1
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Wanhainen KM, Peng C, Zhou MH, de Gois Macedo B, O’Flanagan S, Yang T, Kelekar A, Burbach BJ, da Silva HB, Jameson SC. P2RX7 Enhances Tumor Control by CD8+ T Cells in Adoptive Cell Therapy. Cancer Immunol Res 2022; 10:871-884. [PMID: 35588154 PMCID: PMC9250641 DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-21-0691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Expression of the purinergic receptor P2RX7 by CD8+ T cells promotes the generation of memory populations following acute infections. However, data suggest that P2RX7 may limit the efficacy of antitumor responses. Herein, we show that P2RX7 is beneficial for optimal melanoma control in a mouse CD8+ T-cell adoptive transfer model. Tumor-specific P2rx7-/- CD8+ T cells exhibited impaired mitochondrial maintenance and function but did not display signs of overt exhaustion early in the antitumor response. However, as the tumor burden increased, the relative frequency of P2RX7-deficient CD8+ T cells declined within the tumor; this correlated with reduced proliferation, increased apoptosis, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Extending these studies, we found that the transient in vitro stimulation of P2RX7 using the ATP analogue BzATP led to enhanced B16 melanoma control by CD8+ T cells. These findings are in keeping with the concept that extracellular ATP (eATP) sensing by P2RX7 on CD8+ T cells is required for their ability to efficiently eliminate tumors by promoting mitochondrial fitness and underscore the potential for P2RX7 stimulation as a novel therapeutic treatment to enhance tumor immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey M. Wanhainen
- University of Minnesota Center for Immunology, Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Minneapolis MN
| | - Changwei Peng
- University of Minnesota Center for Immunology, Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Minneapolis MN
| | | | | | | | - Tingyuan Yang
- University of Minnesota Center for Immunology, Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Minneapolis MN
| | - Ameeta Kelekar
- University of Minnesota Center for Immunology, Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Minneapolis MN
| | - Brandon J. Burbach
- University of Minnesota Center for Immunology, Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Minneapolis MN
| | - Henrique Borges da Silva
- University of Minnesota Center for Immunology, Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Minneapolis MN
- Mayo Clinic, Department of Immunology, Scottsdale, AZ
| | - Stephen C. Jameson
- University of Minnesota Center for Immunology, Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Minneapolis MN
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2
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Kelekar A, Jameson SC. CoAching CD8 + T cells for tumor immunotherapy-the pantothenate way. Cell Metab 2021; 33:2305-2306. [PMID: 34879235 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2021.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The metabolic state of T cells strongly influences their effector function and anti-tumor efficacy. St. Paul et al. (2021) report that Tc22, a CD8+ T cell subset with potent anti-tumor activity, upregulates the pantothenate/coenzyme A (CoA) pathway and that treatment with CoA or pantothenate is sufficient to enhance tumor immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ameeta Kelekar
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
| | - Stephen C Jameson
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
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3
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Matias MI, Yong CS, Foroushani A, Goldsmith C, Mongellaz C, Sezgin E, Levental KR, Talebi A, Perrault J, Rivière A, Dehairs J, Delos O, Bertand-Michel J, Portais JC, Wong M, Marie JC, Kelekar A, Kinet S, Zimmermann VS, Levental I, Yvan-Charvet L, Swinnen JV, Muljo SA, Hernandez-Vargas H, Tardito S, Taylor N, Dardalhon V. Regulatory T cell differentiation is controlled by αKG-induced alterations in mitochondrial metabolism and lipid homeostasis. Cell Rep 2021; 37:109911. [PMID: 34731632 PMCID: PMC10167917 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Revised: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Suppressive regulatory T cell (Treg) differentiation is controlled by diverse immunometabolic signaling pathways and intracellular metabolites. Here we show that cell-permeable α-ketoglutarate (αKG) alters the DNA methylation profile of naive CD4 T cells activated under Treg polarizing conditions, markedly attenuating FoxP3+ Treg differentiation and increasing inflammatory cytokines. Adoptive transfer of these T cells into tumor-bearing mice results in enhanced tumor infiltration, decreased FoxP3 expression, and delayed tumor growth. Mechanistically, αKG leads to an energetic state that is reprogrammed toward a mitochondrial metabolism, with increased oxidative phosphorylation and expression of mitochondrial complex enzymes. Furthermore, carbons from ectopic αKG are directly utilized in the generation of fatty acids, associated with lipidome remodeling and increased triacylglyceride stores. Notably, inhibition of either mitochondrial complex II or DGAT2-mediated triacylglyceride synthesis restores Treg differentiation and decreases the αKG-induced inflammatory phenotype. Thus, we identify a crosstalk between αKG, mitochondrial metabolism and triacylglyceride synthesis that controls Treg fate.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Differentiation/drug effects
- Cells, Cultured
- Cytokines/genetics
- Cytokines/metabolism
- Diacylglycerol O-Acyltransferase/metabolism
- Energy Metabolism/drug effects
- Fibrosarcoma/genetics
- Fibrosarcoma/immunology
- Fibrosarcoma/metabolism
- Fibrosarcoma/therapy
- Forkhead Transcription Factors/genetics
- Forkhead Transcription Factors/metabolism
- Homeostasis
- Humans
- Immunotherapy, Adoptive
- Ketoglutaric Acids/pharmacology
- Lipid Metabolism/drug effects
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mitochondria/drug effects
- Mitochondria/genetics
- Mitochondria/metabolism
- Phenotype
- Receptors, Chimeric Antigen/genetics
- Receptors, Chimeric Antigen/metabolism
- Signal Transduction
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/transplantation
- Th1 Cells/drug effects
- Th1 Cells/immunology
- Th1 Cells/metabolism
- Mice
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria I Matias
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Carmen S Yong
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France; Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Amir Foroushani
- Laboratory of Immune System Biology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Chloe Goldsmith
- Cancer Research Center of Lyon, University Lyon 1, Inserm/ CNRS, Labex DEVweCAN, Lyon France
| | - Cédric Mongellaz
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Erdinc Sezgin
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institute, Solna, Sweden
| | - Kandice R Levental
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Ali Talebi
- Laboratory of Lipid Metabolism and Cancer, Leuven Cancer Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Julie Perrault
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Anais Rivière
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Jonas Dehairs
- Laboratory of Lipid Metabolism and Cancer, Leuven Cancer Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Océane Delos
- MetaboHUB-MetaToul, National Infrastructure of Metabolomics and Fluxomics, Toulouse, France; I2MC, Université de Toulouse, Inserm, Toulouse, France
| | - Justine Bertand-Michel
- MetaboHUB-MetaToul, National Infrastructure of Metabolomics and Fluxomics, Toulouse, France; I2MC, Université de Toulouse, Inserm, Toulouse, France
| | - Jean-Charles Portais
- MetaboHUB-MetaToul, National Infrastructure of Metabolomics and Fluxomics, Toulouse, France
| | - Madeline Wong
- Laboratory of Immune System Biology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Julien C Marie
- Cancer Research Center of Lyon, University Lyon 1, Inserm/ CNRS, Labex DEVweCAN, Lyon France
| | - Ameeta Kelekar
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Sandrina Kinet
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Valérie S Zimmermann
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Ilya Levental
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | | | - Johannes V Swinnen
- Laboratory of Lipid Metabolism and Cancer, Leuven Cancer Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Stefan A Muljo
- Laboratory of Immune System Biology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Hector Hernandez-Vargas
- Cancer Research Center of Lyon, University Lyon 1, Inserm/ CNRS, Labex DEVweCAN, Lyon France
| | - Saverio Tardito
- Cancer Research UK, Beatson Institute, Glasgow, UK; Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Naomi Taylor
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France; Pediatric Oncology Branch, NCI, CCR, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Valérie Dardalhon
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France.
