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR), and choroidal neovascularization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideo Akiyama
- Department of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287-9277, USA
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Abstract
Oxidative damage to retinal pigmented epithelial (RPE) cells and photoreceptors has been implicated in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). In order to develop new treatments, it is necessary to characterize the antioxidant defense system in RPE cells to better define their vulnerabilities and how they can be remedied. In this study, we sought to investigate the effects of three different types of oxidative stress on cultured RPE cells. Carbonyl content in RPE cells increased with increasing concentrations of oxidants or increasing duration of exposure with high reproducibility, validating ELISA for carbonyl content as a valuable quantitative measure of oxidative damage. Compared to other cell types, RPE cells were able to survive exposure to H2O2 quite well and exposure to paraquat extremely well. Comparison of the total amount of oxidative damage at the IC50 for each type of stress showed a rank order of hyperoxia > paraquat > H2O2, and since these stressors primarily target different cellular compartments, it suggests that the endogenous defense system against oxidative damage in RPE cells protects well against damage to mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum, and is less able to handle oxidative damage at the cell surface. Supplementation of media with ascorbic acid provided significant protection from H2O2-induced oxidative damage, but not that induced by paraquat or hyperoxia. Supplementation with docosahexaenoic acid or alpha-tocopherol significantly reduced oxidative damage from H2O2 or hyperoxia, but not that induced by paraquat. We conclude that exposure to different types of oxidative stress results in different patterns of accrual of oxidative damage to proteins in RPE cells, different patterns of loss of viability, and is differentially countered by antioxidants. This study suggests that multiple types of oxidant stress should be used to probe the vulnerabilities of the retina and RPE in vivo, and that ELISA for carbonyl content provides a valuable tool for quantitative assessment of oxidative damage for such studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lili Lu
- The Department of Ophthalmology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Maumenee, Baltimore, Maryland 21287-9277, USA
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Shen J, Yang X, Xiao WH, Hackett SF, Sato Y, Campochiaro PA. Vasohibin is up-regulated by VEGF in the retina and suppresses VEGF receptor 2 and retinal neovascularization. FASEB J 2006; 20:723-5. [PMID: 16473886 DOI: 10.1096/fj.05-5046fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Vasohibin is a recently identified protein that is up-regulated in cultured vascular endothelial cells by vascular endothelial growth factor and fibroblast growth factor 2. It inhibits endothelial cell migration, proliferation, and tube formation, and suppresses angiogenesis in chick chorioallantoic membrane, after subcutaneous implantation of matrigel, and in a tumor xenograft model. This has led to the hypothesis that vasohibin functions as a negative feedback inhibitor of angiogenesis. In this study, we tested that hypothesis in a well-characterized model of retinal neovascularization. In ischemic retina, increased expression of VEGF was accompanied by elevation of vasohibin mRNA and blocking of the increase in vegf mRNA with vegf siRNA significantly attenuated the rise in vasohibin mRNA. In transgenic mice in which the rhodopsin promoter drives expression of VEGF in the retina, there was also a significant increase in vasohibin mRNA. In mice with ischemic retinopathy, there was increased expression of vasohibin in vascular endothelial cells, and vasohibin knockdown caused an increase in neovascularization. Conversely, intraocular injection of recombinant vasohibin or an adenoviral vector containing a vasohibin expression cassette strongly suppressed retinal neovascularization in mice with ischemic retinopathy. Knockdown of vasohibin mRNA in ischemic retina had no significant effect on vegf or vegf receptor 1 mRNA levels but caused a significant elevation in the level of vegf receptor 2 mRNA. These data support the hypothesis that vasohibin acts as a negative feedback regulator of neovascularization in the retina and suggest that suppression of VEGF receptor 2 may play some role in mediating its activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jikui Shen
