Why aquatic scientists should use sulfur stable isotope ratios (ẟ34S) more often

Over the last few decades, measurements of light stable isotope ratios have been increasingly used to answer questions across physiology, biology, ecology, and archaeology. The vast majority analyse carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) stable isotopes as the 'default' isotopes, omitting sulfur (δ34S) due to time, cost, or perceived lack of benefits and instrumentation capabilities. Using just carbon and nitrogen isotopic ratios can produce results that are inconclusive, uncertain, or in the worst cases, even misleading, especially for scientists that are new to the use and interpretation of stable isotope data. Using sulfur isotope values more regularly has the potential to mitigate these issues, especially given recent advancements that have lowered measurement barriers. Here we provide a review documenting case studies with real-world data, re-analysing different biological topics (i.e. niche, physiology, diet, movement and bioarchaeology) with and without sulfur isotopes to highlight the various strengths of this stable isotope for various applications. We also include a preliminary meta-analysis of the trophic discrimination factor (TDF) for sulfur isotopes, which suggest small (mean -0.4 ± 1.7 ‰ SD) but taxa-dependent mean trophic discrimination. Each case study demonstrates how the exclusion of sulfur comes at the detriment of the results, often leading to very different outputs, or missing valuable discoveries entirely. Given that studies relying on carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes currently underpin most of our understanding of various ecological processes, this has concerning implications. Collectively, these examples strongly suggest that researchers planning to use carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes for their research should incorporate sulfur where possible, and that the new 'default' isotope systems for aquatic science should now be carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur.

North Central Asia isotopic database for archaeological samples

The North Central Asia Isotopic Database (NCAID) is an open-access dataset of stable isotope measurements from archaeological remains, spanning from the Early Neolithic until present-day in North Central Asia. With 3,143 individual entries corresponding to data accumulated over more than 20 years of research, this comprehensive dataset encompasses measurements of stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in organic fractions from archaeological humans, animals, and plants. NCAID incorporates diverse supporting information, providing geographical information, archaeological context descriptions, and chronology. This resource facilitates research into past human lifeways, paleo-environments/climates, and animal management practices throughout North Central Asia and will be continually updated as more novel data is released.

Disability and care in Western Europe during Medieval times: A bioarchaeological perspective

This Special Issue has its foundation in presentations delivered in the symposium Disability and Care in Medieval Times: a Bioarchaeological Perspective into Health-related Practices held at the 2019 European Association of Archaeologists conference in Switzerland. It comprises 12 papers, all relevant to aspects of pathology experience and/or care provision in Western Europe during the Early to Late Middle Ages (500 - 1500 CE). Reflecting the 1000 year timespan involved, these papers are characterised by diversity in subject matter and in the lifeways in which they are located, but all contribute to the symposium's primary aim: to demonstrate that our understanding of the Medieval period is enhanced by cross-disciplinary, bioarchaeological research into individual and collective experiences of disability and care. This Introduction provides the background to the 2019 symposium, and briefly discusses the papers contained in the Special Issue which emerged from this.

Perspectives on anemia: Factors confounding understanding of past occurrence

OBJECTIVE

This paper reviews factors confounding the understanding of the past occurrence of anemia. Using the evidence gathered, a framework is presented of ways forward to enable greater confidence in diagnosing acquired anemia in paleopathology, facilitating insights into longer-term perspectives on this globally relevant condition.

RESULTS

To date, porotic lesions have been central to paleopathological investigations of anemia. The fact that porotic bone lesions are omnipresent and have multiple causes but are likely to have a relatively low, age-related frequency in individuals with anemia, a condition that will have been common in past communities, is confounding.

METHODS

Establishing frameworks that move away from porotic lesions is proposed to facilitate higher levels of more accurate anemia diagnoses in paleopathology.

SIGNIFICANCE

Acceptance of the fundamental principle that anemia may be better considered as a condition requiring metric evaluation of bone structures, supplemented by careful consideration of lesions, will advance understanding of acquired anemia in past communities. Such an approach would provide a clear basis for further consideration of congenital conditions causing anemia, such as sickle-cell disease and thalassemia.

LIMITATIONS

This paper simply opens the conversation on the better diagnosis of anemia in paleopathology; it starts the iterative process of achieving some consensus and progress on diagnosing anemia in paleopathology.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Engagement with ideas presented, sharing data and development of metric parameters will assist in identifying the effects of marrow hyperplasia on bone, enabling more robust work on the important topic of anemia.

Age estimation from alveolar bone loss, re-evaluation of Ruquet's method

There are many dental age estimation methods, but all the methods do not correspond, especially for aging methods for adults and mature individuals, to the reality of the forensic field, which favors simple, effective, and easy-to-use methods. Ruquet (2015) developed a method based on alveolar bone loss that predicts age for individuals between 25 and 60 years old and is even more accurate for those 25-40 years old. This study re-evaluated Ruquet's alveolar bone loss method using three-dimensional imaging of individuals whose age and sex were known, without taking into account their medical conditions. Digital measurements, from the cemento-enamel junction (CEJ) to the alveolar bone crest (ABC), were performed on the mesial and distal surfaces of teeth on 243 patients, independent of the tridimensional imaging test. With these measurements, two alveolar bone loss averages (ABL) were calculated, one with all the teeth present on the arches and another with only Ramfjörd's teeth. Bone loss showed a significant correlation with age (p < 0.001). The age estimation with all teeth and with only Ramfjörd's teeth showed a statistically significant difference, and age estimation was more accurate when all teeth were used. The assessment of alveolar resorption appears to be an interesting tool for age estimation in adult individuals. However, the method still lacks precision, and the mean absolute errors (MAEs) obtained by age group were all greater than 5 years, except for the age group 35-39 years old, for the age estimation with all teeth. Further studies should explore this existing correlation between alveolar bone loss and age and refine this method to make it more accurate.

A mature ovarian teratoma from New Kingdom Amarna, Egypt

OBJECTIVE

This paper describes the fifth case of a mature ovarian teratoma reported in the bioarchaeological literature, contributing to the temporal and geographical distribution of known examples of this unusual pathology.

MATERIALS

An 18-21-year-old female found in situ within a multi-chambered subterranean tomb in the North Desert Cemetery at Amarna, Egypt (founded c. 1345 BCE) was recovered associated with a multi-lobed roughly ovoid calcified mass and two associated teeth identified within the pelvic cavity.

METHODS

Macroscopic evaluation alongside careful differential diagnosis.

CONCLUSIONS

The presence of multiple teeth and their degree of development provided sufficient evidence to identify this mass as an ovarian teratoma found in association with a young woman buried in one of the most richly adorned burials in the non-elite cemeteries at the New Kingdom site of Amarna. The teratoma is interpreted within our understanding of the broader social context of ancient Egyptian medical knowledge.

SIGNIFICANCE

This case is the only reported example of a mature ovarian teratoma from Pharaonic Egypt, and Africa more broadly, predating other reported cases by several centuries. It adds considerable temporal and geographical depth to our understanding of this condition in the past.

LIMITATIONS

This study was limited to macroscopic examination of remains and would likely benefit from either x-ray or CT-scanning of the object to examine the internal structure.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Further consideration of the likely physical implications of this pathology, along with the broader social aspects of burial with objects of potential magico-medical significance is necessary.