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4
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McDonald-Hyman C, Muller JT, Loschi M, Thangavelu G, Saha A, Kumari S, Reichenbach DK, Smith MJ, Zhang G, Koehn BH, Lin J, Mitchell JS, Fife BT, Panoskaltsis-Mortari A, Feser CJ, Kirchmeier AK, Osborn MJ, Hippen KL, Kelekar A, Serody JS, Turka LA, Munn DH, Chi H, Neubert TA, Dustin ML, Blazar BR. The vimentin intermediate filament network restrains regulatory T cell suppression of graft-versus-host disease. J Clin Invest 2018; 128:4604-4621. [PMID: 30106752 DOI: 10.1172/jci95713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are critical for maintaining immune homeostasis. However, current Treg immunotherapies do not optimally treat inflammatory diseases in patients. Understanding the cellular processes that control Treg function may allow for the augmentation of therapeutic efficacy. In contrast to activated conventional T cells, in which protein kinase C-θ (PKC-θ) localizes to the contact point between T cells and antigen-presenting cells, in human and mouse Tregs, PKC-θ localizes to the opposite end of the cell in the distal pole complex (DPC). Here, using a phosphoproteomic screen, we identified the intermediate filament vimentin as a PKC-θ phospho target and show that vimentin forms a DPC superstructure on which PKC-θ accumulates. Treatment of mouse Tregs with either a clinically relevant PKC-θ inhibitor or vimentin siRNA disrupted vimentin and enhanced Treg metabolic and suppressive activity. Moreover, vimentin-disrupted mouse Tregs were significantly better than controls at suppressing alloreactive T cell priming in graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) and GVHD lethality, using a complete MHC-mismatch mouse model of acute GVHD (C57BL/6 donor into BALB/c host). Interestingly, vimentin disruption augmented the suppressor function of PKC-θ-deficient mouse Tregs. This suggests that enhanced Treg activity after PKC-θ inhibition is secondary to effects on vimentin, not just PKC-θ kinase activity inhibition. Our data demonstrate that vimentin is a key metabolic and functional controller of Treg activity and provide proof of principle that disruption of vimentin is a feasible, translationally relevant method to enhance Treg potency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cameron McDonald-Hyman
- Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Department of Pediatrics, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.,The Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - James T Muller
- Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, and Department of Cell Biology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Michael Loschi
- Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Department of Pediatrics, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.,The Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Govindarajan Thangavelu
- Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Department of Pediatrics, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.,The Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Asim Saha
- Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Department of Pediatrics, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.,The Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Sudha Kumari
- Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, and Department of Cell Biology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Dawn K Reichenbach
- Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Department of Pediatrics, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.,The Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Michelle J Smith
- Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Department of Pediatrics, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.,The Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Guoan Zhang
- Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, and Department of Cell Biology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Brent H Koehn
- Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Department of Pediatrics, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.,The Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Jiqiang Lin
- Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, and Department of Cell Biology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jason S Mitchell
- The Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.,Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Brian T Fife
- The Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.,Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Angela Panoskaltsis-Mortari
- Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Department of Pediatrics, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Colby J Feser
- Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Department of Pediatrics, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Andrew Kemal Kirchmeier
- Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Department of Pediatrics, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Mark J Osborn
- Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Department of Pediatrics, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Keli L Hippen
- Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Department of Pediatrics, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Ameeta Kelekar
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Jonathan S Serody
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Laurence A Turka
- Center for Transplantation Sciences, Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - David H Munn
- Department of Pediatrics, Georgia Health Sciences University, Augusta, Georgia, USA
| | - Hongbo Chi
- Department of Immunology, Saint Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Thomas A Neubert
- Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, and Department of Cell Biology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Michael L Dustin
- Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Bruce R Blazar
- Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Department of Pediatrics, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.,The Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
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5
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Borges da Silva H, Beura LK, Wang H, Hanse EA, Gore R, Scott MC, Walsh DA, Block KE, Fonseca R, Yan Y, Hippen KL, Blazar BR, Masopust D, Kelekar A, Vulchanova L, Hogquist KA, Jameson SC. The purinergic receptor P2RX7 directs metabolic fitness of long-lived memory CD8 + T cells. Nature 2018; 559:264-268. [PMID: 29973721 PMCID: PMC6054485 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-018-0282-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular ATP (eATP) is an ancient 'danger signal' used by eukaryotes to detect cellular damage1. In mice and humans, the release of eATP during inflammation or injury stimulates both innate immune activation and chronic pain through the purinergic receptor P2RX72-4. It is unclear, however, whether this pathway influences the generation of immunological memory, a hallmark of the adaptive immune system that constitutes the basis of vaccines and protective immunity against re-infection5,6. Here we show that P2RX7 is required for the establishment, maintenance and functionality of long-lived central and tissue-resident memory CD8+ T cell populations in mice. By contrast, P2RX7 is not required for the generation of short-lived effector CD8+ T cells. Mechanistically, P2RX7 promotes mitochondrial homeostasis and metabolic function in differentiating memory CD8+ T cells, at least in part by inducing AMP-activated protein kinase. Pharmacological inhibitors of P2RX7 provoked dysregulated metabolism and differentiation of activated mouse and human CD8+ T cells in vitro, and transient P2RX7 blockade in vivo ameliorated neuropathic pain but also compromised production of CD8+ memory T cells. These findings show that activation of P2RX7 by eATP provides a common currency that both alerts the nervous and immune system to tissue damage, and promotes the metabolic fitness and survival of the most durable and functionally relevant memory CD8+ T cell populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrique Borges da Silva
- Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Lalit K Beura
- Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Haiguang Wang
- Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Eric A Hanse
- Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Reshma Gore
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Milcah C Scott
- Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Daniel A Walsh
- Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Katharine E Block
- Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Raissa Fonseca
- Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Yan Yan
- Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Keli L Hippen
- Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Bruce R Blazar
- Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - David Masopust
- Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Ameeta Kelekar
- Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Lucy Vulchanova
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Kristin A Hogquist
- Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Stephen C Jameson
- Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA. .,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
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6