- The Departments of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Baltimore, Maryland 21287-9277, USA
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Dong A, Shen J, Krause M, Akiyama H, Hackett SF, Lai H, Campochiaro PA. Superoxide dismutase 1 protects retinal cells from oxidative damage. J Cell Physiol 2006; 208:516-26. [PMID: 16741961 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.20683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Bolstering the endogenous oxidative damage defense system is a good strategy for development of treatments to combat neurodegenerative diseases in which oxidative damage plays a role. A first step in such treatment development is to determine the role of various components of the defense system in cells that degenerate. In this study, we sought to determine the role of superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) in two models of oxidative damage-induced retinal degeneration. In one model, paraquat is injected into the vitreous cavity and then enters retinal cells and generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) that cause progressive retinal damage. Assessment of retinal function with serial electroretinograms (ERGs) showed that sod1 -/- mice were much more sensitive than sod1 +/+ mice to the damaging effects of paraquat, while sod1 +/- mice showed intermediate sensitivity. Compared to sod1 +/+ mice, sod1 -/- mice showed greater paraquat-induced oxidative damage and apoptosis. In the second model, mice were exposed to hyperoxia for several weeks, and sod1 -/- mice showed significantly greater reductions in ERG amplitudes than sod1 +/+ mice. In both of these models, transgenic mice carrying a sod1 transgene driven by a beta-actin promoter showed less oxidative stress-induced reduction in ERG amplitudes. These data demonstrate that SOD1 protects retinal cells against paraquat- and hyperoxia-induced oxidative damage and suggest that overexpression of SOD1 should be considered as one component of ocular gene therapy to prevent oxidative damage-induced retinal degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aling Dong
- Department of Ophthalmology and Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287-9277, USA
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36
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Zhang S, Kachi S, Hackett SF, Kachi M, Akiyama H, Umeda N, Yokoi K, Liu PQ, Veres G, Gregory PD, Campochiaro PA. 788. Engineered Zinc Finger Protein Transcription Factors as a Potential Therapy for Choroidal Neovascularization. Mol Ther 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2006.08.876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
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37
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Lima e Silva R, Saishin Y, Saishin Y, Akiyama H, Kachi S, Aslam S, Rogers B, Deering T, Gong YY, Hackett SF, Lai H, Frydman BJ, Valasinas A, Marton LJ, Campochiaro PA. Suppression and regression of choroidal neovascularization by polyamine analogues. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2005; 46:3323-30. [PMID: 16123436 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.04-1210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Polyamine analogues inhibit tumor growth in vitro and in vivo, and oligoamines with a chain length of 10, 12, or 14 are particularly potent. This study was conducted to investigate the effect of the decamines CGC-11144 and CGC-11150 in a mouse model of choroidal neovascularization (CNV). METHODS Mice with laser-induced rupture of Bruch's membrane were given intraperitoneal, intravitreous, or periocular injection of CGC-11144, CGC-11150, or vehicle, and after 14 days, they were perfused with fluorescein-labeled dextran, and the area of CNV was measured on choroidal flatmounts by image analysis. In some groups of mice, treatments were started 7 days after rupture of Bruch's membrane to determine the effect of the agent on established CNV. Electroretinograms (ERGs) were performed to assess the effects on retinal function, and histopathology was used to evaluate retinal structure. RESULTS Intraperitoneal injection of 10 or 20 mg/kg CGC-11144 or CGC-11150 resulted in small but significant reductions in the area of CNV. Intravitreous injection of 20 microg CGC-11144 or CGC-11150 on days 0 and 7 after rupture of Bruch's membrane resulted in a