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Annuar NAK, Azlan UK, Mediani A, Tong X, Han R, Al-Olayan E, Baharum SN, Bunawan H, Sarian MN, Hamezah HS, Jantan I. An insight review on the neuropharmacological effects, mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics and toxicity of mitragynine. Biomed Pharmacother 2024; 171:116134. [PMID: 38219389 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2024.116134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Mitragynine is one of the main psychoactive alkaloids in Mitragyna speciosa Korth. (kratom). It has opium-like effects by acting on μ-, δ-, and κ-opioid receptors in the brain. The compound also interacts with other receptors, such as adrenergic and serotonergic receptors and neuronal Ca2+ channels in the central nervous system to have its neuropharmacological effects. Mitragynine has the potential to treat diseases related to neurodegeneration such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, as its modulation on the opioid receptors has been reported extensively. This review aimed to provide an up-to-date and critical overview on the neuropharmacological effects, mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics and safety of mitragynine as a prospective psychotropic agent. Its multiple neuropharmacological effects on the brain include antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, antidepressant, sedative, stimulant, cognitive, and anxiolytic activities. The potential of mitragynine to manage opioid withdrawal symptoms related to opioid dependence, its pharmacokinetics and toxic effects were also discussed. The interaction of mitragynine with various receptors in the brain produce diverse neuropharmacological effects, which have beneficial properties in neurological disorders. However, further studies need to be carried out on mitragynine to uncover its complex mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamic profiles, addictive potential, and safe dosage to prevent harmful side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Aisyah Khairul Annuar
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Ummi Kalthum Azlan
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Ahmed Mediani
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Xiaohui Tong
- School of Life Sciences, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Rongchun Han
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Ebtesam Al-Olayan
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Syarul Nataqain Baharum
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Hamidun Bunawan
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Murni Nazira Sarian
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Hamizah Shahirah Hamezah
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Ibrahim Jantan
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
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Phoong SW, Phoong SY, Yeoh YJ. Kratom: A Bibliometric Analysis of Scientific Publications. J Psychoactive Drugs 2024; 56:14-22. [PMID: 36560854 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2022.2159591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Kratom has caught the attention of governments, policymakers, and academicians due to its unique characteristics. This paper explores the scholarly works related to the different aspects of Kratom to elucidate its research progress and identify future research agendas. We reviewed existing publications on Kratom using a bibliometric methodology. By analyzing 431 scientific publications, we identified publication sources, document analysis, countries analysis, and research keywords, which helped us understand the research locus on Kratom. After reviewing the publications, we discovered significant disagreements in categorizing and defining Kratom amongst authors based on their nationalities. We also showed the knowledge structure of existing publications via thematic analysis, illustrating that the studies focused on the opioid nature of Kratom. Also, drug abuse-related issues evolved as the motor theme of research, while other aspects are prevalent as niche or emerging research themes. This paper contributes to the literature by providing a broad idea of existing literature and offering a comprehensive outlook on Kratom, which could be helpful for policy formulation in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seuk Wai Phoong
- Department of Management, Faculty of Business and Economics, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur
| | - Seuk Yen Phoong
- Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim, Malaysia
| | - Ying Jia Yeoh
- Institute of Advanced Studies, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Grundmann O, Garcia-Romeu A, McCurdy CR, Sharma A, Smith KE, Swogger MT, Weiss ST. Not all kratom is equal: The important distinction between native leaf and extract products. Addiction 2024; 119:202-203. [PMID: 37814405 DOI: 10.1111/add.16366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Albert Garcia-Romeu
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Kirsten E Smith
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Marc T Swogger
- Departments of Psychiatry and Palliative Care, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Stephanie T Weiss
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
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LoParco CR, Yockey RA, Sekhon VK, Olsson S, Galindo R, Balasundaram R, Agwuncha T, Rossheim ME. Kratom Retail Availability in Fort Worth, Texas. J Psychoactive Drugs 2024; 56:8-13. [PMID: 36841785 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2023.2181243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/27/2023]
Abstract
Kratom use is associated with cannabis use, so retail availability may also be related. Kratom and Delta-8 THC (a psychoactive cannabis product) are federally unregulated, marketed as "natural," and often used for pain relief and/or relaxation. Kratom may have greater retail availability in more socioeconomically deprived areas because harmful substances are frequently marketed to lower-income communities. This study examined kratom retail availability in Fort Worth, Texas. Locations with alcohol, tobacco, and/or CBD licenses were called in July 2022: 1,025/1,223 (84%) answered the phone. T-tests examined potential differences in socioeconomic deprivation scores surrounding outlets by whether they sold kratom. Cross-tabulations examined overlap in kratom and Delta-8 THC availability. Kratom was available in 6% of locations. Most kratom retailers had a tobacco license (92%). However, most stores with a tobacco license did not sell kratom (14%), whereas most stores with a CBD license did (55%). Kratom availability was not associated with area deprivation scores. Most kratom retailers (95%) sold Delta-8 THC and two-thirds (65%) of Delta-8 THC retailers sold kratom. This study was the first to examine retail availability of kratom. Findings indicate the presence of niche stores specializing in the retail of federally unregulated substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- C R LoParco
- School of Public Health, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - R A Yockey
- School of Public Health, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - V K Sekhon
- Department of Analytics, Harrisburg University of Science and Technology, Harrisburg, PA, USA
| | - S Olsson
- School of Medicine, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - R Galindo
- School of Public Health, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - R Balasundaram
- School of Public Health, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - T Agwuncha
- School of Public Health, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - M E Rossheim
- School of Public Health, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
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McCurdy CR, Sharma A, Smith KE, Veltri CA, Weiss ST, White CM, Grundmann O. An update on the clinical pharmacology of kratom: uses, abuse potential, and future considerations. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2024; 17:131-142. [PMID: 38217374 PMCID: PMC10846393 DOI: 10.1080/17512433.2024.2305798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/15/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) has generated substantial clinical and scientific interest as a complex natural product. Its predominant alkaloid mitragynine and several stereoisomers have been studied for activity in opioid, adrenergic, and serotonin receptors. While awaiting clinical trial results, the pre-clinical evidence suggests a range of potential therapeutic applications for kratom with careful consideration of potential adverse effects. AREAS COVERED The focus of this review is on the pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and potential drug-drug interactions of kratom and its individual alkaloids. A discussion on the clinical pharmacology and toxicology of kratom is followed by a summary of user surveys and the evolving concepts of tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal associated with kratom use disorder. EXPERT OPINION With the increasing use of kratom in clinical practice, clinicians should be aware of the potential benefits and adverse effects associated with kratom. While many patients may benefit from kratom use with few or no reported adverse effects, escalating dose and increased use frequency raise the risk for toxic events in the setting of polysubstance use or development of a use disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher R McCurdy
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, FL, 32610, U.S.A
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, FL, 32610, U.S.A
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, FL, 32610, U.S.A
| | - Kirsten E. Smith
- School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, MD, 21205, U.S.A
| | - Charles A. Veltri
- Midwestern University, College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Glendale, AZ, 85308, U.S.A
| | - Stephanie T. Weiss
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, U.S.A
| | - Charles M. White
- University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy, Storrs, CT, and Department of Pharmacy, Hartford Hospital, Hartford, CT, U.S.A
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, FL, 32610, U.S.A
- Midwestern University, College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Glendale, AZ, 85308, U.S.A
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Grundmann O, Hill K, Al Barzanji E, Hazrat NG, Kaur G, Negeve RE, Shade S, Weber S, Veltri CA. Correlations of kratom ( Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) tea bag preparations and reported pharmacological effects. J Ethnopharmacol 2023; 317:116779. [PMID: 37364801 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2023.116779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE The use of herbal tea infusions is widespread in ethnomedicine throughout the world. One such ethnobotanical is kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth., Rubiaceae) which has gained considerable interest as an herbal supplement in recent years in the West beyond its native Southeast Asia. Traditional, kratom leaves are either chewed fresh or made into a tea infusion to treat fatigue, pain, or diarrhea. However, dried kratom leaf powder and hydroalcoholic extracts are more commonly used in Western countries, raising the question of exposure to kratom alkaloids and related effects. AIM OF THE STUDY A specific kratom tea bag product was analyzed for mitragynine content using tea infusion preparation and methanolic extraction. Consumers of both the tea bag product and other kratom products completed an online anonymous survey to determine demographics, kratom use patterns, and self-reported beneficial and detrimental effects. MATERIALS AND METHODS Kratom tea bag samples were extracted using pH-adjusted water or methanol and analyzed using an established LC-QTOF method. A modified kratom survey was distributed to consumers of the kratom tea bag products and other kratom products over a 14-month period. RESULTS Tea infusion extraction of tea bag samples resulted in lower mitragynine levels (0.062-0.131% (w/w)) compared to methanolic extraction (0.485-0.616% (w/w)). Kratom tea bag consumers did report similar, although often milder beneficial effects compared to consumers using other kratom products. Overall self-reported health was better among kratom tea bag consumers whereas improvement of a diagnosed medical condition was less in tea bag consumers compared to those using other kratom products. CONCLUSIONS Traditional tea infusions of Mitragyna speciosa dried leaves provide benefits to consumers despite substantially lower mitragynine content. These effects may be less pronounced but indicate that tea infusions provide a potentially safer formulation compared to more concentrated products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Grundmann
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA; College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, 85308, USA.