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Hippen K, O’Connor R, Lemire A, Saha A, Hanse E, Tennis N, Merkel S, Kelekar A, Riley J, Levine B, June C, Kean L, MacMillan M, Miller J, Wagner J, Munn D, Blazar B, Blazar BR. In Vitro Induction of Human Regulatory T Cells Using Conditions of Low Tryptophan Plus Kynurenines. Am J Transplant 2017; 17:3098-3113. [PMID: 28470889 PMCID: PMC5671378 DOI: 10.1111/ajt.14338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2017] [Revised: 04/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Thymic regulatory T cells (tTregs) and induced regulatory T cells (iTregs) suppress murine acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). Previously, we demonstrated that the plasmacytoid dendritic cell indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) fosters the in vitro development of human iTregs via tryptophan depletion and kynurenine (Kyn) metabolites. We now show that stimulation of naïve CD4+ T cells in low tryptophan (low Trp) plus Kyn supports human iTreg generation. In vitro, low Trp + Kyn iTregs and tTregs potently suppress T effector cell proliferation equivalently but are phenotypically distinct. Compared with tTregs or T effector cells, bioenergetics profiling reveals that low Trp + Kyn iTregs have increased basal glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation and use glutaminolysis as an energy source. Low Trp + Kyn iTreg viability was reliant on interleukin (IL)-2 in vitro. Although in vivo IL-2 administration increased low Trp + Kyn iTreg persistence on adoptive transfer into immunodeficient mice given peripheral blood mononuclear cells to induce GVHD, IL-2-supported iTregs did not improve recipient survival. We conclude that low Trp + Kyn create suppressive iTregs that have high metabolic needs that will need to be addressed before clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- K.L. Hippen
- University of Minnesota Cancer Center and the Department of Pediatrics, Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Minneapolis, MN USA 55455
| | - R.S. O’Connor
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - A.M. Lemire
- University of Minnesota Cancer Center and the Department of Pediatrics, Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Minneapolis, MN USA 55455
| | - A. Saha
- University of Minnesota Cancer Center and the Department of Pediatrics, Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Minneapolis, MN USA 55455
| | - E.A. Hanse
- Department of Lab Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota Minneapolis, MN USA 55455
| | - N.C. Tennis
- University of Minnesota Cancer Center and the Department of Pediatrics, Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Minneapolis, MN USA 55455
| | - S.C. Merkel
- University of Minnesota Cancer Center and the Department of Pediatrics, Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Minneapolis, MN USA 55455
| | - A Kelekar
- Department of Lab Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota Minneapolis, MN USA 55455
| | - J.L. Riley
- Abramson Family Cancer Center Research Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - B.L. Levine
- Abramson Family Cancer Center Research Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - C.H. June
- Abramson Family Cancer Center Research Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - L.S. Kean
- Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, the University of Washington, and the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle WA 98101
| | - M.L. MacMillan
- University of Minnesota Cancer Center and the Department of Pediatrics, Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Minneapolis, MN USA 55455
| | - J.S. Miller
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology and Transplantation, the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN USA 55455
| | - J.E. Wagner
- University of Minnesota Cancer Center and the Department of Pediatrics, Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Minneapolis, MN USA 55455
| | - D.H. Munn
- Medical College of Georgia, Immunotherapy Center, Augusta, GA
| | - B.R. Blazar
- University of Minnesota Cancer Center and the Department of Pediatrics, Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Minneapolis, MN USA 55455
| | - B R Blazar
- Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN
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7
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Olenchock BA, Moslehi J, Baik AH, Davidson SM, Williams J, Gibson WJ, Chakraborty AA, Pierce KA, Miller CM, Hanse EA, Kelekar A, Sullivan LB, Wagers AJ, Clish CB, Vander Heiden MG, Kaelin WG. EGLN1 Inhibition and Rerouting of α-Ketoglutarate Suffice for Remote Ischemic Protection. Cell 2016; 164:884-95. [PMID: 26919427 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2016.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2015] [Revised: 12/12/2015] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Ischemic preconditioning is the phenomenon whereby brief periods of sublethal ischemia protect against a subsequent, more prolonged, ischemic insult. In remote ischemic preconditioning (RIPC), ischemia to one organ protects others organs at a distance. We created mouse models to ask if inhibition of the alpha-ketoglutarate (αKG)-dependent dioxygenase Egln1, which senses oxygen and regulates the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) transcription factor, could suffice to mediate local and remote ischemic preconditioning. Using somatic gene deletion and a pharmacological inhibitor, we found that inhibiting Egln1 systemically or in skeletal muscles protects mice against myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. Parabiosis experiments confirmed that RIPC in this latter model was mediated by a secreted factor. Egln1 loss causes accumulation of circulating αKG, which drives hepatic production and secretion of kynurenic acid (KYNA) that is necessary and sufficient to mediate cardiac ischemic protection in this setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin A Olenchock
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, The Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Javid Moslehi
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37235, USA
| | - Alan H Baik
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94117, USA
| | - Shawn M Davidson
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Jeremy Williams
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - William J Gibson
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | | | - Kerry A Pierce
- Metabolomics Platform, Broad Institute, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Christine M Miller
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA; Joslin Diabetes Center, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Eric A Hanse
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology and Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Ameeta Kelekar
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology and Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Lucas B Sullivan
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Amy J Wagers
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA; Joslin Diabetes Center, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Clary B Clish
- Metabolomics Platform, Broad Institute, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Matthew G Vander Heiden
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - William G Kaelin
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA.
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8
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Guo Z, Sevrioukova I, Hanse E, Zhang X, Denisov I, Chiu TL, Cuellar R, Torres C, Wulfkuhle J, Petricoin E, Cao Q, Chu H, Norris B, Schumacher R, Kelekar A, Blair I, Capdevila J, Falck J, Poulos T, Sligar S, Georg G, Amin E, Potter DA. Abstract 44: Hexyl-benzyl-biguanide (HBB) potently and selectively inhibits CYP3A4 epoxygenase activity and inhibits EET stabilization of mitochondrial respiration in ER+HER2- breast cancer cells, inducing glycolysis and pyruvate biosynthesis. Cancer Res 2016. [DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.am2016-44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) promotes ER+HER2- breast cancer cell proliferation and survival, in part, by biosynthesis of epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs). EETs are known to regulate mitochondrial function in non-transformed cells, but the roles of CYP3A4 and EETs in regulation of breast cancer bioenergetics are unknown. Hexyl-benzyl-biguanide (HBB) is useful probe of CYP3A4 epoxygenase activity and selectively inhibits EET biosynthesis (IC50 = 9 uM vs. IC50 = 50 uM for CYP2C8). HBB caused depolarization of mitochondria in MCF-7 cells, while (±)-14,15-EET provided partial protection. The soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) inhibitor t-AUCB ameliorated inhibition of oxygen consumption rates (OCR) by HBB (20 uM), while there was no effect on extracellular acidification rate (ECAR), indicating that the primary effect of HBB is on OCR. At 30 minutes, HBB added to MCF-7 cells transiently suppressed phosphorylation of pyruvate kinase muscle isozyme 2 (PKM2) on Tyr-105, which has been reported to favor enzymatically inactive dimer over active tetramer. Suppression of phosphorylated PKM2 correlated with subsequent PKM2 tetramer formation and increase of intracellular pyruvate and extracellular lactate at 1 hour. The (±)-14,15-EET regioisomer reduced the pro-glycolytic PKM2 tetramer at 1 hour, suggesting that HBB may promote PKM2 tetramer, in part, through reduction of EET. Prolonged exposure to HBB (20 uM) in cultured cells activated phosphorylation of PKM2 on Tyr-105, but there was increased cellular necrosis correlating with reduced mitochondrial respiration and reduction of ATP stores, indicating that loss of respiration was the dominant effect. HBB inhibited the ER+HER2- MCF-7 xenograft, similar to CYP3A4 silencing. HBB promoted phosphorylation of intratumoral PKM2 on Tyr-105, consistent with long-term exposure to HBB in cultured MCF-7 cells. Notably, MCF-7 tumor response to HBB did not correlate with phosphorylation of AMPK-alpha on Thr-172, a marker of AMPK activation. Metformin (5 mM) exhibited no effect on PKM2 or its phosphorylation in cultured MCF-7 cells. Together, these results indicate that part of the inhibitory effect of HBB on ER+HER2- breast cancer is mediated through inhibition of respiration.
Significance: These results establish HBB as a useful chemical probe of respiration, with indirect effects on PKM2 regulation. HBB may also be useful as a potential therapeutic candidate for ER+HER2- breast cancer.