Tuberculosis before and after the Black Death (1346-1353 CE) in the Hospital of St John the Evangelist in Cambridge, England

This research explores how the prevalence of tuberculosis (TB) in a medieval hospital was affected by the demographic and social changes that following the Black Death (1346-1353 CE), the initial years of the Second Plague Pandemic. To do this, skeletal remains of individuals buried at the Hospital of St John the Evangelist in Cambridge, England, that could be dated to living before (n = 77) or after (n = 55) the Black Death were assessed for evidence of TB (indicated by destructive lesions of the spine, ribs, large joints, and other recognised criteria). Overall, the odds of females having skeletal lesions caused by TB were over four times higher than males. No significant difference was detected in the prevalence rates in those who lived before and after the Black Death (7.8%, 6/77 before and 11.0%, 6/55 after). However, the odds of females having skeletal evidence of TB were over five times greater after the Black Death than they were before. These findings indicate that women may have been 1) more susceptible to TB, 2) surviving longer post-infection than men, and/or 3) that women with TB were more likely to be admitted to the Hospital especially following the Black Death. It is also possible that impairment due to TB infection may have been a contributing factor for entry into the Hospital for women but not men.

Dental calculus in the industrial age: Human dental calculus in the Post-Medieval period, a case study from industrial Manchester

The analysis of dental calculus (mineralised dental plaque) has become an increasingly important facet of bioarchaeological research. Although microscopic analysis of microdebris entrapped within dental calculus has revealed important insights into the diet, health, and environment of multiple prehistoric populations, relatively few studies have examined the contributions of this approach to more recent historical periods. In this study, we analyze dental calculus from an English Post-Medieval, middle-class urban skeletal assemblage from Manchester, England using light microscopy. We characterize all types of microremains, observing heavily damaged starch and plant material, high quantities of fungal and yeast spores, the presence of wood particles, plant (cotton) and animal (wool) fibres, as well as limited quantities of microcharcoal and burnt debris. We observe the presence of non-native, imported plant products, including New World maize and potentially tapioca starch. We compare our results to similar studies from earlier time periods to reveal the impacts of the significant economic, social and environmental changes occurring during the Industrial period in England, including changes in food processing, food access, food storage, and air quality. We conclude by outlining important methodological considerations for the future study of Post-Medieval dental calculus and propose potential areas of future research.

Human femur morphology and histology variation with ancestry and behaviour in an ancient sample from Vietnam

BACKGROUND

There is a genetic component to the minimum effective strain (MES)-a threshold which determines when bone will adapt to function-which suggests ancestry should play a role in bone (re)modelling. Further elucidating this is difficult in living human populations because of the high global genetic admixture. We examined femora from an anthropological skeletal assemblage (Mán Bạc, Vietnam) representing distinct ancestral groups. We tested whether femur morphological and histological markers of modelling and remodelling differed between ancestries despite their similar lifestyles.

METHODS

Static histomorphometry data collected from subperiosteal cortical bone of the femoral midshaft, and gross morphometric measures of femur robusticity, were studied in 17 individuals from the Mán Bạc collection dated to 1906-1523 cal. BC. This assemblage represents agricultural migrants with affinity to East Asian groups, who integrated with the local hunter-gatherers with affinity to Australo-Papuan groups during the mid-Holocene. Femur robusticity and histology data were compared between groups of 'Migrant' (n = 8), 'Admixed' (n = 4), and 'Local' (n = 5).

RESULTS

Local individuals had more robust femoral diaphyses with greater secondary osteon densities, and relatively large secondary osteon and Haversian canal parameters than the migrants. The Migrant group showed gracile femoral shafts with the least dense bone made up of small secondary osteons and Haversian canals. The Admixed individuals fell between the Migrant and Local categories in terms of their femoral data. However, we also found that measures of how densely bone is remodelled per unit area were in a tight range across all three ancestries.

CONCLUSIONS

Bone modelling and remodelling markers varied with ancestral histories in our sample. This suggests that there is an ancestry related predisposition to bone optimising its metabolic expenditure likely in relation to the MES. Our results stress the need to incorporate population genetic history into hierarchical bone analyses. Understanding ancestry effects on bone morphology has implications for interpreting biomechanical loading history in past and modern human populations.

Two paleopathological cases suggestive of paralabral cysts of the shoulder

OBJECTIVE

To undertake differential diagnosis of scapular bone defects found in two medieval skeletons buried in different necropoles of Friuli Venezia Giulia (Italy) and to evaluate the clinical significance of paralabral cysts in the context of shoulder pathology.

MATERIALS

Individual JoT36 is an adult male exhumed from a necropolis belonging to a rural agricultural settlement dated to the 10th to 11th century A.D. Individual CIVT58 is an adult male from a Langobard necropolis dated to 630-670 A.D.

METHODS

Macroscopic examination of the skeletons was performed using standard osteological methods and review of pertinent clinical literature to assist differential diagnosis.

RESULTS

Between the glenoid cavity and the spinoglenoid notch of the right scapula of JoT36 there is a multilocular circular defect adjacent to the glenoid rim. On the neck of the left scapula of CIVT58, immediately above the spinoglenoid notch, there is a unilocular circular depression. In both cases, the cortical bone appears smooth without any evidence of erosion or sclerosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Skeletal findings and historical/archaeological contexts of both cases are compatible with the diagnosis of paralabral cysts.

SIGNIFICANCE

Paralabral cysts are relatively frequently observed in clinical settings but very few examples have been documented in paleopathological literature. This study seeks to improve recognition and interpretation of this pathology in historical/archaeological contexts.

LIMITATIONS

Findings from a case report can neither generate epidemiological information nor be generalized.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Identification of new cases may add valuable information about lifestyles and related shoulder pathologies in ancient times.

A paleoepidemiological approach to the challenging differential diagnosis of an isolated 1500-year-old anomalous molar from Panamá

OBJECTIVE

This study seeks to quantify the presence and prevalence of specific genetic and infectious diseases in the pre-Colombian Panamanian population and uses these data to consider the plausibility of these diseases as causative factors in the development of an abnormal supernumerary cusp morphology in a 1500-year-old isolated molar recovered from Cerro Juan Díaz (Los Santos, Panama).

MATERIALS

267 individuals from pre-Columbian sites throughout Panama.

METHODS

The anomalous tooth was analyzed through macroscopic, odontometric, and radiographic means. Tentative differential diagnosis was performed using inferences from paleopathological features of the broader regional population.

RESULTS

The regional sample showed evidence of treponemal infection and developmental anomalies in 10.1% and 10.9% of individuals, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

While not able to rule out three potential genetic conditions, more evidence was found to support the differential diagnosis of congenital syphilis as the causative agent leading to the development of abnormal supernumerary cusps in the isolated molar.

SIGNIFICANCE

This study demonstrates how characterizing disease experience in the population can assist in differential diagnoses at the individual level and cautions against the assumption that any one lesion in isolation is unique to only one specific pathological condition.

LIMITATIONS

The timing discrepancy between clinical descriptions of congenital syphilis and genetic disorders, lack of knowledge on pathophysiological mechanisms of the former, poor preservation of Treponema pathogen ancient DNA, and deficiencies in modern public health data from Panama limit the differential diagnosis.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Inclusion and serious contemplation of genetic diseases in paleopathological differential diagnoses is necessary.

Interventive dental therapy in Ancient Egypt (ca. 2686 BCE - AD 323): A critical review

OBJECTIVE

This paper critically reviews the history of research concerning ancient Egyptian interventive dental therapy between the Old Kingdom - Graeco-Roman Period (c. 2686 BCE-AD 323), concentrating on the published osteological evidence.

MATERIALS

Eight osteological examples reportedly exhibiting markers of interventive dental therapy, including a mandible presenting purported evidence for a drilling procedure for the relief of an abscess; four dental bridges; a maxilla with multiple teeth extracted; and two carious lesion fillings.

METHODS

Previous claims are critically reviewed using a qualitative research method involving collecting and critiquing published data, both primary evidence and relevant secondary literature.

