Advancing Adolescent and Young Adult HIV Prevention and Care and Treatment Through Use of Multi-level Theories and Frameworks: A Scoping Review and Adapted HIV Ecological Framework

While multi-level theories and frameworks have become a cornerstone in broader efforts to address HIV inequities, little is known regarding their application in adolescent and young adult (AYA) HIV research. To address this gap, we conducted a scoping review to assess the use and application of multi-level theories and frameworks in AYA HIV prevention and care and treatment empirical research. We systematically searched five databases for articles published between 2010 and May 2020, screened abstracts, and reviewed eligible full-text articles for inclusion. Of the 5890 citations identified, 1706 underwent full-text review and 88 met the inclusion criteria: 70 focused on HIV prevention, with only 14 on care and treatment, 2 on both HIV prevention and care and treatment, and 2 on HIV-affected AYA. Most authors described the theory-based multi-level framework as informing their data analysis, with only 12 describing it as informing/guiding an intervention. More than seventy different multi-level theories were described, with 38% utilizing socio-ecological models or the eco-developmental theory. Findings were used to inform the adaptation of an AYA World Health Organization multi-level framework specifically to guide AYA HIV research.

Acceptability and tolerability of long-acting injectable cabotegravir or rilpivirine in the first cohort of virologically suppressed adolescents living with HIV (IMPAACT 2017/MOCHA): a secondary analysis of a phase 1/2, multicentre, open-label, non-comparative dose-finding study

BACKGROUND

Long-acting injectable cabotegravir and rilpivirine have demonstrated safety, acceptability, and efficacy in adults living with HIV-1. The IMPAACT 2017 study (MOCHA study) was the first to use these injectable formulations in adolescents (aged 12-17 years) living with HIV-1. Herein, we report acceptability and tolerability outcomes in cohort 1 of the study.

METHODS

In this a secondary analysis of a phase 1/2, multicentre, open-label, non-comparative dose-finding study, with continuation of pre-study oral combination antiretroviral treatment (ART), 55 adolescents living with HIV-1 were enrolled to receive sequential doses of either long-acting cabotegravir or rilpivirine and 52 received at least two injections. Participants had a body weight greater than 35 kg and BMI less than 31·5 kg/m2 and had been on stable ART for at least 90 consecutive days with an HIV-1 viral load of less than 50 copies per mL at a participating IMPAACT study site. Participants had to be willing to continue their pre-study ART during cohort 1. The primary objectives of the study were to confirm doses for oral and injectable cabotegravir and for injectable rilpivirine in adolescents living with HIV. This analysis of participant-reported outcomes included a face scale assessment of pain at each injection and a Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQL) at baseline and week 16 for participants in the USA, South Africa, Botswana, and Thailand. A subset of 11 adolescents and 11 parents or caregivers in the USA underwent in-depth interviews after receipt of one or two injections. This trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03497676.

FINDINGS

Between March 19, 2019, and Nov 25, 2021, 55 participants were enrolled into cohort 1. Using the six-point face scale, 43 (83%) of participants at week 4 and 38 (73%) at week 8 reported that the injection caused "no hurt" or "hurts little bit", while only a single (2%) participant for each week rated the pain as one of the two highest pain levels. Quality of life was not diminished by the addition of one injectable antiretroviral. In-depth interviews revealed that parents and caregivers in the USA frequently had more hesitancy than adolescents about use of long-acting formulations, but parental acceptance was higher after their children received injections.

INTERPRETATION

High acceptability and tolerability of long-acting cabotegravir or rilpivirine injections suggests that these are likely to be favoured treatment options for some adolescents living with HIV.

FUNDING

National Institutes of Health and ViiV Healthcare.

Safety and pharmacokinetics of oral and long-acting injectable cabotegravir or long-acting injectable rilpivirine in virologically suppressed adolescents with HIV (IMPAACT 2017/MOCHA): a phase 1/2, multicentre, open-label, non-comparative, dose-finding study

BACKGROUND

Combined intramuscular long-acting cabotegravir and long-acting rilpivirine constitute the first long-acting combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) regimen approved for adults with HIV. The goal of the IMPAACT 2017 study (MOCHA [More Options for Children and Adolescents]) was to assess the safety and pharmacokinetics of these drugs in adolescents.

METHODS

In this phase 1/2, multicentre, open-label, non-comparative, dose-finding study, virologically suppressed adolescents (aged 12-17 years; weight ≥35 kg; BMI ≤31·5 kg/m2) with HIV-1 on daily oral ART were enrolled at 15 centres in four countries (Botswana, South Africa, Thailand, and the USA). After 4-6 weeks of oral cabotegravir (cohort 1C) or rilpivirine (cohort 1R), participants received intramuscular long-acting cabotegravir or long-acting rilpivirine every 4 weeks or 8 weeks per the adult dosing regimens, while continuing pre-study ART. The primary outcomes were assessments of safety measures, including all adverse events, until week 4 for oral cabotegravir and until week 16 for long-acting cabotegravir and long-acting rilpivirine, and pharmacokinetic measures, including the area under the plasma concentration versus time curve during the dosing interval (AUC0-tau) and drug concentrations, at week 2 for oral dosing of cabotegravir and at week 16 for intramuscular dosing of cabotegravir and rilpivirine. Enrolment into cohort 1C or cohort 1R was based on the participant's pre-study ART, meaning that masking was not done. For pharmacokinetic analyses, blood samples were drawn at weeks 2-4 after oral dosing and weeks 4-16 after intramuscular dosing. Safety outcome measures were summarised using frequencies, percentages, and exact 95% CIs; pharmacokinetic parameters were summarised using descriptive statistics. This trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03497676, and is closed to enrolment.

FINDINGS

Between March 19, 2019, and Nov 25, 2021, 55 participants were enrolled: 30 in cohort 1C and 25 in cohort 1R. At week 16, 28 (97%, 95% CI 82-100) of the 29 dose-evaluable participants in cohort 1C and 21 (91%; 72-99) of the 23 dose-evaluable participants in cohort 1R had reported at least one adverse event, with the most common being injection-site pain (nine [31%] in cohort 1C; nine [39%] in cohort 1R; none were severe). One (4%, 95% CI 0-22) participant in cohort 1R had an adverse event of grade 3 or higher, leading to treatment discontinuation, which was defined as acute rilpivirine-related allergic reaction (self-limiting generalised urticaria) after the first oral dose. No deaths or life-threatening events occurred. In cohort 1C, the week 2 median cabotegravir AUC0-tau was 148·5 (range 37·2-433·1) μg·h/mL. The week 16 median concentrations for the every-4-weeks and every-8-weeks dosing was 3·11 μg/mL (range 1·22-6·19) and 1·15 μg/mL (<0·025-5·29) for cabotegravir and 52·9 ng/mL (31·9-148·0) and 39·1 ng/mL (27·2-81·3) for rilpivirine, respectively. These concentrations were similar to those in adults.

INTERPRETATION

Study data support using long-acting cabotegravir or long-acting rilpivirine, given every 4 weeks or 8 weeks, per the adult dosing regimens, in virologically suppressed adolescents aged 12 years and older and weighing at least 35 kg.

FUNDING

The National Institutes of Health and ViiV Healthcare.

Projecting the Clinical and Economic Impacts of Changes to HIV Care Among Adolescents and Young Adults in the United States: Lessons From the COVID-19 Pandemic

BACKGROUND

During the COVID-19 pandemic, many US youth with HIV (YHIV) used telehealth services; others experienced disruptions in clinic and antiretroviral therapy (ART) access.

METHODS

Using the Cost-effectiveness of Preventing AIDS Complications (CEPAC)-Adolescent HIV microsimulation model, we evaluated 3 scenarios: 1) Clinic: in-person care; 2) Telehealth: virtual visits, without CD4 or viral load monitoring for 12 months, followed by return to usual care; and 3) Interruption: complete care interruption with no ART access or laboratory monitoring for 6 months (maximum clinic closure time), followed by return to usual care for 80%. We assigned higher 1-year retention (87% vs 80%) and lower cost/visit ($49 vs $56) for Telehealth vs Clinic. We modeled 2 YHIV cohorts with non-perinatal (YNPHIV) and perinatal (YPHIV) HIV, which differed by mean age (22 vs 16 years), sex at birth (85% vs 47% male), starting CD4 count (527/μL vs 635/μL), ART, mortality, and HIV-related costs. We projected life months (LMs) and costs/100 YHIV over 10 years.