Citation Format: Zhijun Guo, Irina Sevrioukova, Eric Hanse, Xia Zhang, Ilia Denisov, Ting-Lan Chiu, Rebecca Cuellar, Christian Torres, Julia Wulfkuhle, Emanuel Petricoin, Qing Cao, Haitao Chu, Beverly Norris, Robert Schumacher, Ameeta Kelekar, Ian Blair, Jorge Capdevila, John Falck, Thomas Poulos, Steven Sligar, Gunda Georg, Elizabeth Amin, David A. Potter. Hexyl-benzyl-biguanide (HBB) potently and selectively inhibits CYP3A4 epoxygenase activity and inhibits EET stabilization of mitochondrial respiration in ER+HER2- breast cancer cells, inducing glycolysis and pyruvate biosynthesis. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 107th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2016 Apr 16-20; New Orleans, LA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2016;76(14 Suppl):Abstract nr 44.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijun Guo
- 1University of Minnesota Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN
| | | | - Eric Hanse
- 1University of Minnesota Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Xia Zhang
- 1University of Minnesota Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Qing Cao
- 1University of Minnesota Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Haitao Chu
- 4University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | | | | | - Ameeta Kelekar
- 1University of Minnesota Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Ian Blair
- 7University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | | | - John Falck
- 9University of Texas Southwestern, Dallas, TX
| | | | | | | | | | - David A. Potter
- 1University of Minnesota Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN
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9
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McDonald-Hyman C, Thangavelu G, Saha A, Muller J, Zhang G, Kumari S, Koehn BH, Mitchell JS, Fife BT, Serody JS, Osborn MJ, Hippen KL, Kelekar A, Munn DH, Altman A, Neubert T, Dustin ML, Blazar BR. Protein Kinase C-θ and vimentin modulate multiple facets of Regulatory T-cell function. The Journal of Immunology 2016. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.196.supp.140.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Regulatory T-cells (Tregs) prevent autoimmune and alloimmune reactions. Augmenting Treg function may enhance Treg therapies for these diseases. Treg-specific inhibition of protein kinase C-theta (PKC-θ) enhances Treg function. However, it is unclear whether PKC-θ inhibition can boost Treg function in systemic inflammatory conditions.
In a mouse model of acute GVHD, we found that Tregs treated with the PKC-θ inhibitor AEB071 reduced GVHD mortality and severity significantly better than DMSO treated Tregs. Compared to DMSO, AEB071 treated Tregs significantly reduced conventional T-cells (Tcon) proliferation on D4 after transplant. Multi-photon microscopy showed that AEB071 treated Tregs significantly increased Tcon velocity and displacement compared to DMSO.
Mechanistically, AEB071 augments expression of Neuropilin-1 (Nrp1) and Lymphocyte activation gene 3 (Lag3). Antibody blockade of Nrp1 and Lag3 in transwell suppression assays reduced the effect of AEB071 on Treg function. PKC-θ inhibition also reduces phosphorylation of mTORC2 targets FoxO3a and Akt phospho-site S473, but not mTORC1 targets S6, 4E-BP1 or Akt phospho-site T308. Compared to DMSO, AEB071 treatment significantly increased fatty acid uptake and oxygen consumption rate (OCR).
Phosphoproteomic analysis identified a significant alteration in the interaction between PKC-θ and the intermediate filament vimentin after AEB071 treatment, which was confirmed by confocal. Vimentin siRNA treatment also significantly reduces PKC-θ/vimentin interaction, increases Treg function, Nrp1 expression and OCR.
In summary, PKC-θ and vimentin modulate multiple aspects of Treg function, and altering these molecules may enhance the efficacy of Treg therapeutics.
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Olenchock B, Moslehi J, Baik A, Davidson S, Williams J, Gibson W, Chakraborty A, Pierce K, Miller C, Hanse E, Kelekar A, Sullivan L, Wagers A, Clish C, Vander Heiden M, Kaelin W. EGLN1 Inhibition and Rerouting of α-Ketoglutarate Suffice for Remote Ischemic Protection. Cell 2016; 165:497. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2016.03.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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11
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Espinoza-Fonseca LM, Kelekar A. High-resolution structural characterization of Noxa, an intrinsically disordered protein, by microsecond molecular dynamics simulations. Mol Biosyst 2016; 11:1850-6. [PMID: 25855872 DOI: 10.1039/c5mb00170f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
High-resolution characterization of the structure and dynamics of intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) remains a challenging task. Consequently, a detailed understanding of the structural and functional features of IDPs remains limited, as very few full-length disordered proteins have been structurally characterized. We have performed microsecond-long molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of Noxa, the smallest member of the large Bcl-2 family of apoptosis regulating proteins, to characterize in atomic-level detail the structural features of a disordered protein. A 2.5 μs MD simulation starting from an unfolded state of the protein revealed the formation of a central antiparallel β-sheet structure flanked by two disordered segments at the N- and C-terminal ends. This topology is in reasonable agreement with protein disorder predictions and available experimental data. We show that this fold plays an essential role in the intracellular function and regulation of Noxa. We demonstrate that unbiased MD simulations in combination with a modern force field reveal structural and functional features of disordered proteins at atomic-level resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Michel Espinoza-Fonseca
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
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12
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Karim CB, Michel Espinoza-Fonseca L, James ZM, Hanse EA, Gaynes JS, Thomas DD, Kelekar A. Erratum: Structural Mechanism for Regulation of Bcl-2 protein Noxa by phosphorylation. Sci Rep 2015; 5:15872. [PMID: 26513659 PMCID: PMC4625474 DOI: 10.1038/srep15872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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13
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Karim CB, Espinoza-Fonseca LM, James ZM, Hanse EA, Gaynes JS, Thomas DD, Kelekar A. Structural Mechanism for Regulation of Bcl-2 protein Noxa by phosphorylation. Sci Rep 2015; 5:14557. [PMID: 26411306 PMCID: PMC4585961 DOI: 10.1038/srep14557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
We showed previously that phosphorylation of Noxa, a 54-residue Bcl-2 protein, at serine 13 (Ser13) inhibited its ability to promote apoptosis through interactions with canonical binding partner, Mcl-1. Using EPR spectroscopy, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and binding assays, we offer evidence that a structural alteration caused by phosphorylation partially masks Noxa’s BH3 domain, inhibiting the Noxa-Mcl-1 interaction. EPR of unphosphorylated Noxa, with spin-labeled amino acid TOAC incorporated within the BH3 domain, revealed equilibrium between ordered and dynamically disordered states. Mcl-1 further restricted the ordered component for non-phosphorylated Noxa, but left the pSer13 Noxa profile unchanged. Microsecond MD simulations indicated that the BH3 domain of unphosphorylated Noxa is housed within a flexible loop connecting two antiparallel β-sheets, flanked by disordered N- and C-termini and Ser13 phosphorylation creates a network of salt-bridges that facilitate the interaction between the N-terminus and the BH3 domain. EPR showed that a spin label inserted near the N-terminus was weakly immobilized in unphosphorylated Noxa, consistent with a solvent-exposed helix/loop, but strongly constrained in pSer13 Noxa, indicating a more ordered peptide backbone, as predicted by MD simulations. Together these studies reveal a novel mechanism by which phosphorylation of a distal serine inhibits a pro-apoptotic BH3 domain and promotes cell survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine B Karim
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455
| | - L Michel Espinoza-Fonseca
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455
| | - Zachary M James
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455
| | - Eric A Hanse
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology and Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455
| | - Jeffrey S Gaynes
- College of Biological Sciences, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455
| | - David D Thomas
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455
| | - Ameeta Kelekar
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology and Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
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14
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Gaynes JS, Hanse EA, Kelekar A. Abstract 3043: Discovery of a novel mitochondrial protein complex containing pro-apoptotic Noxa in leukemia. Cancer Res 2015. [DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.am2015-3043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Apoptosis evasion and altered nutrient metabolism are recognized as major contributors to cancer development. However, the degree to which apoptosis and metabolism are integrated in malignant cells remains poorly understood. Previously our group observed alterations in mitochondrial function mediated by expression of the pro-apoptotic member of the Bcl-2 family Noxa. Here, we report the presence of a large 650 kilodalton multi-protein complex specific to the mitochondria of Jurkat leukemia cells that contains Noxa. We also detect a similar mitochondrial protein complex in cells expressing Noxa with a mutated BH3 domain, suggestive of an apoptosis-independent metabolic function for this Bcl-2 family member. Lastly, we present here the successful isolation of this complex aimed at identifying other complex components via mass spectrometry. This unique strategy included purifying the complex by gel-filtration chromatography, and then resolving the complex into an acrylamide gel by either size or charge, followed by separating the individual complex components by size. Future studies are geared towards identifying the other components of the complex, looking for presence of this complex in other cancers, and understanding how this complex may function in maintaining mitochondrial homeostasis in cancer. In summary, the data presented here strongly suggests a non-canonical function for Noxa in regulating mitochondrial function independent of apoptosis in leukemia, and possibly other malignancies.