CONCLUSIONS

Without further scientific analysis, only four specimens can currently be plausibly attributed to ancient Egyptian interventive dental therapy including the Tura el-Asmant Bridge, the enucleation described for a Graeco-Roman child, and two carious lesion fillings identified in the mummified individuals known as the 'Redpath Mummy' (RM2718) and 'Sekhem' (AIG3343).

SIGNIFICANCE

Several enduring historiographical and museological problems within the discourse are identified, revising our understanding of the nature and scope of ancient Egyptian interventive dental therapy based on currently known osteological evidence.

LIMITATIONS

This review relies on the published documentation for each osteological example, namely images, which in several cases are poor quality.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

There is significant opportunity for further scientific analysis of the osteological evidence discussed. In each case, specific potential methods to improve our understanding and interpretation have been identified.

Unusual teeth in unusual places: Criteria for identifying teratomatous dental elements in archeological contexts

OBJECTIVE

This paper describes the dental elements (i.e., teeth and incomplete tooth-like structures) formed by mature cystic teratomas and provide some diagnostic criteria to aid in their paleopathological identification and analysis.

MATERIALS

Hard tissue structures from 13 clinically-derived mature cystic teratomas excised between 2003 and 2007. All are from female patients (N = 13) between the ages of 17 and 56.

METHODS

A dental and osteological inventory identified number of teeth and tooth types present in each specimen.

RESULTS

Of the 13 specimens, nine contained dental elements. The number per teratoma ranged from one to seven. A wide variety of tooth types were present in the teratomas with some teeth independent of, and others embedded within, bony matrices.

CONCLUSIONS

While some teratoma teeth exhibit distinguishable types and laterality, the majority will exhibit some degree of abnormality in size, form, developmental completion, or association with other irregular bony elements.

SIGNIFICANCE

Give the modern clinical prevalence and yet relatively few paleopathological cases reported, it is likely that mature teratomas are under-identified in the archeological record. The diagnostic criteria presented in this paper can aid paleopathologists in their identification and analysis of these neoplasms.

LIMITATIONS

Precise paleopathological identification of teratoma elements can be difficult; particularly when they are no longer constrained or contextualized by unmineralized neoplastic borders. As such, there is a risk that such remnants may be mistaken for fetal parts or disassociated elements.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Application of these criteria, paired with careful excavation techniques, is advised.

On some paleopathological examples of amputation and the implications for healthcare in 13th-17th century Lithuania

OBJECTIVE

To explore care that was likely provided to an adult male amputee from medieval Lithuania, positioning analysis within what is known of contemporary amputation practices.

MATERIALS

Three sets of skeletal remains with evidence for amputation, dating to between the 13th-17th centuries AD and recovered during different archaeological excavations in Vilnius, Lithuania.

METHODS

Macroscopic inspection of lesions, with additional X-ray analysis of the main subject. The Index of Care was used to investigate possible caregiving.

RESULTS

Two individuals experienced amputation of a single element, and the third experienced bilateral hand amputation. Only one individual displayed healing. Historic sources suggest use of amputation for punitive purposes during this period, and judicial punishment is proposed as the most likely reason for amputation in at least two cases.

CONCLUSIONS

Evidence of long-term healing in one individual suggests receipt of care. This individual likely relied on family and/or community members for survival immediately following amputation, and subsequently for support in managing disability.

SIGNIFICANCE

Successfully combining osteology with history in a framework for analyzing care provision in past Eastern European society, this study underlines the critical importance of context in undertaking bioarchaeology of care analyses. It also adds two examples of perimortem abscissions in this region to the paleopathological record.

LIMITATIONS

Our approach relied on skeletal interpretation. Soft tissue was lost to decomposition and no relevant archaeological evidence was found in association with the remains.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

A review of skeletal collections may allow identification of overlooked cases of amputation (and care).

Is dietary deficiency of calcium a factor in rickets? Use of current evidence for our understanding of the disease in the past

OBJECTIVE

Rickets is considered an indicator of vitamin D deficiency in palaeopathology, but a strand of biomedical thought maintains that dietary calcium deficiency may sometimes play a part in its causation. Our aim is to evaluate the extent to which low calcium intake should be considered as a factor in biocultural interpretations of rickets.

METHODS

We assess published modern epidemiological studies that provide primary data to support claims for a role for dietary calcium deficiency in rickets. We also consider how we might identify, via indicators of calcium intake, populations at risk of calcium deficiency in the past.

RESULTS

Support for dietary calcium deficiency as a cause of rickets is equivocal. Direct measurement of dietary calcium in the past is not possible, but exposure to risk factors for low calcium intake can to some extent be identified.

CONCLUSION

Whilst there is little evidence to alter the view that rickets is essentially an indicator of a population's vitamin D status, occasionally, in very low calcium intake groups, dietary calcium deficiency may play a synergistic role by accentuating the need for vitamin D.

SIGNIFICANCE

The notion that dietary calcium deficiency may be a cause of rickets appears to be gaining currency in bioarchaeological studies. This paper shows that it is unusual for this to be the case, and even then the role of vitamin D remains crucial.

LIMITATIONS

This paper attempts to summarise the current state of biomedical study in an area that is subject to continuing investigation.

Bridging the gap: Using biological data from teeth to comment on social identity of archeological populations from early Anglo-Saxon, England

Human teeth are storytellers, in that, through analysis of their size and shape osteoarchaeologists are able to 'talk' to the dead and translate biological data into social meaning. This concept has been explored in parts of the world through investigations of biological similarity and kinship, but few have focused in depth on early medieval populations who emphasized the importance of family and kinship. This paper presents the results from four early Anglo-Saxon cemeteries which highlight the utility of dental metrics in identifying biological similarity within the skeletal assemblages. 5988 mesiodistal and buccolingual measurements were recorded from the identifiable permanent dentition of adult individuals from early Anglo-Saxon cemeteries in the UK counties of Cambridgeshire and Kent. Results from statistical hierarchical cluster analysis of dental metric data revealed that it was possible to identify individuals within the cemetery sites that were more similar to one another according to their dental metrics. This similarity was not attributed statistically to biological sex or shared familial environment, as similarity between individuals could be found between males and females and few significant differences were found across the sites sampled. It was found that tooth metrics provided a meaningful biological dataset from which current theories regarding the identity of Anglo-Saxon individuals and families could be refined and improved. These types of data are useful as building blocks which help to bridge the gap between social constructs and human skeletal remains in order to substantiate interpretations about past populations in more significant ways. This work supports the need for multidisciplinary approaches to bioarchaeological investigations of past people while highlighting the utility of human dentition to enhance such areas of study.

Isotopic data for bioarchaeological samples from Polynesia (pre-Contact and modern periods)

Two datasets are presented in this paper, one from archaeologically-derived human remains and one from modern plants and animals. First, isotopic data (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, δ³⁴S, and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) along with some radiocarbon dates from archaeologically-derived bone and teeth from individuals buried in pre-Contact Tonga and Fiji are provided. The second dataset is comprised of modern plant and animal samples (n = 27) collected from the island of Atiu (Cook Islands). δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N data from these samples are presented, and this data is integrated with other datasets to provide an aggregated tropical Pacific dietary baseline for paleodietary studies in this region. First collected to explore the interactions between diet, mobility, social status, and the physical environment, the archaeologically-derived samples are from two Polynesian islands. From the Tongan island of Tongatapu, two burial mounds designated To-At-1 and To-At-2 and collectively called ‘Atele, are radiocarbon dated to the Complex Centralized Chiefdom period (c. 500—150 BP). The second collection is from the coastal site of Bourewa in the Republic of Fiji, dated to the Vuda Phase (c. 750—150 BP). From these human remains the following tissues and isotopes were analyzed: bone and dentine collagen analysis of δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C (n = 81) as well as δ³⁴S where collagen yield was large enough (n = 37), tooth enamel ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr (n = 47), and radiocarbon dates to supplement the relative dating of the burial sites (n = 16). The human data provides a relatively large dataset (for the region) to compare to other contemporaneous sites to consider intra- and inter-island dietary practices and consider movement in the wider region (while being mindful of issues with interpretation). The amalgamated dietary baseline has utility for placing archaeological and ecological samples within the tropic Pacific foodweb.