| | - Katherine Hill
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Everest Al Barzanji
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, 85308, USA
| | - Nilofar Ghulam Hazrat
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, 85308, USA
| | - Gurnoor Kaur
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, 85308, USA
| | - Ryan Einstein Negeve
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, 85308, USA
| | | | - Sam Weber
- Top Tree Herbs, Denver, CO, 80222, USA
| | - Charles A Veltri
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, 85308, USA
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Melchert PW, Zhang Q, Mukhopadhyay S, Kanumuri SRR, McCurdy CR, Markowitz JS. An in vitro evaluation of kratom ( Mitragyna speciosa) on the catalytic activity of carboxylesterase 1 (CES1). Chem Biol Interact 2023; 384:110715. [PMID: 37716419 PMCID: PMC10606955 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2023.110715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Revised: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/18/2023]
Abstract
Kratom, (Mitragyna Speciosa Korth.) is a plant indigenous to Southeast Asia whose leaves are cultivated for a variety of medicinal purposes and mostly consumed as powders or tea in the United States. Kratom use has surged in popularity with the lay public and is currently being investigated for possible therapeutic benefits including as a treatment for opioid withdrawal due to the pharmacologic effects of its indole alkaloids. A wide array of psychoactive compounds are found in kratom, with mitragynine being the most abundant alkaloid. The drug-drug interaction (DDI) potential of mitragynine and related alkaloids have been evaluated for effects on the major cytochrome P450s (CYPs) via in vitro assays and limited clinical investigations. However, no thorough assessment of their potential to inhibit the major hepatic hydrolase, carboxylesterase 1 (CES1), exists. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the in vitro inhibitory potential of kratom extracts and its individual major alkaloids using an established CES1 assay and incubation system. Three separate kratom extracts and the major kratom alkaloids mitragynine, speciogynine, speciociliatine, paynantheine, and corynantheidine displayed a concentration-dependent reversible inhibition of CES1. The experimental Ki values were determined as follows for mitragynine, speciociliatine, paynantheine, and corynantheidine: 20.6, 8.6, 26.1, and 12.5 μM respectively. Speciociliatine, paynantheine, and corynantheidine were all determined to be mixed-type reversible inhibitors of CES1, while mitragynine was a purely competitive inhibitor. Based on available pharmacokinetic data, determined Ki values, and a physiologically based inhibition screen mimicking alkaloid exposures in humans, a DDI mediated via CES1 inhibition appears unlikely across a spectrum of doses (i.e., 2-20g per dose). However, further clinical studies need to be conducted to exclude the possibility of a DDI at higher and extreme doses of kratom and those who are chronic users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip W Melchert
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Translational Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
| | - Qingchen Zhang
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Translational Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | | | | | | | - John S Markowitz
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Translational Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Kim K, Shahsavarani M, Garza-García JJO, Carlisle JE, Guo J, De Luca V, Qu Y. Biosynthesis of kratom opioids. New Phytol 2023; 240:757-769. [PMID: 37518950 DOI: 10.1111/nph.19162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Mitragynine, an analgesic alkaloid from the plant Mitragyna speciosa (kratom), offers a safer alternative to clinical opioids such as morphine, owing to its more favorable side effect profile. Although kratom has been traditionally used for stimulation and pain management in Southeast Asia, the mitragynine biosynthesis pathway has remained elusive. We embarked on a search for mitragynine biosynthetic genes from the transcriptomes of kratom and other members of the Rubiaceae family. We studied their functions in vitro and in vivo. Our investigations led to the identification of several reductases and an enol methyltransferase that forms a new clade within the SABATH methyltransferase family. Furthermore, we discovered a methyltransferase from Hamelia patens (firebush), which catalyzes the final step. With the tryptamine 4-hydroxylase from the psychedelic mushroom Psilocybe cubensis, we accomplished the four-step biosynthesis for mitragynine and its stereoisomer, speciogynine in both yeast and Escherichia coli when supplied with tryptamine and secologanin. Although we have yet to pinpoint the authentic hydroxylase and methyltransferase in kratom, our discovery completes the mitragynine biosynthesis. Through these breakthroughs, we achieved the microbial biosynthesis of kratom opioids for the first time. The remarkable enzyme promiscuity suggests the possibility of generating derivatives and analogs of kratom opioids in heterologous systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyunghee Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON, L2S 3A1, Canada
| | | | | | - Jack Edward Carlisle
- Department of Chemistry, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Jun Guo
- Department of Chemistry, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Vincenzo De Luca
- Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON, L2S 3A1, Canada
| | - Yang Qu
- Department of Chemistry, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5A3, Canada
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Bowdring MA, Leas EC, Vishwakarma M, Schleicher NC, Prochaska JJ, Henriksen L. Kratom availability in California vape shops. Prev Med Rep 2023; 35:102380. [PMID: 37680858 PMCID: PMC10481347 DOI: 10.1016/j.pmedr.2023.102380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Kratom products are derived from trees native to Southeast Asia and have dose-dependent stimulant and opioid-like effects. Despite being on the Drug Enforcement Administration "Drugs and Chemicals of Concern List," kratom is legal for sale in most US states. However, there are scarce data on its availability. The goal of this study was to examine kratom availability in vape shops across the state of California and assess shop compliance with a local kratom sales ban (enacted in 2016) in San Diego City. As part of a larger study about retail tobacco marketing near colleges, availability of kratom was assessed in summer 2019 in a random sample of 614 vape shops that was stratified to compare stores near (≤ 3 miles) and distant (>3 miles) from colleges. Logistic regression examined kratom availability as a function of store type (stores that sold vape products only vs. stores selling other tobacco), nearness to college, and tract-level demographics. Kratom was available in 62.4% of observed stores and more often in vape-and-smoke (81.1%) than vape-only shops (11.5%, AOR = 40.4, 95% CI = 23.3-74.1). Kratom availability did not differ by nearness to colleges. In San Diego City, 46.2% of observed stores (95% CI = 28.8-64.5) sold kratom products. Findings indicate that kratom was available in the majority of vape shops and most commonly in vape-and-smoke shops. Widespread availability in tobacco specialty shops suggests the need for research on dual use with tobacco, kratom advertising and cross-product promotion, and the potential of state and local tobacco retail licensing to prohibit sales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly A. Bowdring
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford Prevention Research Center, 3180 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA, USA
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 401 Quarry Road, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Eric C. Leas
- Herbert Wertheim School of Public Health and Human Longevity Science, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Monika Vishwakarma
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford Prevention Research Center, 3180 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Nina C. Schleicher
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford Prevention Research Center, 3180 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Judith J. Prochaska
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford Prevention Research Center, 3180 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Lisa Henriksen
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford Prevention Research Center, 3180 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA, USA
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Viwatpinyo K, Mukda S, Warinhomhoun S. Effects of mitragynine on viability, proliferation, and migration of C6 rat glioma, SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma, and HT22 immortalized mouse hippocampal neuron cell lines. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 166:115364. [PMID: 37639746 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitragynine (MG) is an indole alkaloid found in the extract of Mitragyna speciosa Korth native to Southeast Asia. Although MG is known for its pain-relieving and psychoactive effects, reports have suggested that it has therapeutic potential against neoplasms and psychiatric disorders. However, no evidence currently exists to support the effect of MG on brain tumors. This study aimed to investigate the antitumor effects of MG in C6 rat glioma and SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma tumor cell lines compared with those in the non-tumor HT22 mouse hippocampal neuronal cell line. MTT assay for cell viability, clonogenic and wound healing assays for cell migration, Hoechst 33342/propidium iodide staining for nuclear morphology, and cell cycle distribution using flow cytometry were performed. MG at 125.47 μM (50 μg/ml) significantly reduced the viability of all cell lines, and the clonogenicity of C6 glioma cells began decreasing at 75.28 μM (30 μg/ml) of MG. Cell migration was inhibited in C6 and HT22 cells treated with 75.28 μM (30 μg/ml) of MG. Apoptotic nuclear condensation and fragmentation were observed in all cell lines treated with 125.47 μM (50 μg/ml) MG, whereas late-phase apoptotic cells were predominant in the group treated with 250.94 μM (100 μg/ml) of MG. The cell cycle assay results suggest that MG arrested the S phase in the C6 cell line and the G2/M phase in the HT22 cell lines. This study showed that MG induces cell death and cell cycle arrest, disrupting cell migration and reducing the clonogenicity of brain tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kittikun Viwatpinyo
- School of Medicine, Walailak University, Tha Sala, Nakorn Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand; Center of Excellence in Marijuana, Hemp, and Kratom, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
| | - Sujira Mukda
- Research Center for Neuroscience, Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakorn Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Sakan Warinhomhoun
- School of Medicine, Walailak University, Tha Sala, Nakorn Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand; Center of Excellence in Marijuana, Hemp, and Kratom, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand.
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Sornsenee P, Chimplee S, Romyasamit C. Evaluation of Antibacterial, Antibiofilm, Antioxidant, and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Kratom Leaves ( Mitragyna speciosa) Fermentation Supernatant Containing Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG. Probiotics Antimicrob Proteins 2023:10.1007/s12602-023-10142-x. [PMID: 37713167 DOI: 10.1007/s12602-023-10142-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) leaves are commonly used to enhance endurance and treat various diseases. This study evaluated the effect of kratom leaf fermentation with Lactobacillus rhamnosus. Antibacterial activity was investigated against Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), Escherichia coli, and E. coli O157:H7. Biofilm inhibition and eradication assays were also performed. Antioxidant properties were determined by measuring the total phenolic and flavonoid content and DPPH and ABTS scavenging activities. Nitric oxide and TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 expressions in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells were also measured. Aqueous kratom extract exhibited promising effects against free radicals and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Notably, all fermented kratoms showed significant antibacterial activity against the tested pathogens and antibiofilm formation by S. aureus and MRSA. Furthermore, the eradication of established biofilms of fermented kratoms was observed in S. aureus (day 2, 50 mg/mL) and E. coli (day 2, 100 mg/mL and day 4, 50 mg/mL). To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to report that fermented and non-fermented kratoms could be nutraceutical sources of antibacterial, antibiofilm, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory substances against related diseases and can be applied further in dietary or cosmetic products with health-promoting effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phoomjai Sornsenee
- Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, Thailand
| | - Siriphorn Chimplee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, 90110, Thailand
| | - Chonticha Romyasamit
- Department of Medical Technology, School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Thasala, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand.
- Research Center of Excellence in Innovation of Essential Oil, Walailak University, Thasala, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand.
- Research Center in Tropical Pathobiology, Walailak University, Thasala District, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand.
- Center of Excellent in Marijuana, Hemp and Kratom, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80160, Thailand.