RESULTS

Over 10 years, LMs in Clinic and Telehealth would be similar (YNPHIV: 11 350 vs 11 360 LMs; YPHIV: 11 680 LMs for both strategies); costs would be $0.3M (YNPHIV) and $0.4M (YPHIV) more for Telehealth than Clinic. Interruption would be less effective (YNPHIV: 11 230 LMs; YPHIV: 11 620 LMs) and less costly (YNPHIV: $1.3M less; YPHIV: $0.2M less) than Clinic. Higher retention in Telehealth led to increased ART use and thus higher costs.

CONCLUSIONS

Telehealth could be as effective as in-person care for some YHIV, at slightly increased cost. Short interruptions to ART and laboratory monitoring may have negative long-term clinical implications.

Infant feeding for people living with HIV in high resource settings: a multi-disciplinary approach with best practices to maximise risk reduction

Shared decision making for infant feeding in the context of HIV in high-resourced settings is necessary to acknowledge patient autonomy, meet increasing patient requests and address the changing reality of perinatal HIV care. In low-to middle-income countries (LMIC), where the majority of individuals living with HIV reside, persons with HIV are recommended to breastfeed their infants. In the setting of maternal anti-retroviral therapy (ART) use throughout pregnancy, viral suppression and appropriate neonatal post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) use, updated information indicates that the risk of HIV transmission through breastmilk may be between 0.3 and 1%. While not endorsing or recommending breastfeeding, the United States' DHHS perinatal guidelines are similarly pivoting, stating that individuals should "receive patient-centred, evidence-based counselling on infant feeding options." Similar statements appear in the British, Canadian, Swiss, European, and Australasian perinatal guidelines. We assembled a multi-disciplinary group at our institution to develop a structured shared decision-making process and protocol for successful implementation of breastfeeding. We recommend early and frequent counselling about infant feeding options, which should include well known benefits of breastfeeding even in the context of HIV and the individual's medical and psychosocial circumstances, with respect and support for patient's autonomy in choosing their infant feeding option.

Realizing the promise of long-acting antiretroviral treatment strategies for individuals with HIV and adherence challenges: an illustrative case series

BACKGROUND

Adherence to antiretroviral treatment (ART) remains the cornerstone of optimal HIV outcomes, including viral suppression (VS), immune recovery, and decreased transmission risk. For many people with HIV (PWH), particularly those with early-acquired HIV, structural, behavioral, and cognitive barriers to adherence and competing priorities related to life events may be difficult to overcome, resulting in nonadherence. Long-acting injectable antiretroviral therapies (LAI-ART) may be a useful strategy to overcome some of these barriers. However, to date, the approved LAI-ART strategies (e.g., cabotegravir and rilpivirine (CAB/RPV)) have targeted those who have already attained viral suppression, precluding their use in the 40% of adolescents and young adults (AYA) that VS has eluded.

CASE PRESENTATION

Ms. X is a 30-year-old woman with perinatally-acquired HIV and barriers to adherence. Despite many interventions, she remained persistently viremic, with resultant immune suppression and multiple comorbid opportunistic conditions, and viral load (VL) > 10,000,000 copies/ml. Given her longstanding history of poor adherence to an oral regimen, a switch to monthly intramuscular (IM) injections and biweekly infusions of ibalizumab were initiated leading to decreased viral load to 8,110 copies/ml within two weeks. Ms. H is a 33-year-old woman with cognitive limitations due to childhood lead poisoning. Her viral load trajectory took a downward turn, precipitated by various life events, remaining elevated despite intensive case management. Initiation of LAI-ART (CAB/RPV) in this patient led to an undetectable VL (< 20 copies/ml) within two months of treatment initiation. Miss Y. is a 37-year-old woman with perinatally-acquired HIV and chronic challenges with nonadherence and longstanding immunosuppression with CD4 < 200 cells/mm³ for > 5 years. She received a 1-month oral lead-in (OLI) of cabotegravir/rilpivirine, followed by the injectable loading dose. She has since adhered to all her monthly dosing appointments, sustained VS, and transitioned to a bi-monthly injection schedule.

CONCLUSION

These three individuals with HIV (perinatally and non-perinatally acquired) with longstanding nonadherence and persistent viremia were successfully initiated on LAI-ART through the process of care coordination and the collective efforts of the care team, highlighting the barriers, challenges, and the multidisciplinary coordination needed to assure successful implementation of this strategy for the most vulnerable of patients.

Experience and Outcomes of Breastfed Infants of Women Living With HIV in the United States: Findings From a Single-Center Breastfeeding Support Initiative

We assessed breastfeeding outcomes for a cohort of infants born to women living with HIV (WLHIV) at an urban health care center in the United States. Ten infants were exclusively breastfed for a mean duration of 4.4 (1.0-8.6) months. All had negative HIV RNA PCRs at a median age of 16 months.

Excessive Weight Gain Associated With Dolutegravir Initiation in a 10-Year-Old Female With Perinatally Acquired Human Immunodeficiency Virus: A Case Report and Review of the Literature

Children with perinatally acquired human immunodeficiency virus (PHIV) face a lifetime of combination antiretroviral treatment that often includes dolutegravir (DTG). DTG, an integrase strand inhibitor that has been linked to weight gain in adults, is increasingly being used in children. Understanding its potential short- and long-term sequelae in children is critically important. We report a case of excessive weight gain in a child with PHIV on DTG and provide a brief literature review.

HIV and women in the USA: what we know and where to go from here

New diagnoses of HIV infection have decreased among women in the USA overall, but marked racial and geographical disparities persist. The federal government has announced an initiative that aims to decrease the number of new infections in the nation by 90% within the next 10 years. With this in mind, we highlight important recent developments concerning HIV epidemiology, comorbidities, treatment, and prevention among women in the USA. We conclude that, to end the US HIV epidemic, substantially greater inclusion of US women in clinical research will be required, as will better prevention and treatment efforts, with universal access to health care and other supportive services that enable women to exercise agency in their own HIV prevention and care. Ending the epidemic will also require eliminating the race, class, and gender inequities, as well as the discrimination and structural violence, that have promoted and maintained the distribution of HIV in the USA, and that will, if unchecked, continue to fuel the epidemic in the future.

COVID-19 Cliff Notes: A COVID-19 Multidisciplinary Care Compendium

As we pass the nearly 9 month mark of the coronavirus virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in the United States, we sought to compile a brief multi-disciplinary compendium of COVID-19 information learned to date. COVID-19 is an active viral pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that confers high morbidity and mortality. COVID-19 has been associated with: pulmonary compromise and acute respiratory distress syndrome, thrombotic events, inflammation and cytokine, and post-infectious syndromes. Mitigation of these complications and expeditious therapy are a global urgency; this is brief summary of current data and management approaches synthesized from publications, experience, cross-disciplinary expertise (Figure 1).

Innovations in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Care Delivery During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Pandemic: Policies to Strengthen the Ending the Epidemic Initiative-A Policy Paper of the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the HIV Medicine Association

The goal of the Ending the HIV Epidemic Initiative is to reduce new infections in the US by 90% by 2030. Success will require fundamentally changing HIV prevention and care delivery to engage more persons with HIV and at-risk of HIV in treatment. While the COVID-19 pandemic reduced in-person visits to care facilities and led to concern about interruptions in care, it also accelerated growth of alternative options, bolstered by additional funding support. These included the use of telehealth, medication delivery to the home and increased flexibility facilitating access to Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program services. While the outcomes of these programs must be studied, many have improved accessibility during the pandemic. As the pandemic wanes, long term policy changes are needed to preserve these options for those who benefit from them. These new care paradigms may provide a roadmap for progress for those with other chronic health issues as well.