From early to late modern societies (late 16th - early 20th century): Shifts in dental health status in two populations from southeastern France

In France, bioarcheological research has long overlooked the early and late modern periods, which witnessed major transformations impacting population structure and leading to the dawn of modern industrialized societies. Two recently excavated large cemeteries in Provence present a unique opportunity to investigate on a large scale the impact on health and living conditions brought about by the Industrial Revolution and consequently track health status changes from the 16th to the early 20th century. The sample includes 642 individuals from the early modern cemetery of Saint-Jacques, La Ciotat (1581-1831) and the late modern cemetery of Les Crottes, Marseille (1784-1905). This study aims to document dental health markers and compare the results between both assemblages, considering ante-mortem tooth loss, wear, caries, abscesses, calculus, periodontitis and linear enamel hypoplasia. The available archaeological and historical sources for these recent periods provide a full documentation in which to interpret and discuss the biological analysis, thus enabling an inclusive bioarcheological approach. RESULTS: revealed similarities between both samples. Differences are more subtle than expected and are seen through the increase in carious lesions and in linear enamel hypoplasia. The former seem to indicate changes in diet with the introduction of new foodstuffs and manufacturing processes during the Industrial Revolution. The latter could reflect the increase in early childhood stress, perhaps due to new feeding practices around weaning and breastfeeding or a poorly diversified diet. Finally, the increasing number of stress events could suggest a noxious sanitary and infectious environment. During the 19th century, Marseille experienced strong demographic and urban growth, resulting in overcrowded areas where sanitation facilities were insufficient or absent. Moreover, the activity of this important trading seaport might have promoted the transmission and appearance of epidemic diseases despite scientific and medical advances, which would have a real impact only from the 20th century onwards.

Carbon and nitrogen stable isotopic data of premodern human skeletons from mainland Japan and the Ryukyu islands

This dataset consists of carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios of bulk collagen extracted from 229 human skeletons from premodern Japan. All samples were derived from different individuals excavated from mainland Japan and the Ryukyu Islands. Most of the skeletal individuals were identified, sexed, and aged by physical anthropologists. Collagen samples were extracted from bone or root portion of tooth dentin. Collagen samples were measured by an elemental analyzer coupled to stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry. Stable isotope ratios are the useful proxy of palaeodiet, and this dataset can be used for dietary reconstruction of premodern people living in the Japan archipelago.

An isthmus of isolation: The likely elevated prevalence of genetic disease in ancient Panama and implications for considering rare diseases in paleopathology

OBJECTIVE

This study considers the evidence for elevated frequencies of "rare" diseases in ancient Panama. Indications of population isolation by multidisciplinary sources allow for the possibility that rare inherited conditions may have been maintained at relatively high prevalences in the region due to gene flow restriction.

MATERIALS

A sample of 267 skeletal human remains with diverse demographical characteristics from Pre-Columbian archaeological sites throughout Panama.

METHODS

Remains were analyzed macroscopically and hard tissue developmental anomalies were documented.

RESULTS

Frequencies of developmental anomalies and hard tissue changes consistent with specific rare genetic diseases, such as osteogenesis imperfecta, on the comparatively few human remains recovered from pre-Columbian archaeological sites are elevated as compared with global averages.

CONCLUSIONS

The paleopathological evidence is concordant with a scenario of isolation in Pre-Columbian times and with an increased presence of genetic disorders in the population.

SIGNIFICANCE

This study advocates for the special consideration of rare diseases by paleopathologists in regions where populations may have experienced prolonged geographical or social isolation in the past.

LIMITATIONS

A dearth of local modern epidemiological data and low sample sizes of preserved human remains in certain regions of the country limited the possibilities of spatiotemporal comparisons of rare disease prevalence.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Further scrutiny of developmental anomalies of genetic origin on ancient Panamanian remains and biomolecular testing of remains for specific disorders should be pursued to confirm the findings of this study.

Dental pulp calcifications in prehistoric and historical skeletal remains

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of hard tissue formations in the dental pulp varies considerably. Beside ageing processes and irritations of the dental pulp, etiological associations with cardiovascular disease and dietary habits have been discussed, which are of particular research interest. The aim of this pilot study is to provide new insights on structural and etiological factors involved in the development of pulp calcifications by investigating skeletal remains from different (pre)historic periods.

METHODS

The jaws of 46 skeletons excavated in central Germany, were examined for the presence of pulp stones using digital volume tomography (DVT). A total of 1122 teeth were examined with all tooth types considered. To obtain information about the three-dimensional structure of pulp calcifications, micro-CT images were taken. Thin sections of three molars were histologically analysed. Potential dietary effects were studied by analysing stable isotope ratios of nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) in bone samples collected from each individual.

RESULTS

The analysis indicates that pulp stones affect molars in particular and increase slightly with age and dental wear. The micro-CT scans and the histological analysis show that the structures are much more complex than presumed on the basis of DVT imaging. Individuals with lower δ¹⁵N-isotope values and thus with a potentially lower proportion of animal protein in their diet appear to be less affected by pulp stones.

CONCLUSION

When comparing between archaeological and recent data, DVT analysis provides qualitatively comparable results. Micro-CT and histological images illustrate the excellent preservation of pulp calcifications and their complex structure. Differences in prevalence rates and δ¹⁵N-isotope values of Neolithic and historical individuals support the assumption that dietary habits and living conditions could have an influence on the development of pulp calcifications. Due to the small sample size these results require further validation.

Historical overview and new directions in bioarchaeological trace element analysis: a review

Given their strong affinity for the skeleton, trace elements are often stored in bones and teeth long term. Diet, geography, health, disease, social status, activity, and occupation are some factors which may cause differential exposure to, and uptake of, trace elements, theoretically introducing variability in their concentrations and/or ratios in the skeleton. Trace element analysis of bioarchaeological remains has the potential, therefore, to provide rich insights into past human lifeways. This review provides a historical overview of bioarchaeological trace element analysis and comments on the current state of the discipline by highlighting approaches with growing momentum. Popularity for the discipline surged following preliminary studies in the 1960s to 1970s that demonstrated the utility of strontium (Sr) as a dietary indicator. During the 1980s, Sr/Ca ratio and multi-element studies were commonplace in bioarchaeology, linking trace elements with dietary phenomena. Interest in using trace elements for bioarchaeological inferences waned following a period of critiques in the late 1980s to 1990s that argued the discipline failed to account for diagenesis, simplified complex element uptake and regulation processes, and used several unsuitable elements for palaeodietary reconstruction (e.g. those under homeostatic regulation, those without a strong affinity for the skeleton). In the twenty-first century, trace element analyses have been primarily restricted to Sr and lead (Pb) isotope analysis and the study of toxic trace elements, though small pockets of bioarchaeology have continued to analyse multiple elements. Techniques such as micro-sampling, element mapping, and non-traditional stable isotope analysis have provided novel insights which hold the promise of helping to overcome limitations faced by the discipline.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12520-020-01262-4.