approximately 40% reduction in the area of CNV, with a similar reduction after periocular injections of 0.2 mg CGC-11144 three times a week for 2 weeks. Both intravitreous and periocular delivery of CGC-11144 also caused significant regression of established CNV. Within 2 days of periocular injection of CGC-11144, there was apoptosis in CNV lesions, but not in normal blood vessels or other retinal cells. Periocular injections of d,l-alpha-difluoromethyl-ornithine (DFMO), which decreases polyamine levels by a different mechanism, also inhibited CNV. There was no decline in ERG amplitudes or abnormal retinal morphology after daily injections of 0.2 mg CGC-11144 for 2 weeks, but a single intravitreous injection compromised retinal structure and function. CONCLUSIONS Periocular delivery of the polyamine analogues may be a useful approach for the treatment of CNV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Lima e Silva
- Department of Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21287-9277, USA
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38
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Akiyama H, Mohamedali KA, E Silva RL, Kachi S, Shen J, Hatara C, Umeda N, Hackett SF, Aslam S, Krause M, Lai H, Rosenblum MG, Campochiaro PA. Vascular Targeting of Ocular Neovascularization with a Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor121/Gelonin Chimeric Protein. Mol Pharmacol 2005; 68:1543-50. [PMID: 16150930 DOI: 10.1124/mol.105.015628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumors provide an extremely abnormal microenvironment that stimulates neovascularization from surrounding vessels and causes altered gene expression within vascular cells. Up-regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) receptors has allowed selective destruction of tumor vessels by administration of a chimeric protein consisting of VEGF121 coupled to the toxin gelonin (VEGF/rGel). We sought to determine whether there is sufficient up-regulation of VEGF receptors in endothelial cells participating in ocular neovascularization to permit a similar strategy. After intravenous injection of 45 mg/kg VEGF/rGel, but not uncoupled recombinant gelonin (rGel), there was immunofluorescent staining for rGel within choroidal neovascularization in mice and regression of the neovascularization occurred, demonstrating successful vascular targeting via the systemic circulation. Intraocular injection of 5 ng of VEGF/rGel also caused significant regression of choroidal neovascularization and regression of retinal neovascularization in two models, transgenic mice with expression of VEGF in photoreceptors and mice with ischemic retinopathy, whereas injection of 5 ng of rGel had no effect. These data suggest that the strategy of vascular targeting can be applied to nonmalignant neovascular diseases and could serve as the basis of a new treatment to reduce established ocular neovascularization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideo Akiyama
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287-9277, USA
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39
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Oshima Y, Oshima S, Nambu H, Kachi S, Takahashi K, Umeda N, Shen J, Dong A, Apte RS, Duh E, Hackett SF, Okoye G, Ishibashi K, Handa J, Melia M, Wiegand S, Yancopoulos G, Zack DJ, Campochiaro PA. Different effects of angiopoietin-2 in different vascular beds: new vessels are most sensitive. FASEB J 2005; 19:963-5. [PMID: 15802489 DOI: 10.1096/fj.04-2209fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we used double transgenic mice with inducible expression of angiopoietin-2 (Ang2) to investigate the role of Ang2 in the retinal and choroidal circulations and in three models of ocular neovascularization (NV). Mice with induced expression of Ang2 ubiquitously, or specifically in the retina, survived and appeared grossly normal. They also had normal-appearing retinal and choroidal circulations, demonstrating that high levels of Ang2 did not induce regression of mature retinal or choroidal vessels. When Ang2 expression was induced soon after birth, there was increased density of the deep capillary bed on postnatal day (P) 11 that returned to normal by P18, the time that retinal vascular development is usually completed. In mice with ischemic retinopathy, induction of Ang2 during the ischemic period resulted in a significant increase in retinal NV, but induction of Ang2 at a later time point when ischemia (and vascular endothelial growth factor [VEGF]) was less, hastened regression of NV. In triple transgenic mice that coexpressed VEGF and Ang2, the increased expression of Ang2 inhibited VEGF-induced NV in the retina. Increased expression of Ang2 also resulted in regression of choroidal neovascularization. These data suggest that ocular neovascularization, but not mature retinal or choroidal vessels, is sensitive to Ang2; a high Ang2/VEGF ratio promotes regression, while high Ang2 in the setting of hypoxia and/or concomitantly high Ang2 and VEGF stimulate neovascularization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuji Oshima