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Huisman G, Menke M, Grundmann O, Schreiber R, Mason N. Examining the Psychoactive Differences between Kratom Strains. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2023; 20:6425. [PMID: 37510657 PMCID: PMC10379209 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20146425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2023] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) is a Southeast Asian plant containing various alkaloids that induce pharmacological effects in humans. In Western countries, online vendors sell a variety of different kratom strains which are marketed to have distinct effect profiles. However, as of yet such marketing claims are unsubstantiated, and therefore the current study investigated whether differently colored kratom products can induce distinct effects, as self-reported by users. Six hundred forty-four current kratom users were anonymously surveyed to compare the self-reported effects of and motivations for using kratom products sold as red, green, and white strains. Most of the survey respondents were customers of the same kratom vendor, the products of which had been analyzed for their alkaloid content by an independent laboratory. The survey respondents reported distinct subjective experiences for different kratom strains, in a manner congruent with common marketing descriptions. However, the product analyses revealed no significant cross-strain differences in alkaloid content, suggesting that the reported effect differences might be disproportionally influenced by marketing narratives and anecdotal reports. Future studies should engage a more diverse population and include kratom strains from various vendors. Controlled, blinded experiments could assess whether the reported effect differences stem from a placebo effect or from alternative factors, e.g., minor alkaloids and terpenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guido Huisman
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Maximilian Menke
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Rudy Schreiber
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Natasha Mason
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands
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13
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Saingam D, Singh D, Geater AF, Assanangkornchai S, Jitpiboon W, Latkin C. The Health Impact of Long-Term Kratom ( Mitragyna Speciosa) Use in Southern Thailand. Subst Use Misuse 2023:1-14. [PMID: 37270449 DOI: 10.1080/10826084.2023.2215301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mitragyna speciosa or Kratom has been used in Thailand traditionally for its medicinal value. Despite case reports of kratom consumption causing adverse effects, research on its long-term health impact is limited. This study examines the long-term health impact of kratom use among people in Southern Thailand. METHODS Three community-based surveys were conducted from 2011 to 2015. In the first and second surveys (2011 and 2012) a total of 1,118 male respondents comprising 355 regular kratom users, 171 occasional kratom users, 66 ex-users, and 592 non-users aged 25 or above, were recruited from 40 villages. All respondents were followed up in this study. However, not all respondents were successfully followed up throughout the entire set of studies. RESULTS Common health complaints were no more common among kratom users than ex- and non-users, but more regular than occasional users claimed kratom to be addictive. Those with high kratom dependence scores were more likely to experience intense withdrawal symptoms, which developed 1-12 h after the last kratom intake. Over half (57.9%) of regular users had experienced intoxication effects compared to only 29.3% of occasional users. Kratom users were less likely to have a history of chronic diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia than ex- and non-users. CONCLUSION Regular long-term chewing of fresh kratom leaves was not related to an increase in common health complaints, but may pose a drug dependence risk. Severe kratom dependents were more likely to suffer from intense withdrawal symptoms. Medical records revealed no death due to traditional kratom use, but the high prevalence of tobacco or/and hand rolled cigarette smoking among kratom users should be of concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darika Saingam
- Department of Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand
| | - Darshan Singh
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Alan F Geater
- Department of Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand
| | - Sawitri Assanangkornchai
- Department of Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand
| | - Walailuk Jitpiboon
- Department of Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand
| | - Carl Latkin
- Department of Health, Behavior, and Society, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Maryland, USA
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Citti C, Laganà A, Capriotti AL, Montone CM, Cannazza G. Kratom: The analytical challenge of an emerging herbal drug. J Chromatogr A 2023; 1703:464094. [PMID: 37262932 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2023.464094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa or kratom is emerging worldwide as a "legal" herbal drug of abuse. An increasing number of papers is appearing in the scientific literature regarding its pharmacological profile and the analysis of its chemical constituents, mainly represented by alkaloids. However, its detection and identification are not straightforward as the plant material is not particularly distinctive. Hyphenated techniques are generally preferred for the identification and quantification of these compounds, especially the main purported psychoactive substances, mitragynine (MG) and 7-hydroxymitragynine (7-OH-MG), in raw and commercial products. Considering the vast popularity of this recreational drug and the growing concern about its safety, the analysis of alkaloids in biological specimens is also of great importance for forensic and toxicological laboratories. The review addresses the analytical aspects of kratom spanning the extraction techniques used to isolate the alkaloids, the qualitative and quantitative analytical methods and the strategies for the distinction of the naturally occurring isomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Citti
- Institute of Nanotechnology - CNR NANOTEC, Campus Ecotekne, Via Monteroni, Lecce 73100, Italy.
| | - Aldo Laganà
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Anna Laura Capriotti
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Carmela Maria Montone
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Cannazza
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, Modena 41125, Italy.
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15
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Prevete E, Kuypers KPC, Theunissen EL, Esposito G, Ramaekers JG, Pasquini M, Corazza O. Clinical Implications of Kratom ( Mitragyna speciosa) Use: a Literature Review. Curr Addict Rep 2023; 10:317-334. [PMID: 37266188 PMCID: PMC10177737 DOI: 10.1007/s40429-023-00478-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Purpose of Review This work aims to provide an up-to-date review of the preclinical and clinical scientific literature on the therapeutic value of kratom to better understand the underlying mechanisms related to its use and inform future therapeutic applications. Recent Findings A growing number of studies, mainly of cross-sectional nature, describe the widespread use of kratom by individuals to self-treat pain, psychiatric symptoms, and substance use disorders (SUD) outside a controlled clinical setting. Preclinical evidence suggests kratom is effective as an analgesic agent and might decrease the self-administration of other drugs. A randomized controlled trial has further supported kratom's therapeutic value as an analgesic. Investigations in nonclinical samples of long-term kratom users also indicate its therapeutic benefit in managing SUD symptoms (e.g., craving) and long-term or acute symptoms (e.g., withdrawal) for alcohol, opioids, and other illicit drugs. However, episodes of kratom-related intoxications have also been reported, often due to the adulteration and the contamination of kratom products mainly sold online or mixed toxicities when consumed outside clinical and traditional settings. Summary Evidence on the clinical implications of kratom use is still limited and uncertain, with kratom research constantly evolving. Therefore, further randomized trials are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Prevete
- Department of Human Neurosciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Dell’Università 30, 00185 Rome, Italy
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Kim Paula Colette Kuypers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Eef Lien Theunissen
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Gianluca Esposito
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento, Corso Bettini, 84, 38068 Rovereto, Italy
| | - Johannes Gerardus Ramaekers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Massimo Pasquini
- Department of Human Neurosciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Dell’Università 30, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Ornella Corazza
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento, Corso Bettini, 84, 38068 Rovereto, Italy
- Department of Clinical, Pharmacological and Biological Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane, Hatfield, AL10 9AB UK
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16
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Zhang P, Wei W, Zhang X, Wen C, Ovatlarnporn C, Olatunji OJ. Antidiabetic and antioxidant activities of Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) leaf extract in type 2 diabetic rats. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 162:114689. [PMID: 37058820 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa is a medicinal plant with a reputation for treating pains, diabetes as well as increasing energy and sexual desires. However, there is no scientific evidence to validate the antidiabetic effect of M. speciosa. This study investigated the antidiabetic effects of M. speciosa (Krat) ethanolic extract on fructose and streptozocin (STZ)-induced type 2 diabetic rats. In vitro antioxidant and antidiabetic effects were evaluated using DPPH, ABST, FRAP and α-glucosidase inhibitory assays. Rats with fructose/STZ induced T2D were treated with Krat (100 and 400 mg/kg) or metformin (200 mg/kg) for 5 weeks via oral gavage. Krat showed good antioxidant activity and also displayed potent α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. Administration of Krat to the diabetic rats significantly improved body weight gain, restored alterations in blood glucose level, glucose tolerance, dyslipidemia (increased cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol and reduced high-density lipoprotein), hepatorenal biomarkers alterations (alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase, alanine phosphatase, creatinine and blood urea nitrogen) and oxidative stress indices (superoxide dismutase, glutathione and malondialdehyde)in the treated diabetic rats. Furthermore, Krat also restored pancreatic histological and increased immunohistochemical aberrations in the diabetic rats. These results for the first time demonstrated the antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic potentials of M. speciosa, thus providing scientific reinforcement for the traditional use of the plant in the treatment of diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengpeng Zhang
- Second People's Hospital of Wuhu City, Anhui 241001, China
| | - Wei Wei
- Second People's Hospital of Wuhu City, Anhui 241001, China
| | - Xiaohai Zhang
- Second People's Hospital of Wuhu City, Anhui 241001, China
| | - Chaoling Wen
- Anhui College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Wuhu, Anhui 241000, China.
| | - Chitchamai Ovatlarnporn
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand; Drug Delivery System Excellent Center, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand
| | - Opeyemi Joshua Olatunji
- African Genome Center, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Ben Guerir 43150, Morocco; Traditional Thai Medical Research and Innovation Center, Faculty of Traditional Thai Medicine, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai 90110, Thailand.
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17
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Hill K, Gibson S, Grundmann O, Smith KE, Ballard J, Stanciu CN. Evaluating health information provided to kratom consumers by good manufacturing practice-qualified vendors. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2023; 18:21. [PMID: 37041624 PMCID: PMC10088264 DOI: 10.1186/s13011-023-00531-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND "Kratom" commonly refers to the botanical Mitragyna speciosa, native to Southeast Asia, which is increasingly used globally for its unique pharmacological effects. Motives for using the whole plant material or kratom-derived products include self-management of pain, mental health disorders, symptoms related to substance use disorders, and/or to increase energy. In the United States, kratom products have varying alkaloid content, potencies, and marketing profiles. There is little regulatory oversight over kratom, as it is currently not approved as a dietary supplement by the Food and Drug Administration. This results in substantial variability in labeling of kratom products and the product information provided to consumers. METHODS In January 2023, we evaluated the American Kratom Association's Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) qualified vendors' websites (n = 42) using the well-established and validated DISCERN instrument to examine the quality of health information provided to consumers. DISCERN contains 15 five-point Likert-scale questions on specific criteria, with the highest possible score being 75, indicating that all the DISCERN criteria have been fulfilled by the website (i.e., the highest quality information is provided to consumers). RESULTS The mean DISCERN score for all evaluated online kratom vendors was 32.72 (SD = 6.69; score range 18.00-43.76). Overall, vendors scored higher on DISCERN questions assessing the website's reliability, as vendors typically provided clear information for consumers about product availability, purchasing, shipping, etc. On average, vendors scored poorly on the DISCERN section pertaining to the quality of the health information provided. Information on kratom's potential risks and benefits was particularly insufficient. CONCLUSIONS Consumers require high quality information in order to make informed decisions concerning use, which entails disclosure of known risks and potential benefits. The online kratom vendors evaluated in this study should consider enhancing the quality of health information provided, especially information regarding kratom's risks and benefits. Further, consumers should be made aware of current knowledge gaps related to kratom's effects. Clinicians must also be aware of the lack of evidence-based information available to their patients who use kratom or are interested in using kratom products, in order to facilitate educational discussions with them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Hill
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, USA.
| | - Stephen Gibson
- Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Manchester, NH, USA
- New Hampshire Hospital, Concord, NH, USA
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| | - Kirsten E Smith
- National Institute On Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jonathan Ballard
- New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services, Concord, NH, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA
- Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Corneliu N Stanciu
- New Hampshire Hospital, Concord, NH, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA
- Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA
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18
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Peran D, Stern M, Cernohorsky P, Sykora R, Popela S, Duska F. Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom) poisoning: Findings from ten cases. Toxicon 2023; 225:107054. [PMID: 36801215 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2022] [Revised: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
Kratom is a mixture of compounds that are present in the leaves of the tropical tree Mitragyna speciosa. It is used as a psychoactive agent with both opiate and stimulant-like effects. In this case series we describe the signs, symptoms, and the management of kratom overdose in the prehospital setting and in intensive care. We retrospectively searched for cases in the Czech Republic. Over 36 months we found 10 cases of kratom poisoning, which healthcare records were analyzed and reported as per CARE guidelines. The dominant symptoms in our series were neurological and included quantitative (n = 9) or qualitative (n = 4) disorder of consciousness. Signs and symptoms of vegetative instability [hypertension (n = 3) and tachycardia (n = 3) vs. bradycardia/cardiac arrest (n = 2), mydriasis (n = 2) vs. miosis (n = 3)] were noticed. Prompt response to naloxone in two cases and lack of response in one patient were observed. All patients survived and the effect of intoxication wore off within two days. Kratom overdose toxidrome is variable and, in keeping with its receptor physiology, consists of signs and symptoms of opioid-like overdose, sympathetic overactivation and serotonin-like syndrome. Naloxone can help to avoid intubation in some cases.