Gastrointestinal parasite burden in 4th-5th c. CE Florence highlighted by microscopy and paleogenetics

The study of ancient parasites, named paleoparasitology, traditionally focused on microscopic eggs disseminated in past environments and archaeological structures by humans and other animals infested by gastrointestinal parasites. Since the development of paleogenetics in the early 1980s, few paleoparasitological studies have been based on the ancient DNA (aDNA) of parasites, although such studies have clearly proven their utility and reliability. In this paper, we describe our integrative approach for the paleoparasitological study of an ancient population from Florence in Italy, dated to the 4th-5th c. CE. The first stage consisted in the study of sediment samples from the pelvic area of 18 individuals under light microscopy. This allowed us to detect Ascarid-type eggs belonging very probably to the human-infesting roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides. Ten subsamples were selected corresponding to five individuals, and we extracted their whole DNA following sediment aDNA protocols. A targeted approach allowed us to detect two nematodes and one trematode aDNA fragments, namely Ascaris sp., Trichuris trichiura, and Dicrocoelium dendriticum. Among the five individuals tested for microscopic eggs and aDNA, three of them showed the remains of eggs (only Ascarid-type), but all of them tested positive to the presence of at least one parasite aDNA. Microscopic diagnosis first guided our research for the selection of promising samples while the targeted aDNA approach significantly improved our knowledge in terms of parasitic diversity and frequency in this population subgroup. These results enabled us to discuss the possible impact of latent parasitism in this past population at the time of an epidemic, as suggested in Florence. In particular, the singular case of D. dendriticum detection is discussed in light of the present-day scarcity of genuine human infections. Nevertheless, actual infections are known in the paleoparasitological record, and food habits may have led to false parasitism in this historical context. aDNA leaching from overlying strata may also explain this detection. This study strongly pleads for a systematic integrative approach combining microscopy and aDNA in paleoparasitology.

An Investigation of Micro-CT Analysis of Bone as a New Diagnostic Method for Paleopathological Cases of Osteomalacia

OBJECTIVE

This paper looks to broaden the methodological possibilities for diagnosing osteomalacia in archaeological bone using micro-CT analysis. Increasing the identification of osteomalacia in paleopathology will provide support for important interpretive frameworks.

MATERIALS

Nine embedded and two unembedded rib fragments were sourced from St. Martin's Birmingham and Ancaster, UK, and Lisieux Michelet, France. Of the 11 samples, nine were previously confirmed as osteomalacic, and presented with varying levels of diagenesis and two were non-osteomalacic controls, one of which exhibits diagenetic change.

METHODS

Micro-CT, backscattered scanning electron microscopy, and light microscopy were employed. Micro-CT images were evaluated for osteomalacic features using corresponding microscopic images.

RESULTS

Micro-CT images from osteomalacic samples demonstrated the presence of defective mineralization adjacent to cement lines, areas of incomplete mineralization, and resorptive bays/borders, three key diagnostic features of osteomalacia. Diagenetic change was also detectable in micro-CT images, but did not prevent the diagnosis of osteomalacia.

CONCLUSIONS

Micro-CT analysis is a non-destructive method capable of providing microstructural images of osteomalacic features in embedded and unembedded samples. When enough of these features are present, micro-CT images are capable of confirming a diagnosis of osteomalacia.

SIGNIFICANCE

Vitamin D deficiency has important health consequences which operate throughout the life course. Increasing the ability to detect cases of vitamin D deficiency provides researchers with a greater understanding of health and disease in past communities.

LIMITATIONS

Only adult rib samples were used.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Paleopathologists should look to test the utility of micro-CT analysis in diagnosing active rickets in subadult individuals.

Paleopathology and children in the Andes: Local/situated biologies and future directions

In the decades since Verano (1997) published his foundational piece on Andean paleopathology, scholars have recognized the importance of the bioarchaeology of childhood. Yet, scholarship on ancient childhood in the Andes deemphasizes paleopathology. Nonadult paleopathological data are often employed in large-scale, biocultural studies focused on environmental or political adaptations; however, they can also elucidate children's individual lived experiences and roles in society. To generate culturally-meaningful paleopathological data, we must take a contextualized approach to our analyses and interpretations. Disparate use of chronological age in published datasets makes synthesis across studies problematic, and ethnohistorical and ethnographic data on Andean children demonstrate that developmental age categories, rather than chronological age ranges, are most appropriate. Further, paleopathological data can best inform our investigations when they are combined with related datasets such as those on sex, diet, activity, and mobility. With that in mind, we use the theoretical framework of "local biologies" (and the related "situated biologies"), where biology is viewed as heavily contingent on culturally-specific beliefs and practices and local physical, sociocultural, and political environments (Lock, 1993, 2001; Niewöhner and Lock, 2018). Local biologies approaches can enrich social bioarchaeology and paleopathology to by specifically situating children and their experiences within the ancient Andean world.

Cranial modification and the shapes of heads across the Andes

This broad literature review considers advances in the study of cranial vault modification with an emphasis on investigations of Andean skeletal remains over the last two decades. I delimit three broad categories of research, building on Verano's synthesis of the state of Andean paleopathology in 1997. These are associations with skeletal pathological conditions, classification and morphology, and social identity. Progress is noted in each of these areas with a particular emphasis on methodological advances in studying morphology as well as the growth of contextualized bioarchaeology and the incorporation of social theory in the consideration of cranial modification as a cultural practice. The article concludes with avenues for future research on head shaping in the Andes specifically and paleopathology more broadly.

Bilateral congenital radioulnar synostosis in an Early Horizon subadult burial from the site of Atalla, Peru

OBJECTIVE

This study was undertaken to identify pathological conditions within the population living at Atalla (1000-500 BCE), an important early village site and ritual center located in Huancavelica, Peru.

MATERIALS

Articulated burials (N = 3) and commingled human remains excavated during the 2015 and 2016 field seasons.

METHODS

Osteological remains were analyzed for macroscopic evidence of pathological changes.

RESULTS

A case of bilateral proximal radioulnar fusion was observed in an Early Horizon (ca. 800 BCE) subadult skeleton (Individual 1). A differential diagnosis of this pathology supports congenital radioulnar synostosis (CRUS), a rare developmental condition. Enamel hypoplasia was also identified in the same individual.

CONCLUSIONS

Burial treatment of Individual 1 does not provide any indication that CRUS was afforded an exceptional social significance.

CONTRIBUTION TO PALEOPATHOLOGY

This example of CRUS is notable as it represents the second published archaeological case of CRUS from Peru and the earliest reported case globally.

LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY

The osteological sample currently available from this site is limited.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Increased fieldwork in this region is recommended to further clarify the distribution and social significance of CRUS in the prehistoric Andes.

Diagnosing tarsal coalition in medieval Exeter

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study is to estimate the frequency and types of tarsal coalition represented in medieval remains from Exeter, England.

MATERIALS

183 individuals from the Cathedral Green site in Exeter, England.

METHODS

Gross macroscopic analysis combined with radiographic examination and comparison with clinical and archaeological literature.

RESULTS

Eight coalitions of various forms were ultimately identified; these include five calcaneonavicular, one talocalcaneal, one calcaneocuboid, and one lateral cuneiform-third metatarsal coalition.

CONCLUSIONS

These frequencies are quite high for clinical imaging estimations, but consistent with other reported archaeological frequencies.

SIGNIFICANCE

This study contributes to known frequencies of tarsal coalition in the past. It also provides descriptive diagnostic criteria for identifying tarsal coalition in archaeological populations.

LIMITATIONS

Poor preservation of some of the individuals in this sample means that the true frequencies of tarsal coalition may be underrepresented.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

This study should be expanded to include more archaeological sites, especially medieval British sites, to determine overall prevalence rates. Additionally, the diagnostic criteria should be compared with other examples of known tarsal coalition to further our understanding of this rare pathology.