Primary Care Guidance for Persons With Human Immunodeficiency Virus: 2020 Update by the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America

Advances in antiretroviral therapy (ART) have made it possible for persons with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) to live a near expected life span, without progressing to AIDS or transmitting HIV to sexual partners or infants. There is, therefore, increasing emphasis on maintaining health throughout the life span. To receive optimal medical care and achieve desired outcomes, persons with HIV must be consistently engaged in care and able to access uninterrupted treatment, including ART. Comprehensive evidence-based HIV primary care guidance is, therefore, more important than ever. Creating a patient-centered, stigma-free care environment is essential for care engagement. Barriers to care must be decreased at the societal, health system, clinic, and individual levels. As the population ages and noncommunicable diseases arise, providing comprehensive healthcare for persons with HIV becomes increasingly complex, including management of multiple comorbidities and the associated challenges of polypharmacy, while not neglecting HIV-related health concerns. Clinicians must address issues specific to persons of childbearing potential, including care during preconception and pregnancy, and to children, adolescents, and transgender and gender-diverse individuals. This guidance from an expert panel of the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America updates previous 2013 primary care guidelines.

HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis Among Adolescents in the US: A Review

IMPORTANCE

Many adolescents and young adults in the US are disproportionately affected by HIV. Several others who are uninfected are at risk and in need of effective preventive strategies. The uptake rate of preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for HIV prevention has remained low among US adolescents. This review assesses the current status of PrEP uptake among at-risk adolescents aged 13 to 19 years and recommendations for improving PrEP access, uptake, and future needed directions, including specific recommendations for health care professionals.

OBSERVATIONS

Of the 37 377 new HIV diagnoses made in 2018, 7734 diagnoses (21%) occurred in adolescents and young adults aged 12 to 24 years; of these, 1707 diagnoses (22%) occurred in adolescents aged 13 to 19 years. The greatest burden of HIV is found among young African American men who have sex with men, accounting for two-thirds of all HIV infections in adolescents and young adults. Preexposure prophylaxis awareness and engagement are lowest in adolescents with the greatest risk for HIV. Adolescent primary care clinicians and specialists do not routinely offer HIV testing as recommended by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention or routinely assess sexual risk exposures of patients through sexual history taking. Clinicians' decision to prescribe PrEP for adolescents is often guided by their perceptions of the patient's HIV risk and their knowledge and acceptance of PrEP guidelines. State laws on consent, confidentiality, and the rights of the adolescent to independently access PrEP outside of parental influence differ across jurisdictions, often limiting access and uptake.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Use of PrEP in adolescents at risk for HIV is an important component of HIV prevention. Optimizing uptake includes improving clinicians' knowledge about HIV risk and prevention strategies, enhancing sexual history taking and risk assessment through training and retraining, and improving PrEP knowledge and acceptance of prescribing among clinicians. Leveraging the ubiquity of social media, encouraging family support, and performing research aimed at finding lifestyle-congruent formulations can help mitigate HIV transmission in adolescents at greatest risk for HIV.

The Global Health Security Index is not predictive of coronavirus pandemic responses among Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countries

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has devastated many countries with ripple effects felt in various sectors of the global economy. In November 2019, the Global Health Security (GHS) Index was released as the first detailed assessment and benchmarking of 195 countries to prevent, detect, and respond to infectious disease threats. This paper presents the first comparison of Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development OECD countries' performance during the pandemic, with the pre-COVID-19 pandemic preparedness as determined by the GHS Index. Using a rank-based analysis, four indices were compared between select countries, including total cases, total deaths, recovery rate, and total tests performed, all standardized for comparison. Our findings suggest a discrepancy between the GHS index rating and the actual performance of countries during this pandemic, with an overestimation of the preparedness of some countries scoring highly on the GHS index and underestimation of the preparedness of other countries with relatively lower scores on the GHS index.

Higher Acuity Resource Utilization With Older Age and Poorer HIV Control in Adolescents and Young Adults in the HIV Research Network

BACKGROUND

Adolescents and young adults (AYA) with HIV experience poorer health outcomes compared with adults. To improve care for AYA with HIV, information about patterns of costly health care resource utilization is needed.

METHODS

Among 13-30 year olds in the US HIV Research Network, we stratified outpatient visits, emergency department (ED) visits, and inpatient days/person-year (PY) by HIV acquisition model [perinatal (PHIVY) and nonperinatal (NPHIVY)], age (13-17, 18-23, and 24-30 years), CD4 strata (<200, 200-499, and ≥500 cells/µL), and viral load (VL) suppression (<, ≥400 copies/mL [c/mL]) combined with antiretroviral (ARV) use.

RESULTS

Among 4540 AYA (PHIVY: 15%; NPHIVY: 85%), mean follow-up was 2.8 years. Among PHIVY, most person-time (PT) was spent between ages 13 and 23 years (13-17 years: 43%; 18-23 years: 45%), CD4 ≥500/µL (61%), and VL <400 c/mL (69%). Among NPHIVY, most PT was spent between ages 24 and 30 years (56%), with CD4 ≥500/µL (54%), and with VL <400 c/mL (67%). PT spent while prescribed ARVs and with VL ≥400 c/mL was 29% (PHIVY) and 24% (NPHIVY). For PHIVY and NPHIVY, outpatient visit rates were higher at younger ages (13-17 years and 18-23 years), lower CD4 (<200 and 200-499/µL), and among those prescribed ARVs. Rates of ED visits and inpatient days were higher during PT spent at older ages (18-23 years and 24-30 years), lower CD4 (<200 and 200-499/µL), and VL ≥400 c/mL. Utilization was higher among PHIVY than NPHIVY (outpatient: 12.1 vs. 6.0/PY; ED: 0.4 vs. 0.3/PY; inpatient: 1.5 vs. 0.8/PY).

CONCLUSIONS

More ED visits and inpatient days were observed during time spent at older ages, lower CD4 count, and VL ≥400 c/mL. Interventions to improve virologic suppression and immune response may improve outcomes, and thus decrease costly resource utilization, for AYA with HIV.

Model-Based Methods to Translate Adolescent Medicine Trials Network for HIV/AIDS Interventions Findings Into Policy Recommendations: Rationale and Protocol for a Modeling Core (ATN 161)

Background

The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that approximately 60,000 US youth are living with HIV. US youth living with HIV (YLWH) have poorer outcomes compared with adults, including lower rates of diagnosis, engagement, retention, and virologic suppression. With Adolescent Medicine Trials Network for HIV/AIDS Interventions (ATN) support, new trials of youth-centered interventions to improve retention in care and medication adherence among YLWH are underway.

Objective

This study aimed to use a computer simulation model, the Cost-Effectiveness of Preventing AIDS Complications (CEPAC)-Adolescent Model, to evaluate selected ongoing and forthcoming ATN interventions to improve viral load suppression among YLWH and to define the benchmarks for uptake, effectiveness, durability of effect, and cost that will make these interventions clinically beneficial and cost-effective.

Methods

This protocol, ATN 161, establishes the ATN Modeling Core. The Modeling Core leverages extensive data—already collected by successfully completed National Institutes of Health–supported studies—to develop novel approaches for modeling critical components of HIV disease and care in YLWH. As new data emerge from ongoing ATN trials during the award period about the effectiveness of novel interventions, the CEPAC-Adolescent simulation model will serve as a flexible tool to project their long-term clinical impact and cost-effectiveness. The Modeling Core will derive model input parameters and create a model structure that reflects key aspects of HIV acquisition, progression, and treatment in YLWH. The ATN Modeling Core Steering Committee, with guidance from ATN leadership and scientific experts, will select and prioritize specific model-based analyses as well as provide feedback on derivation of model input parameters and model assumptions. Project-specific teams will help frame research questions for model-based analyses as well as provide feedback regarding project-specific inputs, results, sensitivity analyses, and policy conclusions.

Results

This project was funded as of September 2017.

Conclusions

The ATN Modeling Core will provide critical information to guide the scale-up of ATN interventions and the translation of ATN data into policy recommendations for YLWH in the United States.

Uptake and virological outcomes of single- versus multi-tablet antiretroviral regimens among treatment-naïve youth in the HIV Research Network

OBJECTIVES

Several single-tablet regimens (STRs) are now available and are recommended for first-line antiretroviral therapy (ART); however, STR use for youth with HIV (YHIV) has not been systematically studied. We examined the characteristics associated with initiation of STRs versus multi-tablet regimens (MTRs) and the virological outcomes for youth with nonperinatally acquired HIV (nPHIV).

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study of nPHIV youth aged 13-24 years initiating ART between 2006 and 2014 at 18 US HIV clinical sites in the HIV Research Network was performed. The outcomes measured were initiation of STRs versus MTRs, virological suppression (VS) at 12 months, and time to VS. Demographic and clinical factors associated with initiation of STR versus MTR ART and VS (< 400 HIV-1 RNA copies/mL) at 12 months after initiation were assessed using multivariable logistic regression. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to assess VS within the first year.