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19
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Deebel NA, Scarberry K, O’Connor CA, Dutta R, Matz E, Hanlon CA, Terlecki RP. Investigating the Impact of Kratom ( Mitragyna speciosa) Use Upon Male Sexual Health. Res Rep Urol 2023; 15:69-76. [PMID: 36798621 PMCID: PMC9926986 DOI: 10.2147/rru.s390094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) exhibits μ-receptor agonism and is used as an opioid substitute. While opioids are known to inhibit sexual behavior, less is known regarding kratom. We conducted a pilot study to assess the subjective impact of kratom upon male sexual health including erectile and ejaculatory function. Patients and Methods Twitter and Reddit (r/Kratom) were accessed to disseminate our survey featuring validated instruments (the International Index of Erectile Function, IIEF, and the premature ejaculation diagnostic tool, PEDT). Sexual health prior to and after 4 weeks of kratom use was assessed. Results Most males surveyed (n = 165) were 18-40 years old (84.9%), with 95.8% of respondents using it at least weekly and 82.4% using kratom for ≥1 year. Reasons for use included treating pain (39.4%), and mental health conditions (63.6%). Kratom was associated with a positive (37.7%) and negative (20.5%) impact on sexual health. Kratom subjectively increased time to ejaculation in 104 (66.6%) patients, perceived as positive by 62 (59.6%). Seventy-eight patients answered questions about premature ejaculation. The median (with interquartile range, IQR, following;) pre-kratom and kratom use scores were 13.0; 8.0 and 6.5; 5.0, respectively (p < 0.001). Ejaculation before 5 minutes improved after kratom (51.3% vs 12.8%) (p < 0.0001). Following kratom use, patients reported lack of frustration with ejaculation prior to desire (21.8% vs 61.5%) (p < 0.001). The erectile function domain of the IIEF was statistically significantly different however - clinically similar pre-kratom use (29.0; 5.75) versus 27.0; 6.75 during kratom use (p = 0.037). Conclusion Clinicians treating male sexual health should be aware of kratom and its potential effect on ejaculatory and erectile function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas A Deebel
- Department of Urology, Atrium Health Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Kyle Scarberry
- Department of Urology, University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Collette A O’Connor
- Department of Urology, Atrium Health Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Rahul Dutta
- Department of Urology, Atrium Health Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Ethan Matz
- Department of Urology, Atrium Health Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Colleen A Hanlon
- Department of Cancer Biology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Ryan P Terlecki
- Department of Urology, Atrium Health Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center, Winston-Salem, NC, USA,Correspondence: Ryan P Terlecki, Department of Urology, Atrium Health Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center, 1 Medical Center Blvd, Winston-Salem, NC, 27157, Tel +1 336 716 4131, Fax +1 336 716 9042, Email
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20
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Abstract
Alkaloids from the botanical Mitragyna speciosa (commonly referred to as "kratom") interact with opioid, adrenergic, serotonergic, and other receptors to provide myriad reported effects, including analgesia, energy, improved mood, and relaxation, among others. These alkaloids are complex and unique and may serve as a blueprint for the development of novel molecules to treat various substance use disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten Elin Smith
- Real-world Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, 251 Bayview Blvd, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA.,Correspondence: Kirsten Smith, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, 251 Bayview Blvd. Suite 200, Room 01B340, Baltimore, Maryland, 21224, USA,
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Christopher R. McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
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21
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Khalid K, Ku Md Saad S, Soelar SA, Mohamed Yusof Z, Warijo O. Exploring adolescents' practice and perspective on the use and misuse of kratom in northwest Malaysia. J Ethn Subst Abuse 2023; 22:121-132. [PMID: 33784945 DOI: 10.1080/15332640.2021.1906816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Kratom is a plant homogenous to Southeast Asia with a long history of traditional use as medicinal herbs. However, recent years have witnessed its pervasive infiltration into international audience with growing public health concern. This cross-sectional study was conducted from 1 August 2017 till 31 August 2018 aiming to explore the practice and perspectives of kratom use and misuse among adolescents in northwest Malaysia. The study involved a self-administered questionnaire that was designed for the purpose of the study. The instrument had undergone prior validation process with a good overall internal reliability for the knowledge domain (Cronbach's alpha = 0.728) and attitude domain (Cronbach's alpha = 0.700). The questionnaire was distributed to 135 respondents involving adolescents aged 13 to 19 years old via convenience (non-kratom user) and snowball sampling (kratom users). There were 65 (47.8%) kratom users, while 70 (51.5%) were kratom-naïve. Among the kratom users, peer influence was the most common reason for them to be first involved with kratom, 26 (41.3%) whereas the reasons for kratom use quoted were to improve physical stamina, 10 (16.4%), as painkiller, 9 (14.8%), and to be accepted by peers, 7 (11.5%). Multiple logistic regression found that older age (95% CI: 0.13, 0.58; p = 0.001) and being active smokers (95% CI: 39.33, 980.63; p < 0.001) significantly predict kratom use among adolescents. The emerging trend of kratom abuse and misuse especially among the younger generation in Malaysia is raising concern and warrants social and governmental vigilance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karniza Khalid
- Clinical Research Centre, Hospital Tuanku Fauziah, Perlis, Ministry of Health Malaysia
| | | | - Shahrul Aiman Soelar
- Clinical Research Centre, Hospital Sultanah Bahiyah, Alor Setar, Kedah, Ministry of Health Malaysia
| | - Zulsafari Mohamed Yusof
- National Anti-Drug Agency (Padang Besar Branch), Padang Besar ICQS Complex, Perlis, Malaysia
| | - Othman Warijo
- Clinical Research Centre, Hospital Tuanku Fauziah, Perlis, Ministry of Health Malaysia.,Director Office, Hospital Tuanku Fauziah, Perlis, Ministry of Health Malaysia
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22
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Sloan B. This Month in JAAD Case Reports: January 2023: Kratom hyperpigmentation. J Am Acad Dermatol 2023; 88:25. [PMID: 36404453 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaad.2022.10.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Abstract
Drug addiction is considered a chronic disorder affecting the individual's life, his/her family and society. Up till now the treatment of drug addiction is considered a problematic issue. Synthetic drugs available for the treatment of drug addiction are few, of limited efficacy and associated with serious side effects. Therefore, there is a continuous search for better therapeutic agents for drug addiction. Natural products represent a promising source for drug addiction treatment. This review summaries drug addiction definition, its mechanism of action, its types, its diagnosis, factors affecting its development and different available approaches for its treatment especially the use of natural products. Six plants were discussed thoroughly in this review, including, Tabernanthe iboga Baill., Mitragyna speciosa Korth., Pueraria montana var. lobata (Willd.) Sanjappa & Pradeep, Hypericum perforatum L., Panax ginseng C.A. Mey., and Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mona A Raslan
- Pharmacognosy Department, Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Institute, National Research Center, Dokki, 12622, Giza, Egypt
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Smith KE, Dunn KE, Rogers JM, Grundmann O, McCurdy CR, Garcia-Romeu A, Schriefer D, Swogger MT, Epstein DH. Kratom use as more than a "self-treatment". Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 2022; 48:684-694. [PMID: 35767669 PMCID: PMC10927006 DOI: 10.1080/00952990.2022.2083967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Background: Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) is increasingly used in the United States for its pharmacological effects. Kratom's relative novelty makes for a dynamic situation, such that use motivations are not firmly established and may be changing. Investigators and clinicians require frequent updates on kratom trends.Objectives: To assess the current state of kratom-use initiation, sourcing, motivations, preference, conceptualizations, and perceived stigma, using survey responses from current and former users.Methods: Between April-May 2021 we recontacted 289 respondents who reported lifetime kratom use (on an unrelated survey) to answer kratom-specific questions.Results: The sample (N=129) was majority female (51.9%) and white (71.9%). Most (69.0%) reported first trying kratom after 2015. Mean age of use initiation (29.9 years) was older than for other substances, including opioids. Kratom ranked as a preferred substance by 48.5%. The strongest drug association with past-year kratom use was vaped nicotine (OR=3.31,95% CI 1.23-8.88). Use was less likely among those prescribed buprenorphine in the past year (OR=0.03, CI 0.01-0.28). Past-month cannabis use (OR=4.18,CI 1.80-9.72) had the strongest association with past-month kratom use. Over 40 use motivations were endorsed, many (but not all) supporting the "self-treatment" narrative of kratom use, including use as an opioid, alcohol, or stimulant substitute. Treatment shortfalls were associated with decisions to try kratom.Conclusions: Kratom use motivations are diversifying, with multiple factors driving use. As sales continue to increase, the public-health, clinical, and policy responses to kratom should be grounded in rigorous bench-to-bedside scientific research. Comprehensive study of kratom is currently lacking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten E. Smith
- Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research ProgramReal-world, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Kelly E. Dunn
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jeffrey M. Rogers
- Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research ProgramReal-world, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Christopher R. McCurdy
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Albert Garcia-Romeu
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Destiny Schriefer
- Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research ProgramReal-world, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Marc T. Swogger
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - David H. Epstein
- Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research ProgramReal-world, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Leksungnoen N, Andriyas T, Ngernsaengsaruay C, Uthairatsamee S, Racharak P, Sonjaroon W, Kjelgren R, Pearson BJ, McCurdy CR, Sharma A. Variations in mitragynine content in the naturally growing Kratom ( Mitragyna speciosa) population of Thailand. Front Plant Sci 2022; 13:1028547. [PMID: 36388525 PMCID: PMC9648690 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1028547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
We analyzed the content of mitragynine (MG) found in kratom leaves (Mitragyna speciosa) and the influence of different environmental conditions (air and soil variables) on the yield in various regions of Thailand. The content of MG in kratom leaves ranged from 7.5 - 26.6 mg g-1 of dry leaf weight. Canonical correspondence analysis showed that the most significant environmental variables affecting the MG content among the various regions were light intensity, relative humidity, soil volumetric water content (VW), soil pH, and calcium. This study is a first step towards providing information about environmental conditions suitable to maximize the quality and quantity of bioactive alkaloids in kratom. Future studies should focus on leaf collection and the post-harvest processes in order to assure the desired alkaloidal content in finished products, when produced under suitable environmental conditions identified in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisa Leksungnoen
- Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Kasetsart University Research and Development Institute (KURDI), Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center for Advance Studies in Tropical Natural Resources, National Research University-Kasetsart University, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Tushar Andriyas
- Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Suwimon Uthairatsamee
- Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Phruet Racharak
- Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Roger Kjelgren
- The University of Florida (UF)/Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) Department of Environmental Horticulture, Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Apopka, FL, United States
| | - Brian J. Pearson
- The University of Florida (UF)/Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) Department of Environmental Horticulture, Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Apopka, FL, United States
| | - Christopher R. McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
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Tobacyk J, Parks BJ, Lovelady N, Brents LK. Qualitative content analysis of public responses to an FDA inquiry on the impact of scheduling changes to kratom. Int J Drug Policy 2022; 108:103817. [PMID: 35952436 PMCID: PMC10243221 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2022.103817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 07/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The legal status of kratom in the United States is complex and varies by state. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration have repeatedly subjected kratom to regulatory review. However, there hasn't been a systematic review of the public's perception of kratom. The present study analyzed open-ended responses from the public to an FDA solicitation for information regarding kratom with the goal of providing a comprehensive assessment of motives for kratom use. METHODS To guide decisions regarding kratom regulation, the FDA solicited comments regarding kratom abuse potential, medical usefulness, and impact of scheduling changes from July through August 2021 and posted them to the Federal Register website. We analyzed comments posted during the first 6 weeks of comment solicitation (6,353) using an inductive approach via qualitative content analysis. RESULTS Respondents reported 106 independent health-related reasons for kratom use, with most categorized as mental health, pain management, substance use disorder, or miscellaneous purposes that included increasing focus, treating insomnia, and decreasing fatigue. Neurological diseases and digestive disorders were also reported. Relatively few (< 2%) responses reported recreational use, abuse potential, or adverse effects of kratom. CONCLUSIONS Although kratom is not approved as a safe and effective therapy for any indication, individuals use kratom for a broad spectrum of health-related purposes. Limitations of this study include potential bias for respondents with perceived positive experiences using kratom, lack of demographics data, and lack of independent verification of claims made by respondents. Regardless, this study reflects perceptions regarding the therapeutic uses of kratom and provides insight into potential individual-level consequences of regulating kratom in the U.S. It is important to study the public's perception of kratom use, which can aid regulatory purposes and provide clinically important information on individuals' use and valuation of kratom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Tobacyk
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 W. Markham Street, Mail Slot 611, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA.