Sensationalism and speaking to the public: Scientific rigour and interdisciplinary collaborations in palaeopathology

OBJECTIVES

In this brief communication we discuss issues concerning scientific rigour in palaeopathological publications, particularly studies published in clinical or general science journals, that employ skeletal analysis to elucidate the lives and deaths of historical figures or interpret "mysterious" assemblages or burials. We highlight the relationship between poor methodological rigour and lack of interdisciplinary communication, and discuss how this can result in scientifically weak, sensational narratives being presented to the public.

CONCLUSIONS

Although most high profile publications involving analysis of archaeological human remains are methodologically sound and well interpreted, others have suffered from poor scientific rigour stemming from an apparent lack of awareness of anthropological methods and ethics. When these publications are highlighted by the press, sensationalistic narratives are perpetuated which may reflect poorly on our discipline and give the public unrealistic expectations about our work.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

We suggest that best practice in high-profile paleopathological research include recruitment of a range of authors and reviewers from clinical sciences, anthropology, and the humanities, consideration of the ethical issues surrounding retrospective diagnosis, and transparency with the press in regards to the limitations inherent in this kind of work.

Disease as a Factor in the African Archaeological Record

It is clear from their natural histories that various kinds of diseases would have affected African communities in the distant past. Climatic factors may have reduced the impact of plague-like epidemics across much of the continent. Because of the link between environment and disease vectors, the presence of a disease may have been a stimulus for some group movements in the African past. Evidence of the direct effects of diseases on human populations is generally elusive. Paleopathologists can identify some endemic diseases, but evidence from Africa is sparse. Paleogenomics research can also identify some (not all) endemic and epidemic disease vectors. Recent African aDNA discoveries of inherited resistance to endemic diseases suggest that future paleogenomic research may help us learn much more about the impact of diseases on the African past.

Bioarchaeological evidence of care provided to a physically disabled individual from Pachacamac, Peru

This paper presents a bioarchaeology of care case study based on the skeletonized remains of an elderly female with a congenital condition that compromised both mobility and independence in undertaking certain basic tasks, and which generated requirements for long-term care in the form of both direct support and accommodation. The remains show evidence of bilateral cervical ribs, severe osteoarthritic destruction in the right shoulder joint, and a healed skull trepanation. The remains were recovered from a cemetery dating to the initial part of the Late Intermediate Period at the archaeological site of Pachacamac, Peru. The subject has been identified as belonging to an Ychsma ayllu. This paper applies the bioarchaeology of care methodology in considering the implications of care provision within the Ychsma socialcontext, and suggests that caregiving may have been a relatively common practice in this complex society. This case study is a good example of how the application of social theory through the bioarchaeology of care approach can enrich bioarchaeological studies.

A paleopathological approach to early human adaptation for wet-rice agriculture: The first case of Neolithic spinal tuberculosis at the Yangtze River Delta of China

The earliest evidence of human tuberculosis can be traced to at least the early dynastic periods, when full-scaled wet-rice agriculture began or entered its early developmental stages, in circum-China countries (Japan, Korea, and Thailand). Early studies indicated that the initial spread of tuberculosis coincided with the development of wet-rice agriculture. It has been proposed that the adaptation to agriculture changed human social/living environments, coincidentally favoring survival and spread of pathogenic Mycobacterial strains that cause tuberculosis. Here we present a possible case of spinal tuberculosis evident in the remains of a young female (M191) found among 184 skeletal individuals who were Neolithic wet-rice agriculturalists from the Yangtze River Delta of China, associated with Songze culture (3900-3200 B.C.). This early evidence of tuberculosis in East Asia serves as an example of early human morbidity following the adoption of the wet-rice agriculture.

Histomorphometric analysis of osteocyte lacunae in human and pig: exploring its potential for species discrimination

In recent years, several studies have focused on species discrimination of bone fragments by histological analysis. According to literature, the most consistent distinguishing features are Haversian canal and Haversian system areas. Nonetheless, there is a consistent overlap between human and non-human secondary osteon dimensions. One of the features that have never been analyzed for the purpose of species discrimination is the osteocyte lacuna, a small oblong cavity in which the osteocyte is locked in. The aim of this study is to verify whether there are significant quantitative differences between human and pig lacunae within secondary osteons with similar areas. Study sample comprises the midshaft of long bones (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, and fibula) of a medieval human adult and a juvenile pig. Sixty-eight secondary osteons with similar areas have been selected for each species and a total of 1224 osteocyte lacunae have been measured. For each osteon, the total number of lacunae was counted, and the following measurements were taken: minimum and maximum diameter, area, perimeter, and circularity of nine lacunae divided between inner, intermediate, and outer lacunae. Statistical analysis showed minimal differences between human and pig in the number of lacunae per osteons and in the minimum diameter (P > 0.05). On the contrary, a significant difference (P < 0.001) has been observed in the maximum diameter, perimeter, area, and circularity. Although there is the need for further research on different species and larger sample, these results highlighted the potential for the use of osteocyte lacunae as an additional parameter for species discrimination. Concerning the difference between the dimensions of osteocyte lacunae based on their position within the osteon (inner, intermediate, and outer lacunae), results showed that their size decreases from the cement line towards the Haversian canal both in human and pig.

New linear regression equations to calculate body height from tibial length in modern Maya populations

Height cannot always be measured directly, hence the need for height estimation formulae. This study presents two new linear regression equations for estimating height from tibial length among Maya populations. Body height and percutaneous tibial length were measured in two living Maya samples from the state of Yucatan, Mexico. The first sample comprises 100 adults (63 females and 37 males) from the community of Dzemul, (Group 1) and the second sample comprises 71 adults (26 females and 45 males) from the city of Mérida (Group 2). A linear regression model equation was then adjusted to estimate height from tibia length for each group. These models were then compared using 95% confidence intervals for the estimated variables. No differences were observed between the equations at this interval. Thus, both equations appear adequate for estimating body height from tibia length in contemporary Yucatecan populations. While the formula of Group 1 is applicable also to bioarcheological studies, the formula of Group 2 is more appropriate for studies in living populations.

Can early-life growth disruptions predict longevity? Testing the association between vertebral neural canal (VNC) size and age-at-death

This study tests the association of vertebral neural canal (VNC) size and age-at-death in a Portuguese skeletal collection from the 19^th-20th century. If the plasticity and constraint model best explains this association, VNC size would be negatively related to mortality risk. If the predictive adaptive response (PAR) model is a better fit, no association can be inferred between VNC size and age-at-death. Ninety individuals were used in this study. The anteroposterior and transverse diameters of all vertebrae were measured. A Cox regression analysis was performed by sex to assess the effect of VNC size on age-at-death, after adjusting for the effects of year of birth and cause of death. Several measurements of VNC diameters have a statistically significant effect on age-at-death, but when the covariates were considered, this association became non-significant. The PAR model seems the best fit to explain the relation between VNC and age-at-death. Individuals who went through stressful events early in life were prepared to face a stressful environment later in life, allowing them to cope with adversity without affecting longevity. However, developmental plasticity may be buffered by maternal capital accumulated over several generations, and health hazards encountered throughout life can contribute to health outcomes and longevity.

Patterns of frailty in non-adults from medieval London

Famine has the potential to target frail individuals who are at greater risk of mortality than their peers. Although children have been at elevated risk of mortality during recent famines, little is known about the risks posed to children during the medieval period. This study uses burials from the St. Mary Spital cemetery (SRP98), London (c. 1120-1540) to examine the relationships among non-adult age at death, burial type (attritional or famine), and four skeletal lesions (porotic hyperostosis, cribra orbitalia, linear enamel hypoplasia [LEH], and periosteal new bone formation). Hierarchical log-linear analysis reveals significant associations between famine burials and LEH, independent of age. Significant associations also exist between age and the presence of cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis, and periosteal lesions, with all three lesions present in greater frequencies among older children and adolescents, independent of burial type. The LEH results suggest that early exposure to stressors increased frailty among non-adults in the context of famine. The associations between age and the other skeletal indicators suggest that, in both famine and non-famine conditions, frailer individuals died at younger ages and before skeletal lesions could manifest, while their less frail peers survived multiple physiological insults before succumbing to death at older ages.