Note: This abstract was not presented at the meeting.
Citation Format: Jeffrey S. Gaynes, Eric A. Hanse, Ameeta Kelekar. Discovery of a novel mitochondrial protein complex containing pro-apoptotic Noxa in leukemia. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 106th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2015 Apr 18-22; Philadelphia, PA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2015;75(15 Suppl):Abstract nr 3043. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2015-3043
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15
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Guo Z, Sevrioukova IF, Hanse E, Denisov I, Zhang X, Chiu TL, Swedien D, Stamschror J, Alvarez J, Ortiz WM, Morgan M, Maher M, Chavez KJ, Thomas D, Bae YK, Henriksen J, Norris B, Schumacher RJ, Wang H, Bliss R, Chu H, Cuellar R, Poulos TL, Sligar SG, Atkins W, Schmechel S, Capdevila J, Falck J, Blair I, Jones JP, Georg G, Gupta K, Kelekar A, Amin E, Potter DA. Abstract 3568: CYP3A4 epoxygenase activity mediates ER+ mammary tumor growth and angiogenesis, in part, through EET biosynthesis and is inhibited by biguanides. Cancer Res 2015. [DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.am2015-3568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
While cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYPs) are implicated in tumor angiogenesis through biosynthesis of epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs), little is known about breast cancer cell-intrinsic CYPs that exhibit epoxygenase activity, such as CYP3A4. In an orthotopic breast cancer model, silencing of epithelial CYP3A4 suppressed angiogenesis-related escape of ER+ breast tumors from dormancy. While the diabetes drug metformin inhibits mitochondrial complex I and inhibits tumor growth, how it does so is unknown. Metformin inhibited CYP epoxygenase activity and co-crystallized in the active site of CYP3A4, hydrogen bonding with arginine 212, allowing the development of hexyl-benzyl-biguanide (HBB) as a CYP3A4 inhibitor using molecular modeling. HBB exhibited more than 10-fold greater potency than metformin for inhibition of ER+ mammary tumor growth and inhibited associated tumor angiogenesis. HBB inhibited EET biosynthesis ∼40-fold more potently than metformin and was ∼40-fold more potent for activation of AMPK phosphorylation. EETs suppressed and CYP silencing promoted AMPK phosphorylation, linking CYPs with AMPK regulation in breast cancer. HBB depolarized mitochondria, reduced oxygen consumption rates and suppressed the Warburg effect, while EETs restored the mitochondrial membrane potential. CYP3A4 silencing and HBB treatment increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, suggesting that CYPs suppress cancer cell death, in part, through suppression of ROS. CYP3A4 silencing sensitized breast cancer cells to hormonal therapy and chemotherapy, abrogated by EETs. Because EETs are autocrine, paracrine and endocrine, these results implicate CYPs in tumor growth, in part, through cell-cell mediation of mitochondrial homeostasis and demonstrate the potential of CYP3A4 as a therapeutic target in breast cancer.
Citation Format: Zhijun Guo, Irina F. Sevrioukova, Eric Hanse, Ilia Denisov, Xia Zhang, Ting-Lan Chiu, Daniel Swedien, Justin Stamschror, Juan Alvarez, William Marerro Ortiz, Monique Morgan, Michael Maher, Kathryn J. Chavez, Dafydd Thomas, Young Kyung Bae, Jonathan Henriksen, Beverly Norris, Robert J. Schumacher, Henry Wang, Robin Bliss, Haitao Chu, Rebecca Cuellar, Thomas L. Poulos, Stephen G. Sligar, William Atkins, Stephen Schmechel, Jorge Capdevila, John Falck, Ian Blair, Jeffrey P. Jones, Gunda Georg, Kalpna Gupta, Ameeta Kelekar, Elizabeth Amin, David A. Potter. CYP3A4 epoxygenase activity mediates ER+ mammary tumor growth and angiogenesis, in part, through EET biosynthesis and is inhibited by biguanides. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 106th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2015 Apr 18-22; Philadelphia, PA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2015;75(15 Suppl):Abstract nr 3568. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2015-3568
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijun Guo
- 1University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | | | - Eric Hanse
- 1University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Ilia Denisov
- 3University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL
| | - Xia Zhang
- 1University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | | | | | | | - Juan Alvarez
- 4University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Young Kyung Bae
- 7Yeungnam University College of Medicine, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | | - Henry Wang
- 1University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | | | - Haitao Chu
- 1University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - John Falck
- 10University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX
| | - Ian Blair
- 11University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
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16
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Guo Z, Chavez KJ, Alvarez J, Zhang X, Norris B, Maher M, Morgan M, Schumacher RJ, Cuellar R, Sevrioukova IF, Poulos TL, Denisov I, Sligar SG, Gupta K, Blair IA, Capdevila J, Kelekar A, Amin E, Georg G, Potter DA. Abstract 2689: Breast cancer inhibition by a novel and potent biguanide, N1-hexyl-N5-benzyl-biguanide. Cancer Res 2014. [DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.am2014-2689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Metformin is a widely used biguanide diabetes drug that is associated with decreased breast cancer risk and is currently being studied for treatment and prevention of breast cancer. While metformin and biguanides buformin and phenformin exhibit inhibitory activity against breast cancer in vitro and in vivo, they lack potency (IC50=5-20 mM) and their mechanisms of action remain unclear. More potent biguanides may provide insights into biguanide anti-cancer activity and we therefore studied the novel biguanide N1-hexyl-N5-benzyl-biguanide mesylate (HBB), which potently inhibits the MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer lines (IC50=20 uM for both lines). HBB induces AMPK phosphorylation in both lines at 10 uM concentration, whereas similarly dosed metformin, buformin or phenformin exhibits no activity. HBB also inhibits STAT3 phosphorylation at 10 uM concentration, whereas metformin dosed at 10 uM exhibits no activity. HBB reduced the mitochondrial membrane potential of both lines, but the effect was more prominent in the MDA-MB-231 line. HBB also induced ROS within 2.5 hours of exposure in the MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 lines and caused rapid necrosis, but not apoptosis. N-acetylcysteine provides partial protection from HBB for MDA-231 line, but not the MCF-7 line. HBB provides proof of principle that highly potent biguanides can be synthesized with at least 250-fold greater potency than metformin, which can provide insights into the cancer inhibitory mechanisms of biguanide drugs. R01 CA113570, Randy Shaver Foundation, CTSI University of Minnesota