| | - Brian J Parks
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 W. Markham Street, Mail Slot 611, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA
| | - Nakita Lovelady
- Department of Health Behavior and Health Education, College of Public Health, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 W. Markham Street, Mail Slot 820, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA
| | - Lisa K Brents
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 W. Markham Street, Mail Slot 611, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA
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Sim YS, Chong ZY, Azizi J, Goh CF. Development and validation of a gradient HPLC-UV method for mitragynine following in vitro skin permeation studies. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2022; 1204:123316. [PMID: 35700649 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2022.123316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Revised: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Mitragynine is a promising candidate for pain relief and opiate replacement but the investigations for drug delivery are lacking. This study aims to investigate the potential of mitragynine to be delivered through the skin with an emphasis on developing and validating a gradient HPLC-UV analytical method to determine mitragynine in the samples collected during in vitro skin permeation studies. The optimised method involves a gradient elution using a C18 column with a mobile phase comprising acetonitrile and 0.1 %v/v of formic acid (0-1 min: 30:70 to 70:30 (v/v) and hold up to 4 min; 4-6 min: return to 30:70 (v/v) and hold up to 10 min) at a flow rate of 1.2 mL/min. This method was validated based on the standards set by the International Council on Harmonisation guidelines. The method showed mitragynine elution at ∼ 4 min with adequate linearity (R2 ≥ 0.999 for concentration ranges of 0.5-10 and 10-175 μg/mL) and acceptable limits of detection and quantification at 0.47 and 1.43 μg/mL, respectively. The analytical performance is robust with excellent precision and accuracy. This method was used to evaluate the in vitro skin permeation of mitragynine (5 %w/v) from simple solvent systems over 48 hr. The results showed a cumulative amount of mitragynine permeated at ∼ 11 μg/cm2 for dimethyl sulfoxide and ∼ 4 μg/cm2 for propylene glycol. The study not only addressed the issues of the currently available HPLC-UV methods that limit the direct application but also affirmed the potential of mitragynine to be delivered through the skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yee Shan Sim
- Discipline of Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Zan Yang Chong
- Discipline of Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Juzaili Azizi
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Choon Fu Goh
- Discipline of Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia.
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Grundmann O, Veltri CA, Morcos D, Knightes D, Smith KE, Singh D, Corazza O, Cinosi E, Martinotti G, Walsh Z, Swogger MT. Exploring the self-reported motivations of kratom ( Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) use: a cross-sectional investigation. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 2022; 48:433-444. [PMID: 35389321 DOI: 10.1080/00952990.2022.2041026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Revised: 01/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Background: Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) use outside of Southeast Asia has increased over the past decade. Objectives: This investigation clarifies kratom's role in perceived well-being, overall health, and temporal correlation with drug use to understand kratom's role in the self-treatment of substance use disorders (SUDs). Methods: Between July 2019 and July 2020 an anonymous, cross-sectional, online survey was taken by 7,381 people who use kratom (PWUK) recruited through social media and other online resources. This included an assessment of (a) the relationship between self-reported overall health, concomitant use of drugs of misuse, and demographics; (b) the perceived effectiveness of kratom in self-treating diagnosed health conditions or symptoms; (c) the profile of PWUK primarily for drug dependence, pain, and mood or mental health conditions based on demographics. Results: A total of 5,152 valid responses (45.9% females/53.7% males) were collected. Kratom was primarily used for self-treating pain (73.0%) and improving emotional or mental health conditions (42.2%) without clinical supervision. Those with a SUD (synthetic opioids, methadone, benzodiazepines, or heroin) used kratom after discontinuing illicit or other drugs (94.8%). The primary substances taken before or concomitantly with kratom were cannabis, cannabidiol, benzodiazepines, or kava. PWUKs report a dose-dependent benefit for alleviating pain and relieving negative moods. Adverse effects were primarily gastrointestinal, typically at high (>5 g/dose) and frequent (>22 doses/week) dosing. Conclusions: Kratom was primarily used as a harm-reduction agent for SUDs and self-treatment of chronic conditions. Healthcare professionals need better information about kratom, its potential adverse effects, and clinically significant drug interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| | - Charles A Veltri
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| | - Diana Morcos
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| | - David Knightes
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| | - Kirsten E Smith
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Darshan Singh
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Ornella Corazza
- Department of Clinical, Pharmaceutical and Biological Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Eduardo Cinosi
- Department of Clinical, Pharmaceutical and Biological Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
- Hertfordshire Partnership University NHS Foundation Trust, St. Albans, UK
| | - Giovanni Martinotti
- Department of Clinical, Pharmaceutical and Biological Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging, Clinical Sciences, University "G.d'annunzio" of Chieti Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Zach Walsh
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Marc T Swogger
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
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Grundmann O, Hendrickson RG, Greenberg MI. Kratom: History, pharmacology, current user trends, adverse health effects and potential benefits. Dis Mon 2022; 69:101442. [PMID: 35732553 DOI: 10.1016/j.disamonth.2022.101442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) is a tree native to Southeast Asia with dose-dependent stimulant and opioid-like effects. Dried, powdered leaf material is among the kratom products most commonly consumed in the US and Europe, but other formulations also exist including enriched extracts, resins, tinctures, and edibles. Its prevalence in the US remains debated and the use pattern includes self-treatment of mood disorders, pain, and substance use disorders. Most of the adverse effects of kratom and its alkaloid mitragynine have been reported in the literature as case reports or part of surveys necessitating confirmation by clinical trials. Toxicities associated with kratom consumption have focused on hepatic, cardiac, and CNS effects with the potential to cause fatalities primarily as part of polydrug exposures. Kratom may also present with drug-drug interactions primarily through CYP 3A4 and 2D6 inhibition, although the clinical significance remains unknown to date. The variability in composition of commercially available kratom products complicates generalization of findings and requires further investigation by employing clinical trials. Healthcare professionals should remain cautious in counseling patients on the use of kratom in a therapeutic setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, 1345 Center Drive, Room P3-20, Gainesville, FL 32611, United States.
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30
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Grundmann O, McCurdy CR, Singh D, Smith KE, Swogger MT. Editorial: The Pharmacology of Kratom and Its Alkaloids. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:878376. [PMID: 35370662 PMCID: PMC8965621 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.878376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Darshan Singh
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Kirsten E Smith
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Marc T Swogger
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, United States
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Smith KE, Rogers JM, Dunn KE, Grundmann O, McCurdy CR, Schriefer D, Epstein DH. Searching for a Signal: Self-Reported Kratom Dose-Effect Relationships Among a Sample of US Adults With Regular Kratom Use Histories. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:765917. [PMID: 35300296 PMCID: PMC8921773 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.765917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
There is limited understanding regarding kratom use among US adults. Although motivations for use are increasingly understood, typical kratom doses, threshold of (low and high) doses for perceived effectiveness, and effects produced during cessation are not well documented. We aimed to extend prior survey work by recruiting adults with current and past kratom exposure. Our goal was to better understand kratom dosing, changes in routines, and perception of effects, including time to onset, duration, and variability of beneficial and adverse outcomes from use and cessation. Among respondents who reported experiencing acute kratom effects, we also sought to determine if effects were perceived as helpful or unhelpful in meeting daily obligations. Finally, we attempted to detect any signal of a relationship between the amount of kratom consumed weekly and weeks of regular use with ratings of beneficial effects from use and ratings of adverse effects from cessation. We conducted an online survey between April-May 2021 by re-recruiting participants from a separate study who reported lifetime kratom use. A total of 129 evaluable surveys were collected. Most (59.7%) had used kratom >100 times and reported currently or having previously used kratom >4 times per week (62 weeks on average). Under half (41.9%) reported that they considered themselves to be a current "regular kratom user." A majority (79.8%) reported experiencing acute effects from their typical kratom dose and that onset of effects began in minutes but dissipated within hours. Over a quarter reported that they had increased their kratom dose since use initiation, whereas 18.6% had decreased. Greater severity of unwanted effects from ≥1 day of kratom cessation was predicted by more weeks of regular kratom use (β = 6.74, p = 0.02). Acute kratom effects were largely reported as compatible with, and sometimes helpful in, meeting daily obligations. In the absence of human laboratory studies, survey methods must be refined to more precisely assess dose-effect relationships. These can help inform the development of controlled observational and experimental studies needed to advance the public health understanding of kratom product use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten E Smith
- Real-World Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Jeffrey M Rogers
- Real-World Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Kelly E Dunn
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Destiny Schriefer
- Real-World Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - David H Epstein
- Real-World Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
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Nukitram J, Cheaha D, Sengnon N, Wungsintaweekul J, Limsuwanchote S, Kumarnsit E. Ameliorative effects of alkaloid extract from Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil. Leaves on methamphetamine conditioned place preference in mice. J Ethnopharmacol 2022; 284:114824. [PMID: 34763040 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2021.114824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil., popularly known as Kratom (KT), is a medicinal plant used for pain suppression in Southeast Asia. It has been claimed to assist drug users withdraw from methamphetamine (METH) dependence. However, its use was controversial and not approved yet. AIM OF THE STUDY This study was conducted to characterize local field potential (LFP) patterns in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and the hippocampus (HP) in mice with METH conditioned place preference (CPP) that were treated with KT alkaloid extract. MATERIALS AND METHODS Male Swiss albino ICR mice were implanted with intracraneal electrodes into the NAc and HP. To induce METH CPP, animals were injected intraperitoneally once a day with METH (1 mg/kg) and saline (0.9% w/v) alternately and put into METH/saline compartments to experience the associations between drug/saline injection and the unique environmental contexts for 10 sessions. Control group received saline injection paired with both saline/saline compartments. On post-conditioning day, effects of 40 (KT40), 80 (KT80) mg/kg KT alkaloid extract and 20 mg/kg bupropion (BP) on CPP scores and LFP powers and NAc-HP coherence were tested. RESULTS Two-way ANOVA revealed significant induction of CPP by METH sessions (P < 0.01). Multiple comparisons indicated that METH CPP was completely abolished by KT80 (P < 0.001). NAc gamma I (30.0-44.9 Hz) and HP delta (1.0-3.9 Hz) powers were significantly increased in mice with METH CPP (P < 0.01). The elevated NAc gamma I was significantly suppressed by KT80 (P < 0.05) and the increased HP delta was significantly reversed by KT40 (P < 0.01) and KT80 (P < 0.001). In addition, NAc-HP coherence was also significantly increased in gamma I (30.0-44.9 Hz) frequency range (P < 0.05) but it was reversed by KT80 (P < 0.05). Treatment with BP did not produce significant effect on these parameters. CONCLUSIONS These findings demonstrated that KT alkaloid extract significantly reversed CPP scores and LFP patterns induced by METH administration. The ameliorative effects of the extract might be beneficial for treatment of METH craving and addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakkrit Nukitram
- Physiology Program, Division of Health and Applied Sciences, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand; Biosignal Research Center for Health, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand
| | - Dania Cheaha
- Biology Program, Division of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand; Biosignal Research Center for Health, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand
| | - Narumon Sengnon
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand
| | - Juraithip Wungsintaweekul
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand
| | - Supattra Limsuwanchote
- Pharmacology Program, Division of Health and Applied Sciences, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand
| | - Ekkasit Kumarnsit
- Physiology Program, Division of Health and Applied Sciences, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand; Biosignal Research Center for Health, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand.