RESULTS

Of 987 youth, 67% initiated STRs. Of the 589 who had viral load data at 1 year, 84% of those on STRs versus 67% of those on MTRs achieved VS (P < 0.01). VS was associated with STR use [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 1.61; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.01-2.58], white (AOR 2.41; 95% CI 1.13-5.13) or Hispanic (AOR 2.38; 95% CI 1.32-4.27) race/ethnicity, and baseline CD4 count 351-500 cells/μL (AOR 1.94; 95% CI 1.18-3.19) and > 500 cells/μL (AOR 1.76; 95% CI 1.0-3.10). STR use was not associated with a shorter time to VS compared with MTR use [hazard ratio (HR) 1.07; 95% CI 0.90-1.28].

CONCLUSIONS

Use of STR was associated with a greater likelihood of sustained VS 12 months after ART initiation in YHIV.

High-Risk Prescription Opioid Use Among People Living With HIV

BACKGROUND

Prescription opioid use is greater among people living with HIV (PLWH), yet little is known about the prevalence of specific types of high-risk use among these individuals.

SETTING

We analyzed clinical and demographic data from the HIV Research Network and prescribing data from Medicaid for noncancer patients seeking HIV treatment at 4 urban clinics between 2006 and 2010.

METHODS

HIV Research Network patients were included in the analytic sample if they received at least one incident opioid prescription. We examined 4 measures of high-risk opioid use: (1) high daily dosage; (2) early refills; (3) overlapping prescriptions; and (4) multiple prescribers.

RESULTS

Of 4605 eligible PLWH, 1814 (39.4%) received at least one incident opioid prescription during follow-up. The sample was 61% men and 62% African American with a median age of 44.5 years. High-risk opioid use occurred among 30% of incident opioid users (high daily dosage: 7.9%; early refills: 15.9%; overlapping prescriptions: 16.4%; and multiple prescribers: 19.7%). About half of the cumulative incidence of high-risk use occurred within 1 year of receiving an opioid prescription. After adjusting for study site, high-risk opioid use was greater among patients with injection drug use as an HIV risk factor [adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) = 1.39, 95% confidence interval: 1.11 to 1.74], non-Hispanic whites [aHR = 1.61, (1.21 to 2.14)], patients age 35-45 [aHR = 1.94, (1.33 to 2.80)] and 45-55 [aHR = 1.84, (1.27 to 2.67)], and patients with a diagnosis of chronic pain [aHR = 1.32, (1.03 to 1.70)].

CONCLUSIONS

A large proportion of PLWH received opioid prescriptions, and among these opioid recipients, high-risk opioid use was common. High-risk use patterns often occurred within the first year, suggesting this is a critical time for intervention.

Assessing Antiretroviral Use During Gaps in HIV Primary Care Using Multisite Medicaid Claims and Clinical Data

BACKGROUND

Some individuals who appear poorly retained by clinic visit-based retention measures are using antiretroviral therapy (ART) and maintaining viral suppression. We examined whether individuals with a gap in HIV primary care (≥180 days between HIV outpatient clinic visits) obtained ART during that gap after 180 days.

SETTING

HIV Research Network data from 5 sites and Medicaid Analytic Extract eligibility and pharmacy data were combined.

METHODS

Factors associated with having both an HIV primary care gap and a new (ie, nonrefill) ART prescription during a gap were evaluated with multinomial logistic regression.

RESULTS

Of 6892 HIV Research Network patients, 6196 (90%) were linked to Medicaid data, and 4275 had any Medicaid ART prescription. Over half (54%) had occasional gaps in HIV primary care. Women, older people, and those with suppressed viral load were less likely to have a gap. Among those with occasional gaps (n = 2282), 51% received a new ART prescription in a gap. Viral load suppression before gap was associated with receiving a new ART prescription in a gap (odds ratio = 1.91, 95% confidence interval: 1.57 to 2.32), as was number of days in a gap (odds ratio = 1.04, 95% confidence interval: 1.02 to 1.05), and the proportion of months in the gap enrolled in Medicaid.

CONCLUSIONS

Medicaid-insured individuals commonly receive ART during gaps in HIV primary care, but almost half do not. Retention measures based on visit frequency data that do not incorporate receipt of ART and/or viral suppression may misclassify individuals who remain suppressed on ART as not retained.

An Evaluation of a Clinical Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis Education Intervention among Men Who Have Sex with Men

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the impact of an HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) education intervention on PrEP awareness and use among men who have sex with men (MSM) attending a sexually transmitted diseases (STD) clinic.

DATA SOURCES/STUDY SETTING

Men who have sex with men STD clinic patients.

STUDY DESIGN

We estimated a difference-in-differences linear regression model, comparing MSM whose first visit to the clinic was before ("control") or after ("treatment") intervention implementation and controlling for patient.

DATA COLLECTION/EXTRACTION

We used self-reported data on PrEP awareness and use from STD clinic intake forms.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Pre-exposure prophylaxis awareness between first and second clinic visits increased 27.2 percentage points (pp) in the treatment group, relative to 13.7 pp in the control group. Similarly, PrEP use increased 7.1 pp in the treatment group versus 2.4 pp in the control group. Based on adjusted estimates, the PrEP intervention increased PrEP awareness by 24 pp (p < .01) and PrEP use by 5 pp (p = .01), increases of 63 percent and 159 percent relative to the 6 months prior to the intervention.

CONCLUSION

A brief, scalable STD clinic PrEP education intervention led to significantly increased PrEP awareness and use among MSM. Health care providers should consider implementing brief PrEP education interventions in sexual health care settings.

Decline in CD4 T lymphocytes with monotherapy bridging strategy for non-adherent adolescents living with HIV infection: Results of the IMPAACT P1094 randomized trial

INTRODUCTION

Management of persistently non-adherent youth living with HIV (YLHIV) with virologic failure (VF) on combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) remains challenging. One strategy has been using 3TC/ FTC monotherapy (3TC/FTC), which in the presence of the M184V resistance mutation, does not suppress viral replication nor select for additional drug resistance mutations, and reduces viral fitness with limited side effects. P1094 compared the immunologic outcome of continuing failing cART vs. switching to 3TC/FTC as a "bridging strategy" to subsequent suppressive cART for non-adherent YLHIV with pre-existing M184V resistance.

MATERIALS & METHODS

Participants with documented nonadherence, M184V mutation, CD4+ T cell count ≥100 cells/mm3 and VF (HIV-1 plasma RNA ≥400 copies/mL (2.6 log10 HIV-1 RNA) were enrolled and randomized to continue failing cART vs. switch to 3TC/FTC. The primary endpoint (time to ≥30% CD4+ T cell decline or development of CDC class C events) at 28-weeks were assessed by Kaplan-Meier (K-M) curves in an intent-to-treat analysis.

RESULTS

Thirty-three perinatally acquired YLHIV participants (16 continuing cART and 17 3TC/FTC) enrolled in the study. The median age, entry CD4+ T cell count, and viral load were 15 years (Inter-quartile range (IQR) 14-20), 472 cells/mm3 (IQR 384-651), and 4.0 log10HIV-1 RNA copies/ml (IQR 3.2-4.5), respectively. Five participants, all in the 3TC/FTC arm, reached the primary endpoint for absolute CD4+ T cell decline (p = 0.02, exact log-rank test comparing monotherapy to cART). The Kaplan-Meier estimate of probability of primary endpoint on 3TC/FTC at 28 weeks was 0.41 (standard error 0.14). There were no CDC class C events or deaths and no statistically significant difference in frequencies of adverse events between the arms.

CONCLUSIONS

Non-adherent participants randomized to 3TC/FTC were more likely than those maintained on failing cART to experience a confirmed decline in CD4+ count of ≥30%. Although this study suffers from limitations of small sample size and premature discontinuation, the randomized comparison to continuing failing cART indicates that 3TC/FTC provides inferior protection from immunologic deterioration for non-adherent youth with M184V resistance. Better alternatives to 3TC/FTC such as ART with higher barriers to resistance and novel adherence and treatment strategies for nonadherent youth are urgently needed.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinical Trials.gov NCT01338025.