Life and death at the "The Land of Three Lakes": Revisiting the non-adults from Roman Aventicum, Switzerland (1st-3rd century CE)

The study of Roman childhood has been the focus of research primarily using documentary and archaeological evidence, while relatively few non-adult skeletal assemblages have been analyzed. This paper presents the study of 93 non-adult individuals from four cemeteries in the Roman (1st-3rd c. CE) civitas capital of Aventicum (Avenches), Switzerland. The results of the analysis offer a new bioarchaeological perspective on mortality and disease patterns during childhood in Roman Switzerland, adding to the discussion regarding living conditions in the urban centers at the periphery of the Roman Empire. This study also highlights the importance of studying perinates in archaeological populations, since the current research inform us about the experiences of mothers and their offspring in Aventicum. The mortality and disease patterns of the perinates, representing 71% of the total non-adult sample (66/93), suggest that pregnancy and the time around birth were extremely challenging at Aventicum. It is argued that environmental constraints, e.g. the risk of infectious diseases such as malaria and natural phenomena such as recurring floods resulting in resources scarcity, could have considerably affected the mother-fetus pair in this urban settlement.

An association between adult lifespan and stature in preindustrial Lithuanian populations: Analysis of skeletons

The aim of this study was to test the null hypothesis that no relationship between maximal living stature and adult lifespan had existed in prehistoric and historic Lithuanian populations. The sample analyzed consisted of 1713 skeletons of adult individuals who died between the 2nd century CE and the beginning of the 19th century CE, collected from 118 archaeological sites located in the current territory of Lithuania. A cumulative logit model was applied to model ordinal age-related changes in the auricular surface and the pubic symphysis (measures of lifespan) as a function of maximal length of femur (an indicator of maximal living stature), sex, burial site and its chronology as a proxy for the place of residence and period. The lack of strong association between adult lifespan and femur length was observed for males and females, various periods and places of residence. However, the results failed to reject convincingly the hypothesis that no relationship between these two variables had existed in preindustrial Lithuanian populations. In addition to concerns regarding sampling and measurement errors, heterogeneous frailty in early life and resulting selective mortality may partly explain the results obtained.

A probable primary malignant bone tumor in a pre-Columbian human humerus from Cerro Brujo, Bocas del Toro, Panamá

We present a rare case of primary bone cancer principally affecting the right humerus of a skeleton from the pre-Columbian site of Cerro Brujo (1265-1380 CE) in Bocas del Toro, on the Caribbean coast of Panamá, excavated in the early 1970s. The humerus contains a dense, calcified sclerotic mass with associated lytic lesions localized around the midshaft of the diaphysis. Evidence of systemic inflammation and anemia, likely caused by the cancer, are visible in the form of severe porotic hyperostosis of the cranial vault and bilateral periosteal reactions in the tibiae. Differential diagnosis and future probes of the tumor are discussed. A tooth from the individual yielded a radiocarbon date 150 years later than those of the domestic occupation at the site. Given that it was the only formal burial recovered from the site, and as the individual had such a visible, painful, and rare pathology, this likely constitutes a ritual burial.

Frequency and developmental timing of linear enamel hypoplasia defects in Early Archaic Texan hunter-gatherers

Digital photographs taken under controlled conditions were used to examine the incidence of linear enamel hypoplasia defects (LEHs) in burials from the Buckeye Knoll archaeological site (41VT98 Victoria county, Texas), which spans the Early to Late Archaic Period (ca. 2,500-6,500 BP uncorrected radiocarbon). The majority (68 of 74 burials) date to the Texas Early Archaic, including one extremely early burial dated to 8,500 BP. The photogrammetric data collection method also results in an archive for Buckeye Knoll, a significant rare Archaic period collection that has been repatriated and reinterred. We analyzed the incidence and developmental timing of LEHs in permanent canines. Fifty-nine percent of permanent canines (n = 54) had at least one defect. There were no significant differences in LEH frequency between the maxillary and mandibular canines (U = 640.5, n1 = 37, n2 = 43, p = .110). The sample studied (n = 92 permanent canines) had an overall mean of 0.93 LEH defect per tooth, with a median of one defect, and a mode of zero defects. Average age at first insult was 3.92 (median = 4.00, range = 2.5-5.4) and the mean age of all insults per individual was 4.18 years old (range = 2.5-5.67). Age at first insult is consistent with onset of weaning stress-the weaning age range for hunter-gatherer societies is 1-4.5. Having an earlier age of first insult was associated with having more LEHs (n = 54, rho = -0.381, p = 0.005).

Differential diagnosis in archaeology

Diagnosing archaeological bone specimens can be likened to practices used in medical and veterinary medical health care. Increasing the rigor of archaeological diagnosis can be supported by a systematic approach derived from health care settings. The process of information synthesis and diagnosis can be viewed as being very similar among these disciplines. A first diagnostic step is developing an Initial Information Set (sometimes called an Initial Database in health care environments) from descriptive data about the archaeological specimen or the patient, accompanied by recording environmental and ecological observations. The second diagnostic step is to develop an Expanded Information Set that includes structured physical examination, constructing a problem list, and considering potential differential diagnoses for each recorded problem. Subsequently, a Diagnostics Information Set consists of outcomes of carefully selected diagnostic testing, and a Diagnostic Assessment is developed from an orderly mental synthesis of information across Information Sets. Critical aspects of a structured and orderly process are preparing inclusive differential diagnoses, thorough mental synthesis across Information Sets, and recognizing that a short list of the most plausible diagnostic alternatives may represent the furthest possible extent of the evaluation for many archaeological bone specimens.

Digital data recording and interpretational standards in mummy science

Beginning during the late19th century, paleoimaging has played an ever-expanding role in mummy science. Increasingly during the 21st century, digital radiographic data collected through imaging efforts have become significant. The rapid influx of imaging data raises questions regarding standardized approaches to both acquisition and interpretation. Reports using digital data presented without contextual considerations commonly lead to interpretational errors. Digital data recording and interpretation require rigorous methodology and standards in order to achieve reproducibility, accuracy and minimization of inter- and intra-observer error. Researchers applying paleoimaging methods in bioarchaeological research must understand the significant limitations inherent in data collection and interpretation from various digital data recording methods. Currently, vast amounts of digital data are being archived, allowing greater potential for hypothesis-based research and informed diagnosis by consensus. Digital databases hold great potential in preparing both radiologists and bioarchaeologists in the appropriate application and interpretation of digital data.

Dead weight: Validation of mass regression equations on experimentally burned skeletal remains to assess skeleton completeness

In very fragmentary remains, the thorough inventory of skeletal elements is often impossible to accomplish. Mass has been used instead to assess the completeness of the skeleton. Two different mass-based methods of assessing skeleton completeness were tested on a sample of experimentally burned skeletons with the objective of determining which of them is more reliable. The first method was based on a simple comparison of the mass of each individual skeleton with previously published mass references. The second method was based on mass linear regressions from individual bones to estimate complete skeleton mass. The clavicle, humerus, femur, patella, metacarpal, metatarsal and tarsal bones were used. The sample was composed of 20 experimentally burned skeletons from 10 males and 10 females with ages-at-death between 68 and 90years old. Results demonstrated that the regression approach is more objective and more reliable than the reference comparison approach even though not all bones provided satisfactory estimations of the complete skeleton mass. The femur, humerus and patella provided the best performances among the individual bones. The estimations based on the latter had root mean squared errors (RMSE) smaller than 300g. Results demonstrated that the regression approach is quite promising although the patella was the only reasonable predictor expected to survive sufficiently intact to a burning event at high temperatures. The mass comparison approach has the advantage of not depending on the preservation of individual bones. Whenever bones are intact though, the application of mass regressions should be preferentially used because it is less subjective.