- Department of Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287-9277, USA
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40
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Oshima Y, Oshima S, Nambu H, Kachi S, Hackett SF, Melia M, Kaleko M, Connelly S, Esumi N, Zack DJ, Campochiaro PA. Increased expression of VEGF in retinal pigmented epithelial cells is not sufficient to cause choroidal neovascularization. J Cell Physiol 2004; 201:393-400. [PMID: 15389527 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.20110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Increased expression of vascular endothelial cell growth factor (VEGF) in the retina is sufficient to stimulate sprouting of neovascularization from the deep capillary bed of the retina, but not the superficial retinal capillaries or the choriocapillaris. Coexpression of VEGF and angiopoietin 2 (Ang2) results in sprouting of neovascularization from superficial and deep retinal capillaries, but not the choriocapillaris. However, retina-derived VEGF and Ang2 may not reach the choriocapillaris, because of tight junctions between retinal pigmented epithelial (RPE) cells. To eliminate this possible confounding factor, we used the human vitelliform macular dystrophy 2 (VMD2) promoter, an RPE-specific promoter, combined with the tetracycline-inducible promoter system, to generate double transgenic mice with inducible expression of VEGF in RPE cells. Adult mice with increased expression of VEGF in RPE cells had normal retinas and choroids with no choroidal neovascularization (CNV), but when increased expression of VEGF in RPE cells was combined with subretinal injection of a gutless adenoviral vector containing an expression construct for Ang2 (AGVAng2), CNV consistently occurred. In contrast, triple transgenic mice with induced expression of Ang2 and VEGF in RPE cells, did not develop CNV. These data suggest that increased expression of VEGF and/or Ang2 in RPE cells is not sufficient to cause CNV unless it is combined with a subretinal injection of a gutless adenoviral vector, which is likely to perturb RPE cells. These data also suggest that the effects of angiogenic proteins may vary among vascular beds, even those that are closely related, and, therefore, generalizations should be avoided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuji Oshima
- The Department of Ophthalmology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287-9277, USA
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41
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Nambu H, Nambu R, Oshima Y, Hackett SF, Okoye G, Wiegand S, Yancopoulos G, Zack DJ, Campochiaro PA. Angiopoietin 1 inhibits ocular neovascularization and breakdown of the blood-retinal barrier. Gene Ther 2004; 11:865-73. [PMID: 15042118 DOI: 10.1038/sj.gt.3302230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Several retinal and choroidal diseases are potentially treatable by intraocular delivery of genes whose products may counter or neutralize abnormal gene expression that occurs as part of the diseases. However, prior to considering a transgene, it is necessary to thoroughly investigate the effects of its expression in normal and diseased eyes. An efficient way to do this is to combine tissue-specific promoters with inducible promoter systems in transgenic mice. In this study, we used this approach to evaluate the effects of ectopic expression of angiopoietin-1 (Ang1) in normal eyes and those with ocular neovascularization. Adult mice with induced expression of Ang1 ubiquitously, or specifically in the retina, appeared normal and had no identifiable changes in retinal or choroidal blood vessels or in retinal function as assessed by electroretinography. Increased expression of Ang1 in eyes with severe retinal ischemia or in eyes with rupture of Bruch's membrane significantly suppressed the development of retinal or choroidal neovascularization, respectively. This inhibition of ocular neovascularization is particularly interesting and noteworthy, because overexpression of Ang1 in skin stimulates neovascularization. Ang1 also significantly reduced VEGF-induced retinal vascular permeability. These data suggest that intraocular delivery of ang1 has potential for treatment of ocular neovascularization and macular edema.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Nambu