The interaction between equipoise and logistics in clinical trials: A case study

INTRODUCTION

Equipoise is usually discussed as an ethical issue in clinical trials. However, it also has practical implications.

BACKGROUND

Clinical equipoise is usually construed to mean uncertainty or disagreement among the expert clinician community. However, an individual physician's sense of equipoise may vary by location, based on the local standard of care or availability of specific treatment options, and these differences can affect providers' willingness to enroll participants into clinical trials. There are also logistical barriers to enrollment in international trials due to prolonged timelines for approvals by government agencies and ethical review boards.

CASE STUDY

A multinational clinical trial of bridging strategies for treatment of non-adherent HIV-infected youth, experienced differing perceptions of equipoise due to disparities in availability of treatment options by country. Unfortunately, the countries with most demand for the trial were those where the approval process was most delayed, and the study was closed early due to slow accrual.

DISCUSSION

When planning multicenter clinical trials, it is important to take into account heterogeneity among research sites and try to anticipate differences in equipoise and logistical factors between sites, in order to plan to address these issues at the design stage.

Association of Risk of Viremia, Immunosuppression, Serious Clinical Events, and Mortality With Increasing Age in Perinatally Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Youth

IMPORTANCE

As perinatally human immunodeficiency virus-infected youth (PHIVY) in the United States grow older and more treatment experienced, clinicians need updated information about the association of age, CD4 cell count, viral load (VL), and antiretroviral (ARV) drug use with risk of opportunistic infections, key clinical events, and mortality to understand patient risks and improve care.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the incidence or first occurrence during follow-up of key clinical events (including Centers for Disease Control and Prevention stage B [CDC-B] and stage C [CDC-C] events) and mortality among PHIVY stratified by age, CD4 cell count, and VL and ARV status.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

Combining data from the Pediatric HIV/AIDS Cohort Study (PHACS) Adolescent Master Protocol and International Maternal Pediatric Adolescent AIDS Clinical Trials (IMPAACT) P1074 multicenter cohort studies (March 2007 through April 2015), we estimated event rates during person-time spent in key strata of age (7-12, 13-17, and 18-30 years), CD4 cell count (<200, 200-499, and ≥500/μL), and a combined measure of VL and ARV status (VL <400 or ≥400 copies/mL; ARV therapy or no ARV therapy). A total of 1562 participants in the PHACS Adolescent Master Protocol and IMPAACT P1074 were eligible, and 1446 PHIVY from 41 ambulatory sites in the 12 US states, including Puerto Rico were enrolled. The dates of analysis were March 2015 through January 2017.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Clinical event rates stratified by person-time in age, CD4 cell count, and VL and ARV categories.

RESULTS

A total of 1446 PHIVY participated in the study (mean [SD] age, 14.6 [4.6] years; 759 female [52.5%]; 953 black [65.9%]). During a mean (SD) follow-up of 4.9 (1.3) years, higher incidences of CDC-B events, CDC-C events, and mortality were observed as participants aged. Older PHIVY (aged 13-17 and 18-30 years) spent more time with a VL of 400 copies/mL or more and with a CD4 cell count of less than 200/µL compared with 7- to 12-year-old participants (30% and 44% vs 22% of person-time with a VL≥400 copies/mL; 5% and 18% vs 2% of person-time with CD4 cell count <200/µL; P < .001 for each comparison). We observed higher rates of CDC-B events, CDC-C events, bacterial infections, and mortality at lower CD4 cell counts, as expected. The mortality rate among older PHIVY was 6 to 12 times that among the general US population. Higher rates of sexually transmitted infections were also observed at lower CD4 cell counts after adjusting for age.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Older PHIVY were at increased risk of viremia, immunosuppression, CDC-B events, CDC-C events, and mortality. Interventions to improve ARV therapy adherence and optimize models of care for PHIVY as they age are urgently needed to improve long-term outcomes among PHIVY.

Caring for youth living with HIV across the continuum: turning gaps into opportunities

With the increasing proportion of youth living with human immunodeficiency virus (YLHIV) and the aging of the perinatally infected population, there is a need for clinical services that are "youth friendly" to address the multiple challenges YLHIV face in terms of engagement in care and maintenance of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). Little is known about how and where YLHIV receive their care. Further, the impact of the care structure on engagement and retention outcomes for YLHIV is ill defined. In order to better classify how YLHIV receive care in the United States, we performed a review of published literature characterizing the structure and outcomes of care for YLHIV. Several key concepts emerged: 1. The majority of YLHIV (13-24 years old) are cared for at adult sites, 2. Clinics providing care to YLHIV are varied in terms of the services offered and the types of services offered can impact outcomes, 3. YLHIV cared for in adult clinical sites have poor retention and antiretroviral treatment initiation, and 4. YLHIV cared for at adult sites had poorer retention and cART outcomes compared to YLHIV cared for at pediatric sites. There were no studies identified that specifically examined "youth friendly" care for YLHIV within the context of adult clinical sites. The results of this review highlight disparities for YLHIV and the need for interventions to improve outcomes for YLHIV in the context of adult care.

Premature Coronary Artery Disease and ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction in a 24-Year-Old Man With Perinatally Acquired Human Immunodeficiency Virus: A Case Report

Patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) have increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Although evidence of subclinical atherosclerosis in perinatally acquired HIV (PHIV) is available, myocardial infarction has not been described in this population. We report a case of myocardial infarction in a patient with PHIV with a brief literature review.

Comparing longitudinal CD4 responses to cART among non-perinatally HIV-infected youth versus adults: Results from the HIVRN Cohort

BACKGROUND

Youth have residual thymic tissue and potentially greater capacity for immune reconstitution than adults after initiation of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). However, youth face behavioral and psychosocial challenges that may make them more likely than adults to delay ART initiation and less likely to attain similar CD4 outcomes after initiating cART. This study compared CD4 outcomes over time following cART initiation between ART-naïve non-perinatally HIV-infected (nPHIV) youth (13-24 years-old) and adults (≥25-44 years-old).

METHODS

Retrospective analysis of ART-naïve nPHIV individuals 13-44 years-old, who initiated their first cART between 2008 and 2011 at clinical sites in the HIV Research Network. A linear mixed model was used to assess the association between CD4 levels after cART initiation and age (13-24, 25-34, 35-44 years), accounting for random variation within participants and between sites, and adjusting for key variables including gender, race/ethnicity, viral load, gaps in care (defined as > 365 days between CD4 tests), and CD4 levels prior to cART initiation (baseline CD4).

RESULTS

Among 2,595 individuals (435 youth; 2,160 adults), the median follow-up after cART initiation was 179 weeks (IQR 92-249). Baseline CD4 was higher for youth (320 cells/mm3) than for ages 25-34 (293) or 35-44 (258). At 239 weeks after cART initiation, median unadjusted CD4 was higher for youth than adults (576 vs. 539 and 476 cells/mm3, respectively), but this difference was not significant when baseline CD4 was controlled. Compared to those with baseline CD4 ≤200 cells/mm3, individuals with baseline CD4 of 201-500 and >500 cells/mm3 had greater predicted CD4 levels: 390, 607, and 831, respectively. Additionally, having no gaps in care and higher viral load were associated with better CD4 outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite having residual thymic tissue, youth attain similar, not superior, CD4 gains as adults. Early ART initiation with minimal delay is as essential to optimizing outcomes for youth as it is for their adult counterparts.

Phenotypic Coreceptor Tropism in Perinatally HIV-infected Youth Failing Antiretroviral Therapy

BACKGROUND

Perinatally HIV-infected (PHIV) children and youth are often heavily treatment-experienced, with resultant antiretroviral resistance and limited treatment options. For those with virologic failure (VF), new agents such as CCR5 (R5) antagonists may be useful; however, reports of R5 antagonist susceptibility in children have mostly relied on genotypic testing, which may not accurately reflect the phenotypic tropism of the viral populations. We characterized phenotypic coreceptor usage among PHIV children and youth with VF on antiretroviral treatment to identify predictors of CXCR4 (X4) tropism which preclude R5 antagonist use.

METHODS

Plasma samples with >1000 HIV RNA copies/mL were obtained from 73 PHIV antiretroviral treatment-treated children and youth (age 9-21 years) enrolled in the multicenter Pediatric HIV/AIDS Cohort Study. Samples were analyzed using the Trofile phenotypic assay. Multiple logistic regression was performed to identify factors associated with detectable X4 tropism.