Stressing out in medieval Denmark: An investigation of dental enamel defects and age at death in two medieval Danish cemeteries

The influence of early life stress on later life experiences has become a major focus of research in medicine and more recently in bioarchaeology. Dental enamel, which preserves a record of childhood stress events, represents an important resource for this investigation when paired with the information from adult skeletal remains, such as age at death. The purpose of this research was to use a life history approach to the exploration of sex differences in the relationship between childhood stress and adult longevity by examining accentuated striae of Retzius (AS). A medieval Danish sample (n=70) drawn from the rural cemetery of Sejet and the urban cemetery of Ole Wormsgade was considered for AS and age at death. The results suggest sex differences in survivorship, with more stress being associated with reduced survivorship in males and increased survivorship in females. A consideration of AS formation time also suggests a difference in the impact of developmental timing between males and females. These results are interpreted in terms of differential frailty and selective mortality, drawing in both biomedical and cultural perspectives.

Cribra orbitalia as a potential indicator of childhood stress: Evidence from paleopathology, stable C, N, and O isotopes, and trace element concentrations in children from a 17th-18th century cemetery in Jēkabpils, Latvia

Cribra orbitalia (CO), or porotic hyperostosis (PH) of the orbital roof, is one of the most common pathological conditions found in archaeological subadult skeletal remains. Reaching frequencies higher than 50% in many prehistoric samples, CO has been generally attributed to a variety of factors including malnutrition (e.g., megaloblastic anemia) and parasitism. In this study, we tested the relationship between CO, trace element concentrations, and stable isotope values (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, δ¹⁸O) in subadult skeletons from a 17^th to 18^th century cemetery in the historic town of Jēkabpils, Latvia. A total of 28 subadults were examined, seven of which (25%) showed evidence of CO. Bioarchaeological evidence indicated high mortality for children in this cemetery: half of the burials were subadults under the age of 14, while a third were under the age of four. Life expectancy at birth was estimated to have been only 21.6 years. Trace element concentrations measured by Inductively Coupled Plasma - Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) showed no relationship between presence or absence of CO and levels of manganese, zinc, strontium, barium, copper, cadmium, or lead in the bones (p>0.05). However, a significant correlation (p<0.05) was found between the presence of CO and decreased levels of iron. The correlations between CO and decreased levels of copper and lead approached significance (p=0.056 for both elements). Individuals with CO furthermore displayed significantly lower δ¹⁵N isotope values, suggesting greater consumption of lower trophic level food resources than those unaffected by CO; δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O values, in contrast, showed no significant differences. These results suggest that the prevalence of CO may be related to dietary deficiencies. In this case, low iron levels may also signify a diet low in other key vitamins (e.g., B₉ and B₁₂), which are known to cause megaloblastic anemia.

Variation in large ectocranial lesions from pre-Columbian Kuelap, Peru

This paper analyses a diverse collection of previously undescribed cranial lesions observed from 42 individuals from the pre-Columbian site of Kuelap, eastern montane, Peru. I describe the presence of cranial lesions, their location on the vault location, shape, and size of affected area, and evidence of remodeling. Seventeen percent of the total cranial sample demonstrates similar superficial cranial lesions including males (25/117, 21.4%) and females (14/74, 18.9%), and adolescents (3/27, 11%). Most lesions are narrow ovals or long and leaf-shaped, with depression of the external cranial vault. While some are well-healed and smooth-surfaced, others are more irregular with variable degrees of remodeling. The highest frequency is on the superior and posterior aspects of the vault, usually along the sagittal plane. Differential diagnoses are considered but no single pathology is clear for all cases. There are some common features consistent with active and healing osteitis and a few are directly associated with trepanation. General patterning suggests intentional treatment, perhaps even possible cauterization of scalp injuries or healed infections. These large cranial "scars" have not been observed at coastal Peruvian sites and may reflect specific regional conditions related to highland environmental factors, local medical treatments of cranial injuries, or population specific malformations.

Pre-Columbian tuberculosis in Tierra del Fuego? Discussion of the paleopathological and molecular evidence

This work contributes to ongoing discussions about the nature of tuberculosis in the Western Hemisphere prior to the time of European contact. Our example, from the extreme south of South America was, at the time of our study, without firm temporal association or molecular characterization. In Tierra del Fuego, Constantinescu (1999) briefly described vertebral bone lesions compatible with TB in an undated skeleton from Myren 1 site (Chile). The remains of Myren are estimated to represent a man between 18 and 23 years old at the time of death. The objectives of this research are to extend this description, to present molecular results, to establish a radiocarbon date, and to report stable isotopic values for the remains. We provide further description of the remains, including tuberculosis-like skeletal pathology. Radiocarbon dating of 640±20 years BP attributes this individual to the precontact fourteenth-fifteenth centuries. Isotopic ratios for nitrogen and carbon from bone collagen suggest a mixed diet. Molecular results were positive for the rpoB quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays but negative for two independent IS6110 and IS1081 qPCR assays. Further testing using genomic methods to target any mycobacteria for specific identification are needed.

The prevalence and distribution of dental caries in four early medieval non-adult populations of different socioeconomic status from Central Europe

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the study was to map the dental health status in non-adult individuals and to verify whether and how the existence of caries in the non-adult age group is associated with the different socio-economic status of early medieval populations.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We studied the dental remains from the acropolis of the Mikulčice settlement agglomeration, where members of the higher social classes were buried, and from the Mikulčice hinterland. Overall, we evaluated 2544 teeth/3714 alveoli of deciduous dentition and 1938 teeth/2128 alveoli of permanent dentition. We determined the number of individuals with dental caries (i.e., caries frequency index, F-CE) and the proportion of teeth/alveoli with caries/ante-mortem tooth loss (i.e., caries intensity index, I-CE).

RESULTS

We found no statistical significant difference in the F-CE values between the Mikulčice hinterland and the acropolis. In addition, we found no statistically significant difference in the proportion of teeth with carious lesions (I-CE) either in the case of deciduous dentition or in the case of permanent dentition between the hinterland and the acropolis. In the case of permanent dentition, the statistically significant highest proportion of carious lesions (I-CE) was found in Mikulčice I (p ≤ 0.05). We confirmed an increase in the rate of caries with age.

CONCLUSIONS

The level of caries at all of the studied medieval locations was very low. We presume that lifestyle and the associated dietary habits and hygienic practices of the individuals or population groups had a greater influence on dental caries than did the socio-economic status of these individuals.

Osteometric sex determination of burned human skeletal remains

Sex determination of human burned skeletal remains is extremely hard to achieve because of heat-related fragmentation, warping and dimensional changes. In particular, the latter is impeditive of osteometric analyses that are based on references developed on unburned bones. New osteometric references were thus obtained which allow for more reliable sex determinations. The calcined remains of cremated Portuguese individuals were examined and specific standard measurements of the humerus, femur, talus and calcaneus were recorded. This allowed for the compilation of new sex discriminating osteometric references which were then tested on independent samples with good results. Both the use of simple section points and of logistic regression equations provided successful sex classification scores. These references may now be used for the sex determination of burned skeletons. Its reliability is highest for contemporary Portuguese remains but nonetheless these results have important repercussion for forensic research. More conservative use of these references may also prove valuable for other populations as well as for archaeological research.