- The Department of Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Maumenee 719, Baltimore, MD, USA
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42
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Oshima Y, Deering T, Oshima S, Nambu H, Reddy PS, Kaleko M, Connelly S, Hackett SF, Campochiaro PA. Angiopoietin-2 enhances retinal vessel sensitivity to vascular endothelial growth factor. J Cell Physiol 2004; 199:412-7. [PMID: 15095288 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.10442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Increased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the retina starting after postnatal day (P)7 results in neovascularization originating from deep retinal capillaries, but not those in the superficial capillary bed. Doxycycline was administered starting P0 to double transgenic mice with inducible expression of VEGF in the retina. These mice showed proliferation and dilation of superficial retinal capillaries, indicating that at this stage of development, the superficial capillaries are sensitive to the effects of VEGF. Angiopoietin-2 (Ang2) is expressed along the surface of the retina for several days after birth, but by P7 and later, Ang2 is only expressed in the region of the deep capillary bed. In mice with ubiquitous doxycycline-inducible expression of Ang2, in the absence of doxycycline, intravitreous injection of a gutless adenoviral vector expressing VEGF (AGV.VEGF) resulted in neovascularization of the cornea and iris, but no retinal neovascularization. After treatment with doxycycline to induce Ang2 expression, intravitreous injection of AGV.VEGF caused retinal neovascularization in addition to corneal and iris neovascularization. The retinal neovascularization originated from both the superficial and deep capillary beds. These data suggest that Ang2 promotes sensitivity to the angiogenic effects of VEGF in retinal vessels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuji Oshima
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287, USA
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43
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Kelly BD, Hackett SF, Hirota K, Oshima Y, Cai Z, Berg-Dixon S, Rowan A, Yan Z, Campochiaro PA, Semenza GL. Cell type-specific regulation of angiogenic growth factor gene expression and induction of angiogenesis in nonischemic tissue by a constitutively active form of hypoxia-inducible factor 1. Circ Res 2003; 93:1074-81. [PMID: 14576200 DOI: 10.1161/01.res.0000102937.50486.1b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 451] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Understanding molecular mechanisms regulating angiogenesis may lead to novel therapies for ischemic disorders. Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) activates vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) gene expression in hypoxic/ischemic tissue. In this study we demonstrate that exposure of primary cultures of cardiac and vascular cells to hypoxia or AdCA5, an adenovirus encoding a constitutively active form of HIF-1alpha, modulates the expression of genes encoding the angiogenic factors angiopoietin-1 (ANGPT1), ANGPT2, placental growth factor, and platelet-derived growth factor-B. Loss-of-function effects were also observed in HIF-1alpha-null embryonic stem cells. Depending on the cell type, expression of ANGPT1 and ANGPT2 was either activated or repressed in response to hypoxia or AdCA5. In all cases, there was complete concordance between the effects of hypoxia and AdCA5. Injection of AdCA5 into mouse eyes induced neovascularization in multiple capillary beds, including those not responsive to VEGF alone. Analysis of gene expression revealed increased expression of ANGPT1, ANGPT2, platelet-derived growth factor-B, placental growth factor, and VEGF mRNA in AdCA5-injected eyes. These results indicate that HIF-1 functions as a master regulator of angiogenesis by controlling the expression of multiple angiogenic growth factors and that adenovirus-mediated expression of a constitutively active form of HIF-1alpha is sufficient to induce angiogenesis in nonischemic tissue of an adult animal.