RESULTS

Tropism results were obtained for 59 (81%) of the 73 children and youth; 32 (54%) had X4-tropism. Persistent viremia (≥80% of HIV RNA measurements >400 copies/mL) was associated with detectable X4 tropism (adjusted odds ratio: 6.6, 95% confidence interval: 1.4, 31.4), while longer cumulative nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor use was associated with lower risk of X4 tropism (adjusted odds ratio: 0.6, 95% confidence interval: 0.5, 0.9).

CONCLUSIONS

Using a phenotypic assay, >50% of PHIV children and youth with VF had X4 tropism, similar to that in experienced adults, and higher than the 30% reported for children using genotypic assays. Persistent viremia and shorter nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor exposure are associated with X4-tropism in children and youth and may help target phenotypic testing to those most likely to benefit from R5 antagonist.

Antiretroviral Stewardship in a Pediatric HIV Clinic: Development, Implementation and Improved Clinical Outcomes

BACKGROUND

Antiretroviral (ARV) management in pediatrics is a challenging process in which multiple barriers to optimal therapy can lead to poor clinical outcomes. In a pediatric HIV clinic, we implemented a systematic ARV stewardship program to evaluate ARV regimens and make recommendations for optimization when indicated.

METHODS

A comprehensive assessment tool was used to screen for issues related to genotypic resistance, virologic/immunologic response, drug-drug interactions, side effects and potential for regimen simplification. The ARV stewardship team (AST) made recommendations to the HIV clinic provider, and followed patients prospectively to assess clinical outcomes at 6 and 12 months.

RESULTS

The most common interventions made by the AST included regimen optimization in patients on suboptimal regimens based on resistance mutations (35.4%), switching to safer ARVs (33.3%) and averting significant drug-drug interactions (10.4%). In patients anticipated to have a change in viral load (VL) as a result of the AST recommendations, we identified a significant benefit in virologic outcomes at 6 and 12 months when recommendations were implemented within 6 months of ARV review. Patients who had recommendations implemented within 6 months had a 7-fold higher probability of achieving a 0.7 log10 reduction in VL by 6 months, and this benefit remained significant after controlling for adherence [adjusted odds ratio: 6.8 (95% confidence interval: 1.03-44.9; P <0.05)].

CONCLUSIONS

A systematic ARV stewardship program implemented at a pediatric HIV clinic significantly improved clinical outcomes. ARV stewardship programs can be considered a core strategy for continuous quality improvement in the management of HIV-infected children and adolescents.

Healthcare Coverage for HIV Provider Visits Before and After Implementation of the Affordable Care Act

BACKGROUND

Before implementation of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) in 2014, 100 000 persons living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (PLWH) lacked healthcare coverage and relied on a safety net of Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program support, local charities, or uncompensated care (RWHAP/Uncomp) to cover visits to HIV providers. We compared HIV provider coverage before (2011-2013) versus after (first half of 2014) ACA implementation among a total of 28 374 PLWH followed up in 4 sites in Medicaid expansion states (California, Oregon, and Maryland), 4 in a state (New York) that expanded Medicaid in 2001, and 2 in nonexpansion states (Texas and Florida).

METHODS

Multivariate multinomial logistic models were used to assess changes in RWHAP/Uncomp, Medicaid, and private insurance coverage, using Medicare as a referent.

RESULTS

In expansion state sites, RWHAP/Uncomp coverage decreased (unadjusted, 28% before and 13% after ACA; adjusted relative risk ratio [ARRR], 0.44; 95% confidence interval [CI], .40-.48). Medicaid coverage increased (23% and 38%; ARRR, 1.82; 95% CI, 1.70-1.94), and private coverage was unchanged (21% and 19%; 0.96; .89-1.03). In New York sites, both RWHAP/Uncomp (20% and 19%) and Medicaid (50% and 50%) coverage were unchanged, while private coverage decreased (13% and 12%; ARRR, 0.86; 95% CI, .80-.92). In nonexpansion state sites, RWHAP/Uncomp (57% and 52%) and Medicaid (18% and 18%) coverage were unchanged, while private coverage increased (4% and 7%; ARRR, 1.79; 95% CI, 1.62-1.99).

CONCLUSIONS

In expansion state sites, half of PLWH relying on RWHAP/Uncomp coverage shifted to Medicaid, while in New York and nonexpansion state sites, reliance on RWHAP/Uncomp remained constant. In the first half of 2014, the ACA did not eliminate the need for RWHAP safety net provider visit coverage.

The Impact of Youth-Friendly Structures of Care on Retention Among HIV-Infected Youth

Limited data exist on how structures of care impact retention among youth living with HIV (YLHIV). We describe the availability of youth-friendly structures of care within HIV Research Network (HIVRN) clinics and examine their association with retention in HIV care. Data from 680 15- to 24-year-old YLHIV receiving care at 7 adult and 5 pediatric clinics in 2011 were included in the analysis. The primary outcome was retention in care, defined as completing ≥2 primary HIV care visits ≥90 days apart in a 12-month period. Sites were surveyed to assess the availability of clinic structures defined a priori as 'youth-friendly'. Univariate and multivariable logistic regression models assessed structures associated with retention in care. Among 680 YLHIV, 85% were retained. Nearly half (48%) of the 680 YLHIV attended clinics with youth-friendly waiting areas, 36% attended clinics with evening hours, 73% attended clinics with adolescent health-trained providers, 87% could email or text message providers, and 73% could schedule a routine appointment within 2 weeks. Adjusting for demographic and clinical factors, YLHIV were more likely to be retained in care at clinics with a youth-friendly waiting area (AOR 2.47, 95% CI [1.11-5.52]), evening clinic hours (AOR 1.94; 95% CI [1.13-3.33]), and providers with adolescent health training (AOR 1.98; 95% CI [1.01-3.86]). Youth-friendly structures of care impact retention in care among YLHIV. Further investigations are needed to determine how to effectively implement youth-friendly strategies across clinical settings where YLHIV receive care.

Factors Associated With Retention Among Non-Perinatally HIV-Infected Youth in the HIV Research Network

BACKGROUND

The transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) among youth through high-risk behaviors continues to increase. Retention in Care is associated with positive clinical outcomes and a decrease in HIV transmission risk behaviors. We evaluated the clinical and demographic characteristics of non-perinatally HIV (nPHIV)-infected youth associated with retention 1 year after initiating care and in the 2 years thereafter. We also assessed the impact retention in year 1 had on retention in years 2 and 3.

METHODS

This was a retrospective analysis of treatment-naive nPHIV-infected 12- to 24-year-old youth presenting for care in 16 US HIV clinical sites within the HIV Research Network between 2002 and 2008. Multivariate logistic regression identified factors associated with retention.

RESULTS

Of 1160 nPHIV-infected youth, 44.6% were retained in care during the first year, and 22.4% were retained in all 3 years. Retention in the first year was associated with starting antiretroviral therapy in the first year (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 3.47 [95% confidence interval (CI), 2.57-4.67]), Hispanic ethnicity (AOR, 1.66 [95% CI, 1.08-2.56]), men who have sex with men (AOR, 1.59 [95% CI, 1.07-2.36]), and receiving care at a pediatric site (AOR, 5.37 [95% CI, 3.20-9.01]). Retention in years 2 and 3 was associated with being retained 1 year after initiating care (AOR, 7.44 [95% CI, 5.11-10.83]).

CONCLUSION

A high proportion of newly enrolled nPHIV-infected youth were not retained for 1 year, and only 1 in 4 were retained for 3 years. Patients who were Hispanic, were men who have sex with men, or were seen at pediatric clinics were more likely to be retained in care. Interventions that target those at risk of being lost to follow up are essential for this high-risk population.