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Tungphatthong C, Phadungcharoen T, Sooksawate T, Sukrong S. PCR combined with lateral flow immunochromatographic assay to differentiate the narcotic Mitragyna speciosa from related species and detect it in forensic evidence. Forensic Sci Int 2021; 331:111149. [PMID: 34933184 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.111149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Plants in the genus Mitragyna (Rubiaceae) are used in traditional medicine because of their broad therapeutic activity. Four Mitragyna species, M. speciosa (Roxb.) Korth. (MS), M. rotundifolia (Roxb.) Kuntze (MR), M. diversifolia (Wall. ex G. Don) Havil. (MD), and M. hirsuta Havil. (MH), occur in Thailand. M. speciosa, commonly known as 'Kratom' in Thai, is the only narcotic species for which buying, selling, importing or possessing has been prohibited by law in Thailand and some other countries. Mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine, the major psychoactive compounds, are important in the treatment of opioid withdrawal. However, this species is used in traditional medicine to relieve pain and inflammation. Consequently, a rapid and easy technique for differentiating M. speciosa from closely related species is needed for routine forensic analysis. In this study, polymerase chain reaction coupled with lateral flow immunochromatographic assay (PCR-LFA) based on matK was developed for the detection of M. speciosa in forensic specimens. Duplex primers (MS-F-FAM, Ctrl-F-DIG and Ctrl-R-Biotin) were designed based on species-specific nucleotide indels observed exclusively in the matK sequences of M. speciosa. Positive results for M. speciosa are indicated by the clear presence of three black lines on the lateral flow cassette. Forensic samples were investigated, and the three black test lines indicating M. speciosa were observed for seven of eight specimens. PCR-LFA has been proven to be fast, easy and efficient for detecting the narcotic M. speciosa and could be developed as a rapid forensic diagnostic technique for other plants.
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Hanapi NA, Chear NJY, Azizi J, Yusof SR. Kratom Alkaloids: Interactions With Enzymes, Receptors, and Cellular Barriers. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:751656. [PMID: 34867362 PMCID: PMC8637859 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.751656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Parallel to the growing use of kratom, there is a wealth of evidence from self-report, preclinical, and early clinical studies on therapeutic benefits of its alkaloids in particular for treating pain, managing substance use disorder, and coping with emotional or mental health conditions. On the other hand, there are also reports on potential health risks concerning kratom use. These two aspects are often discussed in reviews on kratom. Here, we aim to highlight specific areas that are of importance to give insights into the mechanistic of kratom alkaloids pharmacological actions. This includes their interactions with drug-metabolizing enzymes and predictions of clinical drug-drug interactions, receptor-binding properties, interactions with cellular barriers in regards to barrier permeability, involvement of membrane transporters, and alteration of barrier function when exposed to the alkaloids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Aziah Hanapi
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
| | | | - Juzaili Azizi
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
| | - Siti R Yusof
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
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Halim SA, Low JH, Chee YC, Alias MR. Seizures among young adults consuming kratom beverages in Malaysia: A case series. Epilepsy Behav 2021; 121:108057. [PMID: 34052638 DOI: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2021.108057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Revised: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We report a case series of young adults who were admitted to hospital with seizures after regular kratom beverage consumption. This study aimed to determine kratom consumption habits and seizure characteristics and to explore whether chronic kratom ingestion without concomitant drug abuse leads to recurrent seizure or epilepsy. All patients underwent blood investigations, a brain computed tomography (CT) scan, electroencephalography, and urine testing for mitragynine and drug toxicology. Eleven participants who had a positive urine mitragynine test were included in the study. The longest duration of kratom consumption was 84 months: - most drank more than eight times per month (>200 mL/drink). Seizure developed within 10 minutes or up to 72 hours post-ingestion. Seizure occurred one to three times per year in most cases. Four patients had a focal to bilateral tonic-clonic seizure whereas the remaining participants had a generalized tonic-clonic seizure. Four patients mixed kratom with diphenhydramine syrup, and one patient took methamphetamine. Two patients had positive urine results for recreational drugs (opioid and amphetamine). This study provided indirect evidence that chronic kratom use with or without concomitant drug abuse can cause recurrent seizures in susceptible individuals, which may progress to epilepsy or require antiepileptic medication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanihah Abdul Halim
- Department of Internal Medicine (Neurology), School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia; Brain and Behaviour Cluster, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia; Hospital Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia.
| | - Jen Hou Low
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia; Hospital Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Yong Chuan Chee
- Department of Internal Medicine (Neurology), School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia; Hospital Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Muhamad Ridzuan Alias
- Department of Neurosciences, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
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36
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Goh YS, Karunakaran T, Murugaiyah V, Santhanam R, Abu Bakar MH, Ramanathan S. Accelerated Solvent Extractions (ASE) of Mitragyna speciosa Korth. (Kratom) Leaves: Evaluation of Its Cytotoxicity and Antinociceptive Activity. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26123704. [PMID: 34204457 PMCID: PMC8234130 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26123704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa Korth (kratom) is known for its psychoactive and analgesic properties. Mitragynine is the primary constituent present in kratom leaves. This study highlights the utilisation of the green accelerated solvent extraction technique to produce a better, non-toxic and antinociceptive active botanical extract of kratom. ASE M. speciosa extract had a dry yield (0.53–2.91 g) and showed a constant mitragynine content (6.53–7.19%) when extracted with organic solvents of different polarities. It only requires a shorter extraction time (5 min) and a reduced amount of solvents (less than 100 mL). A substantial amount of total phenolic (407.83 ± 2.50 GAE mg/g and flavonoids (194.00 ± 5.00 QE mg/g) were found in ASE kratom ethanol extract. The MTT test indicated that the ASE kratom ethanolic leaf extract is non-cytotoxic towards HEK-293 and HeLa Chang liver cells. In mice, ASE kratom ethanolic extract (200 mg/kg) demonstrated a better antinociceptive effect compared to methanol and ethyl acetate leaf extracts. The presence of bioactive indole alkaloids and flavonols such as mitragynine, paynantheine, quercetin, and rutin in ASE kratom ethanolic leaf extract was detected using UHPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS analysis supports its antinociceptive properties. ASE ethanolic leaf extract offers a better, safe, and cost-effective choice of test botanical extract for further preclinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Sean Goh
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Gelugor 11800 USM, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia; (Y.S.G.); (S.R.)
| | - Thiruventhan Karunakaran
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Gelugor 11800 USM, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia; (Y.S.G.); (S.R.)
- School of Chemical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Gelugor 11800 USM, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +604-6533287
| | - Vikneswaran Murugaiyah
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Gelugor 11800 USM, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia;
| | - Rameshkumar Santhanam
- BioSES Research Interest Group, Faculty of Science and Marine Environment, Universiti MalaysiaTerengganu, Kuala Nerus 21030, Terengganu, Malaysia;
| | - Mohamad Hafizi Abu Bakar
- Bioprocess Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Gelugor 11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia;
| | - Surash Ramanathan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Gelugor 11800 USM, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia; (Y.S.G.); (S.R.)