Citation Format: Zhijun Guo, Kathryn J. Chavez, Juan Alvarez, Xia Zhang, Beverly Norris, Michael Maher, Monique Morgan, Robert J. Schumacher, Rebecca Cuellar, Irina F. Sevrioukova, Thomas L. Poulos, Ilia Denisov, Stephen G. Sligar, Kalpna Gupta, Ian A. Blair, Jorge Capdevila, Ameeta Kelekar, Elizabeth Amin, Gunda Georg, David A. Potter. Breast cancer inhibition by a novel and potent biguanide, N1-hexyl-N5-benzyl-biguanide. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 105th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2014 Apr 5-9; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2014;74(19 Suppl):Abstract nr 2689. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2014-2689
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijun Guo
- 1University of Minnesota Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN
| | | | - Juan Alvarez
- 2University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD
| | - Xia Zhang
- 1University of Minnesota Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Beverly Norris
- 1University of Minnesota Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Michael Maher
- 1University of Minnesota Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Monique Morgan
- 1University of Minnesota Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN
| | | | - Rebecca Cuellar
- 1University of Minnesota Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN
| | | | | | - Ilia Denisov
- 4University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL
| | | | - Kalpna Gupta
- 1University of Minnesota Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN
| | | | | | - Ameeta Kelekar
- 1University of Minnesota Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Elizabeth Amin
- 1University of Minnesota Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Gunda Georg
- 1University of Minnesota Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN
| | - David A. Potter
- 1University of Minnesota Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN
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Benson J, Lowman X, Hanse E, Kelekar A. A role for Noxa in human primary T cell activation and metabolic reprogramming (LYM4P.756). The Journal of Immunology 2014. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.192.supp.65.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Upon activation, T cells undergo changes to meet the metabolic demands of proliferation, including the upregulation of aerobic glycolysis. The expression of the Bcl-2 protein Mcl-1 and paradoxically that of its pro-apoptotic binding partner Noxa is also upregulated. Studies showing Noxa is post-translationally modified in both primary and leukemic human T cells, such that its death function is masked, suggest that Noxa plays a direct role in T cell proliferation and survival. Our data show that Noxa also regulates metabolic flux in Jurkat T cells. Here we evaluate Noxa’s role in early proliferation and metabolic reprogramming of human primary T cells. Surprisingly glutamine, but not glucose, was essential for Noxa induction following stimulation. T cells stimulated in the absence of glucose or glutamine exhibit an activated phenotype comparable to controls although cell viability was low in the absence of glucose. The high oxygen consumption and low extracellular acidification rates (OCR and ECAR) of glucose-deprived cells pointed to an early switch to glutamine for mitochondrial respiration during activation. Conversely, glutamine-deprived cells decreased OCR but increased glycolysis to maintain an elevated ECAR, reminiscent of the Warburg effect. We also traced the path of [13C] glucose and glutamine during this metabolic switch. Our data demonstrate for the first time how human primary T cells reprogram metabolism upon activation and how Noxa contributes to these pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenna Benson
- 1Department of Laboratory Medicine & Pathology and Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Xazmin Lowman
- 1Department of Laboratory Medicine & Pathology and Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Eric Hanse
- 1Department of Laboratory Medicine & Pathology and Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Ameeta Kelekar
- 1Department of Laboratory Medicine & Pathology and Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
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Das SG, Hermanson DL, Bleeker N, Lowman X, Li Y, Kelekar A, Xing C. Ethyl 2-amino-6-(3,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-4-(2-ethoxy-2-oxoethyl)-4H-chromene-3-carboxylate (CXL017): a novel scaffold that resensitizes multidrug resistant leukemia cells to chemotherapy. ACS Chem Biol 2013; 8:327-35. [PMID: 23102022 DOI: 10.1021/cb300460f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) is a major hurdle in the treatment of cancer, and there is a pressing need for new therapies. We have recently developed ethyl 2-amino-6-(3,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-4-(2-ethoxy-2-oxoethyl)-4H-chromene-3-carboxylate (CXL017), derived from a dual inhibitor of Bcl-2 and SERCA proteins, sHA 14-1, with selective cytotoxicity toward MDR cancer cell lines in vitro. In this study, we present new evidence for its therapeutic potential in treatment of MDR cancers and offer mechanistic insights toward its preferential targeting of drug-resistant cancer. CXL017 selectively suppressed the growth of tumors derived from the MDR cancer cell line, HL60/MX2, in vivo. In addition, even after chronic exposure to CXL017, HL60/MX2 failed to develop stable resistance to CXL017, whereas it acquired >2000-fold resistance to cytarabine (Ara-C), the major first-line chemotherapy for the treatment of acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Remarkably, instead of acquiring further cross-resistance, HL60/MX2 cells exposed to CXL017 were resensitized to standard therapies (10- to 100-fold). Western blotting analyses revealed that CXL017 exposure significantly down-regulated Mcl-1 and Bax and up-regulated Noxa, Bim, Bcl-X(L), SERCA2, and SERCA3 proteins, along with a reduction in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) calcium content. Given the well-established functions of Bcl-2 family proteins and ER calcium in drug resistance, our results suggest that the down-regulation of Mcl-1 and the up-regulation of Noxa and Bim along with the decrease in ER calcium content are likely responsible for CXL017-induced resensitization of MDR cancer cells. These data also demonstrate the unique potential of CXL017 to overcome MDR in cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia G. Das