The incidence, mortality and timing of Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia after hematopoietic cell transplantation: a CIBMTR analysis

Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (PJP) is associated with high morbidity and mortality after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Little is known about PJP infections after HSCT because of the rarity of disease given routine prophylaxis. We report the results of a Center for International Blood and Marrow Transplant Research study evaluating the incidence, timing, prophylaxis agents, risk factors and mortality of PJP after autologous (auto) and allogeneic (allo) HSCT. Between 1995 and 2005, 0.63% allo recipients and 0.28% auto recipients of first HSCT developed PJP. Cases occurred as early as 30 days to beyond a year after allo HSCT. A nested case cohort analysis with supplemental data (n=68 allo cases, n=111 allo controls) revealed that risk factors for PJP infection included lymphopenia and mismatch after HSCT. After allo or auto HSCT, overall survival was significantly poorer among cases vs controls (P=0.0004). After controlling for significant variables, the proportional hazards model revealed that PJP cases were 6.87 times more likely to die vs matched controls (P<0.0001). We conclude PJP infection is rare after HSCT but is associated with high mortality. Factors associated with GVHD and with poor immune reconstitution are among the risk factors for PJP and suggest that protracted prophylaxis for PJP in high-risk HSCT recipients may improve outcomes.

Brief Report: Gonorrhea and Chlamydia Testing Increasing but Still Lagging in HIV Clinics in the United States

Screening persons living with HIV for gonorrhea and chlamydia has been recommended since 2003. We compared annual gonorrhea/chlamydia testing to syphilis and lipid testing among 19,368 adults (41% men who have sex with men, 30% heterosexual men, and 29% women) engaged in HIV care. In 2004, 22%, 62%, and 70% of all patients were tested for gonorrhea/chlamydia, syphilis, and lipid levels, respectively. Despite increasing steadily [odds ratio per year (95% confidence interval): 1.14 (1.13 to 1.15)], gonorrhea/chlamydia testing in 2010 remained lower than syphilis and lipid testing (39%, 77%, 76%, respectively). Interventions to improve gonorrhea/chlamydia screening are needed. A more targeted screening approach may be warranted.

The HIV Care Continuum: Changes over Time in Retention in Care and Viral Suppression

BACKGROUND

The HIV care continuum (diagnosis, linkage to care, retention in care, receipt of antiretroviral therapy (ART), viral suppression) has been used to identify opportunities for improving the delivery of HIV care. Continuum steps are typically calculated in a conditional manner, with the number of persons completing the prior step serving as the base population for the next step. This approach may underestimate the prevalence of viral suppression by excluding patients who are suppressed but do not meet standard definitions of retention in care. Understanding how retention in care and viral suppression interact and change over time may improve our ability to intervene on these steps in the continuum.

METHODS

We followed 17,140 patients at 11 U.S. HIV clinics between 2010-2012. For each calendar year, patients were classified into one of five categories: (1) retained/suppressed, (2) retained/not-suppressed, (3) not-retained/suppressed, (4) not-retained/not-suppressed, and (5) lost to follow-up (for calendar years 2011 and 2012 only). Retained individuals were those completing ≥ 2 HIV medical visits separated by ≥ 90 days in the year. Persons not retained completed ≥ 1 HIV medical visit during the year, but did not meet the retention definition. Persons lost to follow-up had no HIV medical visits in the year. HIV viral suppression was defined as HIV-1 RNA ≤ 200 copies/mL at the last measure in the year. Multinomial logistic regression was used to determine the probability of patients' transitioning between retention/suppression categories from 2010 to 2011 and 2010 to 2012, adjusting for age, sex, race/ethnicity, HIV risk factor, insurance status, CD4 count, and use of ART.

RESULTS

Overall, 65.8% of patients were retained/suppressed, 17.4% retained/not-suppressed, 10.0% not-retained/suppressed, and 6.8% not-retained/not-suppressed in 2010. 59.5% of patients maintained the same status in 2011 (kappa=0.458) and 53.3% maintained the same status in 2012 (kappa=0.437).

CONCLUSIONS

Not counting patients not-retained/suppressed as virally suppressed, as is commonly done in the HIV care continuum, underestimated the proportion suppressed by 13%. Applying the care continuum in a longitudinal manner will enhance its utility.

Aging and loss to follow-up among youth living with human immunodeficiency virus in the HIV Research Network

PURPOSE

In the United States, 21 years is a critical age of legal and social transition, with changes in social programs such as public insurance coverage. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected youth have lower adherence to care and medications and may be at risk of loss to follow-up (LTFU) at this benchmark age. We evaluated LTFU after the 22nd birthday for HIV-infected youth engaged in care. LTFU was defined as having no primary HIV visits in the year after the 22nd birthday.

METHODS

All HIV-infected 21-year-olds engaged in care (2002-2011) at the HIV Research Network clinics were included. We assessed the proportion LTFU and used multivariable logistic regression to evaluate demographic and clinical characteristics associated with LTFU after the 22nd birthday. We compared LTFU at other age transitions during the adolescent/young adult years.

RESULTS

Six hundred forty-seven 21-year-olds were engaged in care; 91 (19.8%) were LTFU in the year after turning 22 years. Receiving care at an adult versus pediatric HIV clinic (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 2.91; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.42-5.93), having fewer than four primary HIV visits/year (AOR, 2.72; 95% CI, 1.67-4.42), and antiretroviral therapy prescription (AOR, .50; 95% CI, .41-.60) were independently associated with LTFU. LTFU was prevalent at each age transition, with factors associated with LTFU similar to that identified for 21-year-olds.

CONCLUSIONS

Although 19.8% of 21-year-olds at the HIV Research Network sites were LTFU after their 22nd birthday, significant proportions of youth of all ages were LTFU. Fewer than four primary HIV care visits/year, receiving care at adult clinics and not prescribed antiretroviral therapy, were associated with LTFU and may inform targeted interventions to reduce LTFU for these vulnerable patients.

Factors informing HIV providers' decisions to start antiretroviral therapy for young people living with behaviorally acquired HIV

PURPOSE

Young people with behaviorally acquired HIV (BHIV) are less likely than adults to initiate antiretroviral therapy (ART) despite meeting treatment criteria. We explored critical factors involved in healthcare providers' decision making regarding ART initiation for young people with BHIV (aged 12-24 years).

METHODS

Semistructured interviews were conducted with 23 HIV providers from diverse training backgrounds caring for youth with BHIV at four adult clinics and one pediatric clinic in a high prevalence urban city. Interview domains probed clinical and nonclinical patient characteristics, the role of adherence, and provider attitudes working with youth to establish decision-making priorities for ART initiation. The constant comparative approach was used to develop grounded theory on providers' decision making on ART initiation.

RESULTS

Clinical criteria, particularly the CD4 count, and the public health implications of HIV transmission determined the urgency for ART initiation. However, patient-related concerns regarding treatment readiness and adherence hampered the decision to initiate, especially at higher CD4 counts. Providers who acknowledged developmental characteristics of youth (e.g., evolving adult identity and self-efficacy around health management) appeared more cautious in assessing future ART adherence and responded with intensive clinical support. Extensive involvement of multidisciplinary teams was identified as an important strategy to retain youth in care, whereas strengthening youth-targeted approaches may be an unmet need in adult clinics.

CONCLUSION

Evaluation of providers' awareness of the developmental features of youth and characteristics of youth-targeted approaches in clinics caring for youth with BHIV may inform interventions to increase youth engagement in care and subsequent decisions to successfully initiate ART.

Hepatitis C virus testing in adults living with HIV: a need for improved screening efforts

OBJECTIVES

Guidelines recommend hepatitis C virus (HCV) screening for all people living with HIV (PLWH). Understanding HCV testing practices may improve compliance with guidelines and can help identify areas for future intervention.

METHODS

We evaluated HCV screening and unnecessary repeat HCV testing in 8,590 PLWH initiating care at 12 U.S. HIV clinics between 2006 and 2010, with follow-up through 2011. Multivariable logistic regression examined the association between patient factors and the outcomes: HCV screening (≥1 HCV antibody tests during the study period) and unnecessary repeat HCV testing (≥1 HCV antibody tests in patients with a prior positive test result).

RESULTS

Overall, 82% of patients were screened for HCV, 18% of those screened were HCV antibody-positive, and 40% of HCV antibody-positive patients had unnecessary repeat HCV testing. The likelihood of being screened for HCV increased as the number of outpatient visits rose (adjusted odds ratio 1.02, 95% confidence interval 1.01-1.03). Compared to men who have sex with men (MSM), patients with injection drug use (IDU) were less likely to be screened for HCV (0.63, 0.52-0.78); while individuals with Medicaid were more likely to be screened than those with private insurance (1.30, 1.04-1.62). Patients with heterosexual (1.78, 1.20-2.65) and IDU (1.58, 1.06-2.34) risk compared to MSM, and those with higher numbers of outpatient (1.03, 1.01-1.04) and inpatient (1.09, 1.01-1.19) visits were at greatest risk of unnecessary HCV testing.