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Abstract
Kratom is an herbal supplement that has gained popularity for recreational use within the United States. Kratom exerts opioid-like effects and, although not US FDA approved, is commonly used for self-treatment of pain, withdrawal management from opioids, and euphoria. Drug-related hepatic injury has been associated with kratom use. All of this raises concern for patient safety and monitoring. The potential for additive liver toxicity must be considered when kratom is used concurrently with hepatotoxic, over-the-counter, herbal, and prescription medications. This case report describes a case of kratom-induced liver inflammation complicated by opioid withdrawal that was precipitated by initiation of IM naltrexone. To our knowledge, there are no published case reports related to opioid withdrawal following naltrexone administration in patients using kratom (without other opioids). The purpose of this case report is to demonstrate potential complications that may arise with kratom use and considerations that should be taken prior to initiation of naltrexone in kratom users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aimee N Jensen
- PGY-2 Pharmacy Administration and Leadership Resident, Bay Pines VA Healthcare System, Department of Veterans Affairs, Bay Pines, Florida.,PGY-1 Pharmacy Practice Resident, Bay Pines VA Healthcare System, Department of Veterans Affairs, Bay Pines, Florida.,Psychiatrist, Bay Pines VA Healthcare System, Department of Veterans Affairs, Bay Pines, Florida
| | - Quynh-Nhu Truong
- PGY-2 Pharmacy Administration and Leadership Resident, Bay Pines VA Healthcare System, Department of Veterans Affairs, Bay Pines, Florida
| | - Melanie Jameson
- PGY-1 Pharmacy Practice Resident, Bay Pines VA Healthcare System, Department of Veterans Affairs, Bay Pines, Florida
| | - Celeste N Nadal
- Psychiatrist, Bay Pines VA Healthcare System, Department of Veterans Affairs, Bay Pines, Florida
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La-Up A, Saengow U, Aramrattana A. High serum high-density lipoprotein and low serum triglycerides in Kratom users: A study of Kratom users in Thailand. Heliyon 2021; 7:e06931. [PMID: 33997428 PMCID: PMC8102425 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective The present study aims to examine the association between Kratom use and serum lipid level. Method This study compared the serum lipid profile of Kratom users and non-users living in Nam Phu Subdistrict, a special area that allows the traditional use of Kratom. The study subjects consisted of 581 individuals aged 18 and above. Binary logistic regression was used to determine an association between Kratom use and serum lipid level. Results The findings revealed an association between Kratom use and an elevated HDL level (≥60 mg/dL) with an adjusted OR of 1.82 (95% CI, 1.17-2.8), and an association between Kratom use and a triglyceride level <90 mg/dL with an adjusted OR of 1.75 (95% CI; 1.17-2.63). There were no associations between Kratom use and LDL as well as total cholesterol level. Discussion and conclusions This study provided additional evidence of Kratom use and a favorable lipid profile. Prevention of coronary heart disease or cerebrovascular disease via an improvement in the lipid profile may be a future pharmaceutical application of Kratom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aroon La-Up
- School of Public Health, Walailak University, 222 Thai Buri, Tha Sala, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
| | - Udomsak Saengow
- School of Medicine, Walailak University, 222 Thai Buri, Tha Sala, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand.,Center of Excellence in Data Science for Health Study, 222 Thai Buri, Tha Sala, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand.,Research Institute for Health Sciences, 222 Thai Buri, Tha Sala, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
| | - Apinun Aramrattana
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Family Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Northern Substance Abuse Center, Department of Family Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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Brose J, Lau KH, Dang TTT, Hamilton JP, Martins LDV, Hamberger B, Hamberger B, Jiang J, O’Connor SE, Buell CR. The Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom) Genome: a resource for data-mining potent pharmaceuticals that impact human health. G3 (Bethesda) 2021; 11:jkab058. [PMID: 33677570 PMCID: PMC8759815 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkab058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) produces numerous compounds with pharmaceutical properties including the production of bioactive monoterpene indole and oxindole alkaloids. Using a linked-read approach, a 1,122,519,462 bp draft assembly of M. speciosa "Rifat" was generated with an N50 scaffold size of 1,020,971 bp and an N50 contig size of 70,448 bp that encodes 55,746 genes. Chromosome counting revealed that "Rifat" is a tetraploid with a base chromosome number of 11, which was further corroborated by orthology and syntenic analysis of the genome. Analysis of genes and clusters involved in specialized metabolism revealed genes putatively involved in alkaloid biosynthesis. Access to the genome of M. speciosa will facilitate an improved understanding of alkaloid biosynthesis and accelerate the production of bioactive alkaloids in heterologous hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Brose
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Kin H Lau
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Thu Thuy Thi Dang
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia Okanagan, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - John P Hamilton
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Lívia do Vale Martins
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
- Departamento de Genética, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE 50670-901, Brazil
| | - Britta Hamberger
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Bjoern Hamberger
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Jiming Jiang
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
- Department of Horticulture, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
- MSU AgBioResearch, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Sarah E O’Connor
- Department of Natural Product Biosynthesis, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - C Robin Buell
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
- MSU AgBioResearch, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
- Plant Resilience Institute, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
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Ghazalli MN, Md Sah MS, Mat M, Awang K, Jaafar MA, Mirad R, Zaini AZ, Nordin ARM, Rusli NM, Mohamad SS, Dalee ASM. Leaf Anatomy and Micromorphology Characteristics of Ketum [ Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil.] (Rubiaceae). Trop Life Sci Res 2021; 32:107-117. [PMID: 33936554 PMCID: PMC8054664 DOI: 10.21315/tlsr2021.32.1.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil. or locally known as ketum/daun sebiak/biak-biak belongs to Rubiaceae family and generally occurs in secondary forest or disturbed areas in tropical and subtropical region. This research enumerated the characterisation of Mitragyna speciosa leaf anatomy and micromorphology features which is still not well documented. This medium to large sized tree species characterised with opposite arrangement, ovate-acuminate leaf and with 12–17 pairs of veins. Transverse sections of petioles showed that this species has petiole outlines with slightly convex at the middle of the adaxial part and ‘U’-shaped on abaxial side. Results also showed that this species has paracytic and hypostomatic stomata, combination of non-glandular (majority) and glandular trichomes (minority), with observation on the secretory cells present in petiole and midrib parenchyma cells. Cuticle on the abaxial and adaxial epidermal surfaces showed the presence granule and wax films with periclinal and anticlinal walls can be differentiated clearly. The results obtained in this study can be used to providing additional systematics information of Mitragyna speciosa with the documentation of the leaf anatomy and micromorphology characters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Norfaizal Ghazalli
- Resource Utilisation and Agrobiodiversity Conservation Programme (BE2), Agrobiodiversity and Environment Research Centre, MARDI Headquarters, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Muhammad Shafie Md Sah
- Resource Utilisation and Agrobiodiversity Conservation Programme (BE2), Agrobiodiversity and Environment Research Centre, MARDI Headquarters, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Mazidah Mat
- Pest and Diseases Programme (IC3), Industrial Crops Research Centre, MARDI Headquarters, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Khadijah Awang
- Breeding Programme (IC1), Industrial Crops Research Centre, MARDI Headquarters, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Azwan Jaafar
- Agri-Omics and Bioinformatics Programme (BN1), Biotechnology and Nanotechnology Research Centre, MARDI Headquarters, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Razali Mirad
- Resource Utilisation and Agrobiodiversity Conservation Programme (BE2), Agrobiodiversity and Environment Research Centre, MARDI Headquarters, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Ahmad Zaki Zaini
- Electron Microscopy Unit, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Anuar Rasyidi Mohd Nordin
- Resource Utilisation and Agrobiodiversity Conservation Programme (BE2), Agrobiodiversity and Environment Research Centre, MARDI Headquarters, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Nurshahidah Mohd Rusli
- Resource Utilisation and Agrobiodiversity Conservation Programme (BE2), Agrobiodiversity and Environment Research Centre, MARDI Headquarters, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Siti Sofiah Mohamad
- Breeding Programme (IC1), Industrial Crops Research Centre, MARDI Headquarters, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Ahmad Syahman Mohd Dalee
- Breeding Programme (IC1), Industrial Crops Research Centre, MARDI Headquarters, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
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Ng JY, Ans M, Marwaha A. Assessing the quality of information provided on websites selling Kratom ( Mitragyna speciosa) to consumers in Canada. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2021; 16:23. [PMID: 33741009 PMCID: PMC7977165 DOI: 10.1186/s13011-021-00361-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Background Amid a Canadian opioid crisis, many have turned to natural health products, such as kratom (Mitragyna speciosa), to manage their opioid withdrawal. Kratom has also been reported to relieve anxiety, improve stamina, and heighten physical performance. Given that kratom is not authorized for sale by Health Canada, many have turned to online retailers to purchase kratom due to its easy accessibility online. This study investigated the quality of consumer health information provided on the websites of online vendors selling kratom to consumers in Canada. Methods Following searches on Google.ca using search terms designed to simulate the information-seeking behaviour of a typical patient-user online, eligible websites were assessed using the 16-question DISCERN instrument, a tool designed to assess the quality of consumer health information. Searches were conducted on March 27, 2020 and only websites presenting information in English were included. Results A total of 200 webpages were identified; after screening based on eligibility criteria and combining different webpages that belonged to the same website, 51 websites were found to be eligible. The mean summed DISCERN score across all 51 websites was 36.95 (SD = 2.44) out of 75, which reflects poor quality consumer health information across the subset of websites. The overall quality of websites was poor, as 78% (n = 40) of vendors received a score of 2 or less out of 5. Conclusions Individuals who seek information about kratom online are frequently exposed to poor quality consumer health information. Those looking to purchase kratom online are not provided with the critical information necessary to make an informed decision regarding its use, such as the complete details about the risks and side effects or a description of how kratom affects the body. Given the growing interest in kratom, knowledge of the quality of information available can lead to improved dialogue between healthcare providers and patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy Y Ng
- Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence, and Impact, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Michael G. DeGroote Centre for Learning and Discovery, Room 2112, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada.
| | - Muhammad Ans
- Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence, and Impact, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Michael G. DeGroote Centre for Learning and Discovery, Room 2112, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Amn Marwaha
- Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence, and Impact, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Michael G. DeGroote Centre for Learning and Discovery, Room 2112, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada
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Schimmel J, Amioka E, Rockhill K, Haynes CM, Black JC, Dart RC, Iwanicki JL. Prevalence and description of kratom ( Mitragyna speciosa) use in the United States: a cross-sectional study. Addiction 2021; 116:176-181. [PMID: 32285981 DOI: 10.1111/add.15082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Revised: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Mitragyna speciosa ('kratom') contains mu opioid partial agonists. It is widely available, and occasionally used as a home remedy for opioid use disorder. The Drug Enforcement Agency considers kratom a drug of concern; however, prevalence of use and role in drug misuse are unknown. This study aimed to characterize kratom use in the United States. DESIGN Cross-sectional Survey of Non-Medical Use of Prescription Drugs (NMURx) Program, 2018 third quarter and 2019 first quarter. SETTING A validated non-probability online survey in the United States. PARTICIPANTS A total of 59 714 respondents aged 18 years or older, weighted to represent the adult US population (n = 252 063 800). MEASUREMENTS In addition to prevalence of past-year kratom and other drug use, behavior proportions were estimated. The Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST-10) estimated consequences of drug abuse. FINDINGS The estimated prevalence of past-year kratom use in the adult US population was 0.8% [95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.7-0.9], representing 2 031 803 adults. Life-time prevalence was 1.3% (95% CI = 1.2-1.4), representing 3 353 624 adults. Kratom users were younger (mean 35 years, P < 0.001), with higher proportions of males (61.0 versus 48.6%, P < 0.001), students (14.1 versus 7.5%, P < 0.001) and health-care professionals (9.7 versus 4.5%, P < 0.001) and fewer bachelor's/advanced degree graduates (33.4 versus 42.6%, P < 0.001) compared with non-users. Results were inconclusive on whether there was a difference in kratom use by race, household income or employment status. Among those with past-year kratom use, 36.7% (95% CI = 32.1-41.3) non-medically used prescription opioids, 21.7% (95% CI = 18.0-25.5) used illicit opioids, 54.4% (95% CI = 49.5-59.3) used another illicit drug and 67.1% (95% CI = 62.5-71.8) used cannabis. The DAST-10 profile was more often substantial/severe in kratom users (21 versus 1%, P < 0.001) compared with non-users. CONCLUSIONS Estimated United States past-year prevalence of kratom use is 0.8%, and kratom users tend to have more serious substance abuse profiles than non-users or users of cannabis, alcohol or cigarettes. To our knowledge, this is the first description of kratom use at the national level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Schimmel
- Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Safety, Denver Health and Hospital Authority, Denver, CO, USA.,Department of Emergency Medicine, Division of Medical Toxicology, Mount Sinai Hospital Icahn School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Elise Amioka
- Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Safety, Denver Health and Hospital Authority, Denver, CO, USA
| | - Karilynn Rockhill
- Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Safety, Denver Health and Hospital Authority, Denver, CO, USA
| | - Colleen M Haynes
- Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Safety, Denver Health and Hospital Authority, Denver, CO, USA
| | - Joshua C Black
- Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Safety, Denver Health and Hospital Authority, Denver, CO, USA
| | - Richard C Dart
- Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Safety, Denver Health and Hospital Authority, Denver, CO, USA
| | - Janetta L Iwanicki
- Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Safety, Denver Health and Hospital Authority, Denver, CO, USA
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Abstract
In Japan, mitragynine, 7-hydroxymitragynine and Mitragyna speciosa Korth. (M. speciosa, "Kratom") were controlled as Designated Substances under the Pharmaceutical and Medical Device Act from March 2016. In this study, the origins of 16 Kratom products obtained from the illegal drug market in Japan were investigated by DNA analyses and LC-MS analyses. When the PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) was performed using the restriction enzyme XmaI (as reported by Sukrong et al. to be able to distinguish M. speciosa), the same DNA fragment patterns were obtained from all 16 products. On the other hand, as a result of the identification of the plant species of each product by nucleotide sequence analyses, the sequences of M. speciosa were detected in only 14 products. Despite the facts that mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine were detected also in the other two products by the LC-MS analyses, M. speciosa DNAs were not amplified from these products by the PCR. Moreover, the DNA amplicons of the other psychotropic plant (Mesembryanthemum sp., e.g. "Kanna") were detected. This plant PCR amplicon has the restriction site for the XmaI at the same position of the M. speciosa PCR amplicon and it is difficult to distinguish "Kratom" and "Kanna" by the conventional PCR-RFLP. When the restriction enzyme XhoI was used simultaneously with the Xmal, the specific DNA fragment was only observed from the M. speciosa amplicon and it was possible to distinguish both species using this improved PCR-RFLP method. This method is useful to identify the origin of Kratom products distributed in the illegal drug market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Ogata
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry and Narcotics, National Institute of Health Sciences
| | - Maiko Kawamura
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry and Narcotics, National Institute of Health Sciences
| | - Takashi Hakamatsuka
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry and Narcotics, National Institute of Health Sciences
| | - Ruri Kikura-Hanajiri
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry and Narcotics, National Institute of Health Sciences
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Davidson C, Cao D, King T, Weiss ST, Wongvisavakorn S, Ratprasert N, Trakulsrichai S, Srisuma S. A comparative analysis of kratom exposure cases in Thailand and the United States from 2010-2017. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 2020; 47:74-83. [PMID: 33232183 DOI: 10.1080/00952990.2020.1836185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Background: Interest in the Southeast Asian natural remedy kratom has increased in Western countries recently, along with increasing concern over its potential toxic effects.Objective: To describe and compare demographics, common co-exposure substances, clinical effects, treatments, and medical outcomes of kratom "abuse" exposures in the United States (US) and Thailand.Methods: This is a retrospective analysis of kratom "abuse" exposures, defined as use when attempting to gain a psychotropic effect, reported to the National Poison Data System (NPDS) in the US and the Ramathibodi Poison Center (RPC) in Thailand from 2010 to 2017. Multivariate analysis identified risk factors for severe medical outcomes, defined as both ICU admissions and death.Results: Nine-hundred-twenty-eight cases were included (760 from NPDS and 168 from RPC). A greater proportion of cases involved co-exposures in Thailand (64.8% versus 37.4%; odds ratio [OR] = 3.10, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.15-4.47, p < .01). Both countries had a similar prevalence of opioid and benzodiazepine co-ingestions, but the US had more co-ingestions with other sedatives (4.6% versus 0%, OR = 0, 95% CI = 0-0.47, p < .01). Common clinical effects included tachycardia (30.4%), agitation/irritability (26.2%), and drowsiness/lethargy (21.1%). Six deaths occurred, including one single-substance exposure in the US, three multiple-substance exposures in the US, and two multiple-substance exposures in Thailand. Severe medical outcomes were reported more frequently in the US (OR = 18.82, 95% CI = 5.85-60.56, p < .01).Conclusions: Despite lower frequencies of co-ingestants overall, US kratom abuse exposures yielded greater clinical severity. This disparity may be attributable to differences in the products labeled "kratom," greater sedative co-exposures in the US, and/or differences in population genetics or use patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Davidson
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Division of Medical Toxicology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Dazhe Cao
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Division of Medical Toxicology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.,North Texas Poison Center, Parkland Health and Hospital System, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Taylore King
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Division of Medical Toxicology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Stephanie T Weiss
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Division of Medical Toxicology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.,North Texas Poison Center, Parkland Health and Hospital System, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Sunun Wongvisavakorn
- Ramathibodi Poison Center, Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Natthasiri Ratprasert
- Ramathibodi Poison Center, Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Satariya Trakulsrichai
- Ramathibodi Poison Center, Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Sahaphume Srisuma
- Ramathibodi Poison Center, Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
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45
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.,Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.,Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.,Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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46
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Berthold EC, Kamble SH, Raju KS, King TI, Popa R, Sharma A, León F, Avery BA, McMahon LR, McCurdy CR. Preclinical pharmacokinetic study of speciociliatine, a kratom alkaloid, in rats using an UPLC-MS/MS method. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2020; 194:113778. [PMID: 33277117 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2020.113778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Speciociliatine is a minor indole alkaloid found in kratom, a southeast Asian medicinal plant, used for centuries to increase energy, enhance mood, and mitigate pain and opioid dependence. An ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method was developed and validated to quantify speciociliatine in rat plasma. The quantitation range was 3-600 ng/mL. The validated method was applied to a preclinical pharmacokinetic study in male Sprague-Dawley rats after 2.5 mg/kg intravenous (I.V.) and 20 mg/kg oral (P.O.) dosing. The plasma was analyzed to obtain concentration-time profiles and results were subjected to non-compartmental analysis to determine pharmacokinetic parameters including volume of distribution (6.2 ± 2.3 L/kg I.V.), clearance (0.7 ± 0.2 L/hr/kg), and absolute oral bioavailability (20.7 %). Speciociliatine had higher systemic exposure and lower clearance compared to the other kratom alkaloids mitragynine and corynantheidine. The speciociliatine pharmacokinetic parameters described here will help to better understand the overall effects reported with kratom product use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin C Berthold
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Shyam H Kamble
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Kanumuri S Raju
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Tamara I King
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Raluca Popa
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Francisco León
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Bonnie A Avery
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Lance R McMahon
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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47
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Abstract
Commercially available Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) is a dietary supplement that has gained popularity in the United States for its psychoactive effects and potential medicative properties as an opioid receptor agonist. Likewise, sudden discontinuation may be accompanied by an opioid-like withdrawal. We present the first case in the literature of the withdrawal manifesting in disturbing obsessive thoughts after the substance was used as an opioid replacement treatment by our patient, as well as the first case where lorazepam is utilized for mitigation of these thoughts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibrahim M Sablaban
- Department of Psychiatry, Henry Ford Hospital/Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Mohan Gautam
- Department of Psychiatry, Henry Ford Hospital/Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
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48
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Abstract
PURPOSE This article presents updated information on kratom (Mitragyna speciosa), a natural opioid with stimulant properties that is currently sold in the United States without a prescription. SUMMARY Kratom exerts opioid and alpha-2 agonistic effects, as well as anti-inflammatory and mild stimulant effects. Respiratory depression has not been commonly reported, but kratom does cause a host of adverse effects. While kratom may have a role in patients who are in chronic pain or dependent on opioid painkillers or heroin, this needs to be established in clinical trials. Kratom may have drug interactions as both a cytochrome P-450 system substrate and inhibitor. Kratom does not appear in normal drug screens and, especially when ingested with other substances of abuse, may not be recognized as an agent of harm. There are numerous cases of death in kratom users, but many involved polypharmaceutical ingestions. There are assessments where people have been unable to stop using kratom therapy and withdrawal signs/symptoms occurred in patients or their newborn babies after kratom cessation. Both banning and failure to ban kratom places people at risk; a middle-ground alternative, placing it behind the pharmacy counter, might be useful. CONCLUSION Kratom has a unique pharmacologic profile that might offer advantages over other opioids, but its high abuse liability, potential for drug interactions and adverse events, and inadequate research into the balance of benefits to harm are concerning. There is mounting information on the adverse events associated with kratom use and potential treatments that can be useful to clinicians.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Michael White
- University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy, Storrs, CT, and Department of Pharmacy, Hartford Hospital, Hartford, CT
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49
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Garcia-Romeu A, Cox DJ, Smith KE, Dunn KE, Griffiths RR. Kratom ( Mitragyna speciosa): User demographics, use patterns, and implications for the opioid epidemic. Drug Alcohol Depend 2020; 208:107849. [PMID: 32029298 PMCID: PMC7423016 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.107849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Revised: 01/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Kratom, a Southeast Asian plant with opioid-receptor mediated effects, has emerged as a potential substance of abuse, with limited data on its use and effects. This study characterized kratom user demographics, use patterns, and perceived drug effects. METHODS A cross-sectional, anonymous online survey was conducted between January and December 2017. RESULTS 2,798 kratom users - mean age 40 (SD = 12); predominantly White (90 %), female (61 %), and located in the US (97 %) - completed the survey. Kratom was primarily taken orally in doses of 1-3 g (49 %), with daily use (59 %) being most common. Kratom was used for pain (91 %), anxiety (67 %), and depression (65 %), with high ratings of effectiveness. 1,144 (41 %) used kratom to stop or reduce prescription or illicit opioid use, citing decreased opioid withdrawal and craving related to kratom use, with 411 reporting >1-year continuous abstinence from opioids attributed to kratom use. Roughly one-third of respondents reported adverse effects of kratom, largely rated as mild in severity and lasting ≤24 h. Seventeen participants (0.6 %) sought treatment for adverse effects. Fifty-six individuals (2 %) met DSM-5 criteria for a past-year moderate or severe kratom-related substance use disorder (SUD). When asked how troubled they felt regarding their kratom use, the mean (SD) rating was 3.2 (9.8) on a scale from 0 to 100. CONCLUSION Kratom is used among White, middle-aged Americans for symptoms of pain, anxiety, depression, and opioid withdrawal. Although regular use was typical, kratom-related SUD and serious adverse effects were uncommon. Additional research on kratom epidemiology and pharmacology is imperative in light of the present opioid epidemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Garcia-Romeu
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - David J Cox
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Kirsten E Smith
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, USA.
| | - Kelly E Dunn
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Roland R Griffiths
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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50
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Abstract
The psychoactive plant kratom is a native plant to Southeast Asia, and its major bioactive alkaloid is mitragynine. Mitragynine exerts its analgesic properties by acting on the opioid receptors. One of its active metabolites, 7-hydroxymytraginine, is found to be 40 times more potent than mitragynine and 10 times more potent than morphine. Interestingly, current research suggests that mitragynine behaves as an atypical opioid agonist, possessing analgesic activity with less severe side effects than those of typical opioids. Although Thailand and Malaysia have criminalized the use, possession, growing, or selling of kratom due to its abuse potential, kratom still remains unregulated in the United States. The U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) listed kratom as a "drug of concern" in 2008 with the intent to temporarily place mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine onto Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act. However, responses from the general public, U.S. Congress, and Kratom Alliances had the DEA retract their intent. Kratom is currently marketed in the United States as a dietary or herbal supplement used to treat chronic pain, anxiety, and depression with over $207 million in annual sales in the United States alone. Here, we will review the traditional and medicinal uses of kratom along with the synthesis of its bioactive ingredients and their pharmacology, metabolism, and structure-activity relationships. The importance in society of this currently controversial substance will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changho Han
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Joza Schmitt
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Kristen M Gilliland
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
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