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MESH Headings
- Adenoviridae/genetics
- Angiogenic Proteins/genetics
- Angiogenic Proteins/metabolism
- Angiopoietin-1/genetics
- Angiopoietin-1/metabolism
- Angiopoietin-2/genetics
- Angiopoietin-2/metabolism
- Animals
- Cell Hypoxia/physiology
- Cells, Cultured
- Eye/blood supply
- Eye/drug effects
- Fibroblasts/cytology
- Fibroblasts/drug effects
- Fibroblasts/metabolism
- Gene Expression Regulation/drug effects
- Gene Expression Regulation/physiology
- Genes, Dominant
- Humans
- Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1, alpha Subunit
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Myocytes, Cardiac/cytology
- Myocytes, Cardiac/drug effects
- Myocytes, Cardiac/metabolism
- Neovascularization, Physiologic/drug effects
- Neovascularization, Physiologic/physiology
- Placenta Growth Factor
- Pregnancy Proteins/genetics
- Pregnancy Proteins/metabolism
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-sis/genetics
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-sis/metabolism
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Rats
- Stem Cells/cytology
- Stem Cells/metabolism
- Transcription Factors/genetics
- Transcription Factors/pharmacology
- Transcription Factors/physiology
- Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A/genetics
- Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian D Kelly
- Program in Vascular Cell Engineering, Institute for Cell Engineering, Baltimore, Md, USA
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44
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Gale NW, Thurston G, Hackett SF, Renard R, Wang Q, McClain J, Martin C, Witte C, Witte MH, Jackson D, Suri C, Campochiaro PA, Wiegand SJ, Yancopoulos GD. Angiopoietin-2 is required for postnatal angiogenesis and lymphatic patterning, and only the latter role is rescued by Angiopoietin-1. Dev Cell 2002; 3:411-23. [PMID: 12361603 DOI: 10.1016/s1534-5807(02)00217-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 705] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
VEGF and Angiopoietin-1 requisitely collaborate during blood vessel development. While Angiopoietin-1 obligately activates its Tie2 receptor, Angiopoietin-2 can activate Tie2 on some cells, while it blocks Tie2 activation on others. Our analysis of mice lacking Angiopoietin-2 reveals that Angiopoietin-2 is dispensable for embryonic vascular development but is requisite for subsequent angiogenic remodeling. Unexpectedly, mice lacking Angiopoietin-2 also exhibit major lymphatic vessel defects. Genetic rescue with Angiopoietin-1 corrects the lymphatic, but not the angiogenesis, defects, suggesting that Angiopoietin-2 acts as a Tie2 agonist in the former setting, but as an antagonist in the latter setting. Our studies define a vascular growth factor whose primary role is in postnatal angiogenic remodeling and also demonstrate that members of the VEGF and Angiopoietin families collaborate during development of the lymphatic vasculature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas W Gale
- Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, NY 10591, USA
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45
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Abstract
Angiopoietin 2 (Ang2) expression in the retina is increased during physiologic and pathologic neovascularization suggesting that it may be involved. In this study, we used Ang2-deficient mice to test that hypothesis. Mice deficient in Ang2 showed delayed and incomplete development of the superficial vascular bed of the retina, which develops primarily by vasculogenesis, and complete absence of the intermediate and deep vascular beds which develop by angiogenesis. In addition to incomplete retinal vascular development, Ang2-deficient mice showed lack of regression of the hyaloid vasculature, resulting in a phenotype that mimics infants with persistent fetal vasculature (PFV), a relatively common congenital abnormality. Exposure to high levels of oxygen resulted in partial regression of the retinal vessels, indicating that oxygen-induced regression of retinal vessels does not require Ang2. When these oxygen-exposed mice with few retinal vessels were moved to room air, there was no ischemia-induced retinal neovascularization. These data support the hypothesis that Ang2 plays a critical role in physiologic and pathologic angiogenesis, and physiologic, but not oxygen-induced vascular regression. The data also suggest that infants with PFV should be examined for genetic modifications that would be expected to cause perturbations in Tie2 signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean F Hackett
- The Department of Ophthalmology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Maumenee, Baltimore, Maryland 21287-9277, USA
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46