CONCLUSIONS

Additional efforts to improve compliance with HCV testing guidelines are needed. Leveraging health information technology may increase HCV screening and reduce unnecessary testing.

Longitudinal evaluation of a World Wide Web-based antimicrobial stewardship program: assessing factors associated with approval patterns and trends over time

BACKGROUND

The Johns Hopkins Children's Medical and Surgery Center developed a Web-based Antimicrobial Stewardship Program (ASP) in 2005. The present study aimed to assess longitudinal antimicrobial request and approval patterns for this ASP.

METHODS

We analyzed a total of 16,229 antimicrobial requests for 3,542 patients between June 1, 2005, and June 30, 2009. Antimicrobial approval was the outcome of interest. We assessed gaming by studying trends in automatically approved requests. Nonparametric tests for trend were performed to detect changes in approval patterns. Multiple logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with approval.

RESULTS

The vast majority (91.3%) of antimicrobial requests were approved, with an increase of 6.1% over time (P < .01). Renewal requests were more likely than primary requests (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.72; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.45-2.04) to be approved. Antiviral requests had higher odds of approval than antibiotic requests (aOR, 1.27; 95% CI, 1.04-1.56). Compared with requests by medical services, requests by surgical services had lower odds of approval (aOR, 0.70; 95% CI, 0.59-0.83), whereas pediatric intensive care requests had higher odds of approval (aOR, 1.18; 95% CI, 1.00-1.40). The number of auto-approved requests remained consistent.

CONCLUSIONS

The Web-based ASP allows management of a large number of antimicrobial requests, without apparent gaming. Observed differences in approval patterns based on patient, requestor, and antimicrobial factors may inform the development of ASPs and evaluation of provider education and training.

Prevalence and outcomes of recycling NNRTIs despite documented NNRTI resistance in HIV-infected children and youth

Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) are commonly used in pediatric patients; however, rapid development of resistance, due to non-adherence and cross-resistance, results in their discontinuation and limits their recycling. We evaluated the clinical experience of recycling NNRTIs despite documented NNRTI resistance (NNRTI-R), and examined virologic and CD4 cell count outcomes among participants enrolled in Longitudinal Epidemiologic Study to Gain Insight into HIV/AIDS in Children and Youth (LEGACY), a national HIV-infected pediatric cohort. We conducted a retrospective analysis of LEGACY participants with major NNRTI-R. Using chi-square analyses and logistic regression, we examined demographic and clinical factors associated with prescription of NNRTIs despite documented NNRTI-R, and associated changes in plasma HIV RNA viral load and CD4 cell counts. Sixteen of 133 (12%) participants with documented NNRTI-R re-started NNRTIs for a median of 370 days (IQR 105-919) with a median 402 days (IQR 70-841) between documentation of NNRTI-R to NNRTI recycling. Participants recycling NNRTIs were less likely to have documented past non-adherence (40.0% vs. 69.2%; p = 0.02). Among twelve patients with virologic data at 24 (± 8) weeks; seven (58.3%) experienced virologic suppression while on the recycled NNRTI-based regimens. Of the five who failed to suppress, three with subsequent genotyping developed additional NNRTI-R mutations compromising higher generation NNRTIs. While NNRTI's were recycled in only a small fraction of LEGACY participants harboring NNRTI-R mutations, such recycling increased the risk of inducing further resistance mutations that compromised use of higher generation NNRTIs.

Changes in Advanced Immunosuppression and Detectable HIV Viremia Among Perinatally HIV-Infected Youth in the Multisite United States HIV Research Network

BACKGROUND

Due to successful antiretroviral therapy (ART), perinatally human immunodeficiency virus (PHIV)-infected children are reaching adolescence and young adulthood. Adolescence is characterized by factors (eg, increased risk-taking) that may hamper management. We examined PHIV-infected youth in a multisite US cohort, assessing factors associated with changes in advanced immunosuppression and detectable viremia over time.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study of 521 PHIV-infected youth, 12 years and older, followed at 16 HIV clinics in the HIV Research Network between 2002 and 2010. We assessed demographic and clinical factors associated with CD4 <200 cells/mm(3) and viral load ≥2.60 log10 HIV-1 RNA copies/mL using multivariable logistic regression.

RESULTS

Between 2002 and 2010, the median age of PHIV-infected youth in care increased from 14 to 18 years. The proportion prescribed ART increased from 67.4% to 84%, with virologic suppression increasing from 35.5% to 63.0% (P trend < .01). Older age, Black and Hispanic race/ethnicity, and increasing viremia were independently associated with CD4 <200 cells/mm(3). Older age, Black race and Hispanic ethnicity were independently associated with higher likelihood of detectable viremia, whereas more recent year of evaluation and being prescribed ART were associated with a lower likelihood.

CONCLUSIONS

The proportion of PHIV-infected youth on ART has increased. Rates of viremia and advanced immunosuppression have decreased in recent years, but both rates are higher for older PHIV-infected youth. Factors associated with advanced immunosuppression and viremia offer the chance to define strategies to optimize outcomes.

Antiretroviral treatment, management challenges and outcomes in perinatally HIV-infected adolescents

Three decades into the HIV/AIDS epidemic there is a growing cohort of perinatally HIV-infected adolescents globally. Their survival into adolescence and beyond represent one of the major successes in the battle against the disease that has claimed the lives of millions of children. This population is diverse and there are unique issues related to antiretroviral treatment and management. Drawing from the literature and experience, this paper discusses several broad areas related to antiretroviral management, including: 1) diverse presentation of HIV, (2) use of combination antiretroviral therapy including in the setting of co-morbidities and rapid growth and development, (3) challenges of cART, including nonadherence, resistance, and management of the highly treatment-experienced adolescent patient, (4) additional unique concerns and management issues related to PHIV-infected adolescents, including the consequences of longterm inflammation, risk of transmission, and transitions to adult care. In each section, the experience in both resource-rich and limited settings are discussed with the aim of highlighting the differences and importantly the similarities, to share lessons learnt and provide insight into the multi-faceted approaches that may be needed to address the challenges faced by this unique and resilient population.

Perinatally HIV-infected youth presenting with acute stroke: progression/evolution of ischemic disease on neuroimaging

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Although HIV infection is decreasing in infants and children, there is a steady cohort of perinatally HIV-infected (PHIV) children that are growing older. Increased risk of acute stroke has been reported in PHIV children. Our goal was to evaluate evolution/progression of neuroimaging findings in PHIV youth initially presenting with acute stroke.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The medical records of PHIV pediatric patients (n = 179) from 1996 to 2010 were reviewed and patients with clinical documentation of acute stroke referred to the neuroradiology service were eligible for the study. Neuroimaging (brain CT, MRI, and MRA) and charts were evaluated; clinical and neuroimaging findings at the initial acute stroke and at the last presentation to the neuroradiology service were documented and analyzed.

RESULTS

Eight PHIV patients with clinical findings of acute stroke referred to the neuroimaging were identified. CT and MRI findings of infarction were found in all (8/8) patients in their first and/or last neuroimaging study; including basal ganglia-thalami (BGT) infarction (7/8), focal cortical infarction (4/8), and internal capsule infarction (4/8). Imaging depicted cortical atrophy (5/8), BGT calcification (3/8), and posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome, wallerian degeneration, and periventricular white matter hyperintense T2 signal each in one patient. No tumors or infectious masses, cysts or abscesses were identified. Subsequent available neuroimaging revealed progression of the cerebrovascular disease in seven patients, 5/7 in the absence of new clinical signs or symptoms. Segmental occlusion, narrowing or narrowing/dilatation in the circle of Willis was found in 6/6 patients who underwent MR angiography and fusiform aneurysms were detected in three of them, a saccular aneurysm in one patient.

CONCLUSION

Asymptomatic progression of cerebrovascular disease was found in PHIV adolescents with prior stroke. These findings may have implications for long-term risk and outcomes for this patient population. There should be a low threshold to evaluate for CNS pathology even with minor symptoms in this population. More studies are necessary to determine if there is a benefit from screening of asymptomatic patients.