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, 308 Harvard Street SE, Minneapolis,
Minnesota 55455, United States
- Department of Biochemistry, Tufts University School of Medicine, 150 Harrison Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts
02111, United States
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, 425 East River Road, Minneapolis,
Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - David L. Hermanson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, 308 Harvard Street SE, Minneapolis,
Minnesota 55455, United States
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, 425 East River Road, Minneapolis,
Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Nicholas Bleeker
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, 308 Harvard Street SE, Minneapolis,
Minnesota 55455, United States
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, 425 East River Road, Minneapolis,
Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Xazmin Lowman
- Department
of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, 420 Delaware Street, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, 425 East River Road, Minneapolis,
Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Yunfang Li
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, 308 Harvard Street SE, Minneapolis,
Minnesota 55455, United States
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, 425 East River Road, Minneapolis,
Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Ameeta Kelekar
- Department
of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, 420 Delaware Street, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, 425 East River Road, Minneapolis,
Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Chengguo Xing
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, 308 Harvard Street SE, Minneapolis,
Minnesota 55455, United States
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, 425 East River Road, Minneapolis,
Minnesota 55455, United States
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Klionsky DJ, Abdalla FC, Abeliovich H, Abraham RT, Acevedo-Arozena A, Adeli K, Agholme L, Agnello M, Agostinis P, Aguirre-Ghiso JA, Ahn HJ, Ait-Mohamed O, Ait-Si-Ali S, Akematsu T, Akira S, Al-Younes HM, Al-Zeer MA, Albert ML, Albin RL, Alegre-Abarrategui J, Aleo MF, Alirezaei M, Almasan A, Almonte-Becerril M, Amano A, Amaravadi RK, Amarnath S, Amer AO, Andrieu-Abadie N, Anantharam V, Ann DK, Anoopkumar-Dukie S, Aoki H, Apostolova N, Arancia G, Aris JP, Asanuma K, Asare NY, Ashida H, Askanas V, Askew DS, Auberger P, Baba M, Backues SK, Baehrecke EH, Bahr BA, Bai XY, Bailly Y, Baiocchi R, Baldini G, Balduini W, Ballabio A, Bamber BA, Bampton ET, Juhász G, Bartholomew CR, Bassham DC, Bast RC, Batoko H, Bay BH, Beau I, Béchet DM, Begley TJ, Behl C, Behrends C, Bekri S, Bellaire B, Bendall LJ, Benetti L, Berliocchi L, Bernardi H, Bernassola F, Besteiro S, Bhatia-Kissova I, Bi X, Biard-Piechaczyk M, Blum JS, Boise LH, Bonaldo P, Boone DL, Bornhauser BC, Bortoluci KR, Bossis I, Bost F, Bourquin JP, Boya P, Boyer-Guittaut M, Bozhkov PV, Brady NR, Brancolini C, Brech A, Brenman JE, Brennand A, Bresnick EH, Brest P, Bridges D, Bristol ML, Brookes PS, Brown EJ, Brumell JH, Shen WC, Sheng ZH, Shi Y, Shibuya K, Shidoji Y, Shieh JJ, Shih CM, Shimada Y, Shimizu S, Shintani T, Brunetti-Pierri N, Shirihai OS, Shore GC, Sibirny AA, Sidhu SB, Sikorska B, Silva-Zacarin EC, Simmons A, Simon AK, Simon HU, Simone C, Brunk UT, Simonsen A, Sinclair DA, Singh R, Sinha D, Sinicrope FA, Sirko A, Siu PM, Sivridis E, Skop V, Skulachev VP, Bulman DE, Slack RS, Smaili SS, Smith DR, Soengas MS, Soldati T, Song X, Sood AK, Soong TW, Sotgia F, Spector SA, Bultman SJ, Spies CD, Springer W, Srinivasula SM, Stefanis L, Steffan JS, Stendel R, Stenmark H, Stephanou A, Stern ST, Sternberg C, Bultynck G, Stork B, Strålfors P, Subauste CS, Sui X, Sulzer D, Sun J, Sun SY, Sun ZJ, Sung JJ, Suzuki K, Burbulla LF, Suzuki T, Swanson MS, Swanton C, Sweeney ST, Sy LK, Szabadkai G, Tabas I, Taegtmeyer H, Tafani M, Takács-Vellai K, Bursch W, Takano Y, Takegawa K, Takemura G, Takeshita F, Talbot NJ, Tan KS, Tanaka K, Tanaka K, Tang D, Tang D, Butchar JP, Tanida I, Tannous BA, Tavernarakis N, Taylor GS, Taylor GA, Taylor JP, Terada LS, Terman A, Tettamanti G, Thevissen K, Buzgariu W, Thompson CB, Thorburn A, Thumm M, Tian F, Tian Y, Tocchini-Valentini G, Tolkovsky AM, Tomino Y, Tönges L, Tooze SA, Bydlowski SP, Tournier C, Tower J, Towns R, Trajkovic V, Travassos LH, Tsai TF, Tschan MP, Tsubata T, Tsung A, Turk B, Cadwell K, Turner LS, Tyagi SC, Uchiyama Y, Ueno T, Umekawa M, Umemiya-Shirafuji R, Unni VK, Vaccaro MI, Valente EM, Van den Berghe G, Cahová M, van der Klei IJ, van Doorn WG, van Dyk LF, van Egmond M, van Grunsven LA, Vandenabeele P, Vandenberghe WP, Vanhorebeek I, Vaquero EC, Velasco G, Cai D, Vellai T, Vicencio JM, Vierstra RD, Vila M, Vindis C, Viola G, Viscomi MT, Voitsekhovskaja OV, von Haefen C, Votruba M, Cai J, Wada K, Wade-Martins R, Walker CL, Walsh CM, Walter J, Wan XB, Wang A, Wang C, Wang D, Wang F, Cai Q, Wang F, Wang G, Wang H, Wang HG, Wang HD, Wang J, Wang K, Wang M, Wang RC, Wang X, Calabretta B, Wang XJ, Wang YJ, Wang Y, Wang ZB, Wang ZC, Wang Z, Wansink DG, Ward DM, Watada H, Waters SL, Calvo-Garrido J, Webster P, Wei L, Weihl CC, Weiss WA, Welford SM, Wen LP, Whitehouse CA, Whitton JL, Whitworth AJ, Wileman T, Camougrand N, Wiley JW, Wilkinson S, Willbold D, Williams RL, Williamson PR, Wouters BG, Wu C, Wu DC, Wu WK, Wyttenbach A, Campanella M, Xavier RJ, Xi Z, Xia P, Xiao G, Xie Z, Xie Z, Xu DZ, Xu J, Xu L, Xu X, Campos-Salinas J, Yamamoto A, Yamamoto A, Yamashina S, Yamashita M, Yan X, Yanagida M, Yang DS, Yang E, Yang JM, Yang SY, Candi E, Yang W, Yang WY, Yang Z, Yao MC, Yao TP, Yeganeh B, Yen WL, Yin JJ, Yin