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Mori K, Gehlbach P, Ando A, Dyer G, Lipinsky E, Chaudhry AG, Hackett SF, Campochiaro PA. Retina-specific expression of PDGF-B versus PDGF-A: vascular versus nonvascular proliferative retinopathy. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2002; 43:2001-6. [PMID: 12037011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) has been implicated in vascular proliferative retinopathies, such as diabetic retinopathy, and in nonvascular retinopathies, such as proliferative vitreoretinopathy. Traction retinal detachment is a central feature of both types of disease. Hemizygous rhodopsin promoter/PDGF-B (rho/PDGF-B) transgenic mice exhibit proliferation of vascular cells, glia, and retinal pigmented epithelial (RPE) cells, resulting in traction retinal detachment. Hemizygous rho/PDGF-A transgenic mice show mild proliferation of glial cells and no traction retinal detachments. This study was undertaken to determine whether higher levels of endogenously produced PDGF-A in the retinas of mice result in retinal detachment. METHODS To achieve high-level expression of PDGF-A in the retina, homozygous rho/PDGF-A (rho/PDGF-AA) mice were generated. The phenotype of these mice was compared with that of homozygous rho/PDGF-B (rho/PDGF-BB) mice and double hemizygous rho/PDGF-B-rho/PDGF-A (rho/PDGF-AB) mice. RESULTS Rho/PDGF-BB and rho/PDGF-AB mice showed a phenotype similar to that previously described in rho/PDGF-B mice. There was extensive proliferation of glial and vascular cells, resulting in fibrovascular membranes that detached the retina. PDGF-AA mice showed extensive proliferation of glial cells and traction retinal detachment. CONCLUSIONS High retinal expression of PDGF-A results in extensive proliferation of glial cells and traction retinal detachment without vascular cell involvement, similar to proliferative vitreoretinopathy in humans. High retinal expression of PDGF-B results in traction retinal detachment from proliferation of both vascular and nonvascular cells, similar to diabetic retinopathy in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Mori
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287-9277, USA
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47
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Seo MS, Okamoto N, Vinores MA, Vinores SA, Hackett SF, Yamada H, Yamada E, Derevjanik NL, LaRochelle W, Zack DJ, Campochiaro PA. Photoreceptor-specific expression of platelet-derived growth factor-B results in traction retinal detachment. Am J Pathol 2000; 157:995-1005. [PMID: 10980138 PMCID: PMC1885694 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)64612-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Expression of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-A and PDGF-B is increased in patients with proliferative retinopathies in which traction retinal detachments occur. Previous studies have demonstrated that increased expression of PDGF-A in the retina of transgenic mice results in retinal gliosis due to proliferation of astrocytes with different retinal phenotypes based on the time of onset and location of the PDGF-A production. In this study, we investigated the effects of PDGF-B in the retina using gain-of-function transgenic mice that express PDGF-B in photoreceptors. These mice show proliferation of astrocytes, pericytes, and, to a lesser extent, endothelial cells, resulting in ectopic cells on the surface and extending into the retina. The sheets of cells exert traction on the retina resulting in traction retinal detachments similar to those seen in humans with proliferative retinopathies. These studies suggest that PDGF-B has more dramatic effects in the retina than PDGF-A, because it acts on additional cell types, in particular on pericytes, which have a highly developed contractile apparatus. These studies in the retina suggest a means that could be used in other tissues throughout the body to achieve graded PDGF effects. They also provide a new model of traction retinal detachment that can be used to investigate new treatments for patients with proliferative retinopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Seo
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287-9277, USA
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48
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Hackett SF, Ozaki H, Strauss RW, Wahlin K, Suri C, Maisonpierre P, Yancopoulos G, Campochiaro PA. Angiopoietin 2 expression in the retina: upregulation during physiologic and pathologic neovascularization. J Cell Physiol 2000; 184:275-84. [PMID: 10911358 DOI: 10.1002/1097-4652(200009)184:3<275::aid-jcp1>3.0.co;2-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Vascular development in the embryo requires coordinated signaling through several endothelial cell-specific receptors; however, it is not known whether this is also required later during retinal vascular development or as part of retinal neovascularization in adults. The Tie2 receptor has been implicated in stabilization and maturation of vessels through action of an agonist ligand, angiopoietin 1 (Ang1) and an antagonistic ligand, Ang2. In this study, we have demonstrated that ang2 mRNA levels are increased in the retina during development of the deep retinal capillaries by angiogenesis and during pathologic angiogenesis in a model of ischemic retinopathy. Mice with hemizygous disruption of the ang2 gene by insertion of a promoterless beta-galactosidase (beta gal) gene behind the ang2 promoter, show constitutive beta gal staining primarily in cells along the outer border of the inner nuclear layer identified as horizontal cells by colocalization of calbindin. During development of the deep capillary bed or retinal neovascularization, other cells in the inner nuclear layer and ganglion cell layer, in regions of neovascularization, stain for beta gal. Thus, there is temporal and spatial correlation of Ang2 expression with developmental and pathologic angiogenesis in the retina, suggesting that it may play a role.
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Affiliation(s)
- S F Hackett
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore 21287-9277, Maryland
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49
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Mathura JR, Jafari N, Chang JT, Hackett SF, Wahlin KJ, Della NG, Okamoto N, Zack DJ, Campochiaro PA. Bone morphogenetic proteins-2 and -4: negative growth regulators in adult retinal pigmented epithelium. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2000; 41:592-600. [PMID: 10670493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine the relative level and localization of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP-4 mRNA in the retina and retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) under normal and pathologic conditions, to seek clues regarding possible functions. METHODS Clones isolated from an RPE cDNA library were sequenced and used as probes for northern blot analysis. Expression in the retina and RPE was investigated in mouse models using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and in situ hybridization. The effect of recombinant proteins on RPE proliferation was investigated by thymidine incorporation. RESULTS Bovine clones with high homology to BMP-2 and BMP4 were isolated from a subtracted RPE cDNA library. Northern blot analysis using the clones as probes demonstrated abundant and differential expression in adult bovine RPE, but with RT-PCR and in situ hybridization, expression was also demonstrated in mouse retinal neurons. In mice with oxygen-induced ischemic retinopathy there was a striking decrease in BMP-4 mRNA in the retina within 6 hours of the onset of hypoxia that was maintained for at least 5 days. In mice with inherited photoreceptor degeneration, there was a dramatic decrease in BMP4 mRNA in retina and RPE during and after the degeneration. mRNA for the type II BMP receptor was observed in freshly isolated and cultured RPE cells, isolated retina, and freshly isolated bovine aortic endothelial cells. Thymidine incorporation in early-passage RPE cells showed a 14-fold stimulation above control with 5% serum that was decreased to 322%, 393%, and 313% in the presence of BMP-2 (10 ng/ml), BMP4 (10 ng/ml), and transforming growth factor (TGF)-,1 (2 ng/ml), respectively. CONCLUSIONS BMP-2 and BMP-4 may serve as negative growth regulators in the retina and RPE that are downregulated by injury, to allow tissue repair. Modulation of expression of the BMPs may provide a means to control the exaggerated wound repair that occurs in proliferative retinopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Mathura
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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50
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Yamada H, Yamada E, Hackett SF, Ozaki H, Okamoto N, Campochiaro PA. Hyperoxia causes decreased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and endothelial cell apoptosis in adult retina. J Cell Physiol 1999; 179:149-56. [PMID: 10199554 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-4652(199905)179:2<149::aid-jcp5>3.0.co;2-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Mice or humans with photoreceptor degenerations experience permeability and dropout of retinal capillaries. Loss of photoreceptors results in decreased oxygen usage and thinning of the retina with increased oxygen delivery to the inner retina. To investigate the possibility that increased tissue oxygen plays a role in the vascular damage, we exposed adult mice to hyperoxia, which also increases oxygen in the retina. After 1, 2, or 3 weeks of hyperoxia, there was a statistically significant decrease in retinal vascular density that was not reversible, and endothelial cell apoptosis was demonstrated by TUNEL staining. Mice exposed to hyperoxia and mice with photoreceptor degeneration both showed decreased expression of VEGF in the retina. After complete or near-complete degeneration of photoreceptors, there was increased expression of VEGF in RPE cells, which may explain the association of photoreceptor degeneration and neovascularization in or around the RPE. Increased expression of VEGF in photoreceptors of transgenic mice failed to prevent hyperoxia-induced retinal capillary dropout. These data suggest that increased oxygen in the retina, either by increased inspired oxygen or by photoreceptor degeneration, results in endothelial cell death and dropout of capillaries. Decreased expression of VEGF may be a contributing factor, but the situation may be more complicated for mature retinal vessels than it is for immature vessels, because VEGF replacement does not rescue mature retinal vessels, suggesting that other factors may also be involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Yamada
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287-9277, USA
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