XM, Yoo OJ, Cao L, Yoon G, Yoon SY, Yorimitsu T, Yoshikawa Y, Yoshimori T, Yoshimoto K, You HJ, Youle RJ, Younes A, Yu L, Caplan AB, Yu L, Yu SW, Yu WH, Yuan ZM, Yue Z, Yun CH, Yuzaki M, Zabirnyk O, Silva-Zacarin E, Zacks D, Carding SR, Zacksenhaus E, Zaffaroni N, Zakeri Z, Zeh, III HJ, Zeitlin SO, Zhang H, Zhang HL, Zhang J, Zhang JP, Zhang L, Cardoso SM, Zhang L, Zhang MY, Zhang XD, Zhao M, Zhao YF, Zhao Y, Zhao ZJ, Zheng X, Zhivotovsky B, Zhong Q, Carew JS, Zhou CZ, Zhu C, Zhu WG, Zhu XF, Zhu X, Zhu Y, Zoladek T, Zong WX, Zorzano A, Zschocke J, Carlin CR, Zuckerbraun B, Carmignac V, Carneiro LA, Carra S, Caruso RA, Casari G, Casas C, Castino R, Cebollero E, Cecconi F, Celli J, Chaachouay H, Chae HJ, Chai CY, Chan DC, Chan EY, Chang RCC, Che CM, Chen CC, Chen GC, Chen GQ, Chen M, Chen Q, Chen SSL, Chen W, Chen X, Chen X, Chen X, Chen YG, Chen Y, Chen Y, Chen YJ, Chen Z, Cheng A, Cheng CH, Cheng Y, Cheong H, Cheong JH, Cherry S, Chess-Williams R, Cheung ZH, Chevet E, Chiang HL, Chiarelli R, Chiba T, Chin LS, Chiou SH, Chisari FV, Cho CH, Cho DH, Choi AM, Choi D, Choi KS, Choi ME, Chouaib S, Choubey D, Choubey V, Chu CT, Chuang TH, Chueh SH, Chun T, Chwae YJ, Chye ML, Ciarcia R, Ciriolo MR, Clague MJ, Clark RS, Clarke PG, Clarke R, Codogno P, Coller HA, Colombo MI, Comincini S, Condello M, Condorelli F, Cookson MR, Coombs GH, Coppens I, Corbalan R, Cossart P, Costelli P, Costes S, Coto-Montes A, Couve E, Coxon FP, Cregg JM, Crespo JL, Cronjé MJ, Cuervo AM, Cullen JJ, Czaja MJ, D'Amelio M, Darfeuille-Michaud A, Davids LM, Davies FE, De Felici M, de Groot JF, de Haan CA, De Martino L, De Milito A, De Tata V, Debnath J, Degterev A, Dehay B, Delbridge LM, Demarchi F, Deng YZ, Dengjel J, Dent P, Denton D, Deretic V, Desai SD, Devenish RJ, Di Gioacchino M, Di Paolo G, Di Pietro C, Díaz-Araya G, Díaz-Laviada I, Diaz-Meco MT, Diaz-Nido J, Dikic I, Dinesh-Kumar SP, Ding WX, Distelhorst CW, Diwan A, Djavaheri-Mergny M, Dokudovskaya S, Dong Z, Dorsey FC, Dosenko V, Dowling JJ, Doxsey S, Dreux M, Drew ME, Duan Q, Duchosal MA, Duff KE, Dugail I, Durbeej M, Duszenko M, Edelstein CL, Edinger AL, Egea G, Eichinger L, Eissa NT, Ekmekcioglu S, El-Deiry WS, Elazar Z, Elgendy M, Ellerby LM, Eng KE, Engelbrecht AM, Engelender S, Erenpreisa J, Escalante R, Esclatine A, Eskelinen EL, Espert L, Espina V, Fan H, Fan J, Fan QW, Fan Z, Fang S, Fang Y, Fanto M, Fanzani A, Farkas T, Farre JC, Faure M, Fechheimer M, Feng CG, Feng J, Feng Q, Feng Y, Fésüs L, Feuer R, Figueiredo-Pereira ME, Fimia GM, Fingar DC, Finkbeiner S, Finkel T, Finley KD, Fiorito F, Fisher EA, Fisher PB, Flajolet M, Florez-McClure ML, Florio S, Fon EA, Fornai F, Fortunato F, Fotedar R, Fowler DH, Fox HS, Franco R, Frankel LB, Fransen M, Fuentes JM, Fueyo J, Fujii J, Fujisaki K, Fujita E, Fukuda M, Furukawa RH, Gaestel M, Gailly P, Gajewska M, Galliot B, Galy V, Ganesh S, Ganetzky B, Ganley IG, Gao FB, Gao GF, Gao J, Garcia L, Garcia-Manero G, Garcia-Marcos M, Garmyn M, Gartel AL, Gatti E, Gautel M, Gawriluk TR, Gegg ME, Geng J, Germain M, Gestwicki JE, Gewirtz DA, Ghavami S, Ghosh P, Giammarioli AM, Giatromanolaki AN, Gibson SB, Gilkerson RW, Ginger ML, Ginsberg HN, Golab J, Goligorsky MS, Golstein P, Gomez-Manzano C, Goncu E, Gongora C, Gonzalez CD, Gonzalez R, González-Estévez C, González-Polo RA, Gonzalez-Rey E, Gorbunov NV, Gorski S, Goruppi S, Gottlieb RA, Gozuacik D, Granato GE, Grant GD, Green KN, Gregorc A, Gros F, Grose C, Grunt TW, Gual P, Guan JL, Guan KL, Guichard SM, Gukovskaya AS, Gukovsky I, Gunst J, Gustafsson ÅB, Halayko AJ, Hale AN, Halonen SK, Hamasaki M, Han F, Han T, Hancock MK, Hansen M, Harada H, Harada M, Hardt SE, Harper JW, Harris AL, Harris J, Harris SD, Hashimoto M, Haspel JA, Hayashi SI, Hazelhurst LA, He C, He YW, Hébert MJ, Heidenreich KA, Helfrich MH, Helgason GV, Henske EP, Herman B, Herman PK, Hetz C, Hilfiker S, Hill JA, Hocking LJ, Hofman P, Hofmann TG, Höhfeld J, Holyoake TL, Hong MH, Hood DA, Hotamisligil GS, Houwerzijl EJ, Høyer-Hansen M, Hu B, Hu CAA, Hu HM, Hua Y, Huang C, Huang J, Huang S, Huang WP, Huber TB, Huh WK, Hung TH, Hupp TR, Hur GM, Hurley JB, Hussain SN, Hussey PJ, Hwang JJ, Hwang S, Ichihara A, Ilkhanizadeh S, Inoki K, Into T, Iovane V, Iovanna JL, Ip NY, Isaka Y, Ishida H, Isidoro C, Isobe KI, Iwasaki A, Izquierdo M, Izumi Y, Jaakkola PM, Jäättelä M, Jackson GR, Jackson WT, Janji B, Jendrach M, Jeon JH, Jeung EB, Jiang H, Jiang H, Jiang JX, Jiang M, Jiang Q, Jiang X, Jiang X, Jiménez A, Jin M, Jin SV, Joe CO, Johansen T, Johnson DE, Johnson GV, Jones NL, Joseph B, Joseph SK, Joubert AM, Juhász G, Juillerat-Jeanneret L, Jung CH, Jung YK, Kaarniranta K, Kaasik A, Kabuta T, Kadowaki M, Kågedal K, Kamada Y, Kaminskyy VO, Kampinga HH, Kanamori H, Kang C, Kang KB, Kang KI, Kang R, Kang YA, Kanki T, Kanneganti TD, Kanno H, Kanthasamy AG, Kanthasamy A, Karantza V, Kaushal GP, Kaushik S, Kawazoe Y, Ke PY, Kehrl JH, Kelekar A, Kerkhoff C, Kessel DH, Khalil H, Kiel JA, Kiger AA, Kihara A, Kim DR, Kim DH, Kim DH, Kim EK, Kim HR, Kim JS, Kim JH, Kim JC, Kim JK, Kim PK, Kim SW, Kim YS, Kim Y, Kimchi A, Kimmelman AC, King JS, Kinsella TJ, Kirkin V, Kirshenbaum LA, Kitamoto K, Kitazato K, Klein L, Klimecki WT, Klucken J, Knecht E, Ko BC, Koch JC, Koga H, Koh JY, Koh YH, Koike M, Komatsu M, Kominami E, Kong HJ, Kong WJ, Korolchuk VI, Kotake Y, Koukourakis MI, Flores JBK, Kovács AL, Kraft C, Krainc D, Krämer H, Kretz-Remy C, Krichevsky AM, Kroemer G, Krüger R, Krut O, Ktistakis NT, Kuan CY, Kucharczyk R, Kumar A, Kumar R, Kumar S, Kundu M, Kung HJ, Kurz T, Kwon HJ, La Spada AR, Lafont F, Lamark T, Landry J, Lane JD, Lapaquette P, Laporte JF, László L, Lavandero S, Lavoie JN, Layfield R, Lazo PA, Le W, Le Cam L, Ledbetter DJ, Lee AJ, Lee BW, Lee GM, Lee J, lee JH, Lee M, Lee MS, Lee SH, Leeuwenburgh C, Legembre P, Legouis R, Lehmann M, Lei HY, Lei QY, Leib DA, Leiro J, Lemasters JJ, Lemoine A, Lesniak MS, Lev D, Levenson VV, Levine B, Levy E, Li F, Li JL, Li L, Li S, Li W, Li XJ, Li YB, Li YP, Liang C, Liang Q, Liao YF, Liberski PP, Lieberman A, Lim HJ, Lim KL, Lim K, Lin CF, Lin FC, Lin J, Lin JD, Lin K, Lin WW, Lin WC, Lin YL, Linden R, Lingor P, Lippincott-Schwartz J, Lisanti MP, Liton PB, Liu B, Liu CF, Liu K, Liu L, Liu QA, Liu W, Liu YC, Liu Y, Lockshin RA, Lok CN, Lonial S, Loos B, Lopez-Berestein G, López-Otín C, Lossi L, Lotze MT, Low P, Lu B, Lu B, Lu B, Lu Z, Luciano F, Lukacs NW, Lund AH, Lynch-Day MA, Ma Y, Macian F, MacKeigan JP, Macleod KF, Madeo F, Maiuri L, Maiuri MC, Malagoli D, Malicdan MCV, Malorni W, Man N, Mandelkow EM, Manon S, Manov I, Mao K, Mao X, Mao Z, Marambaud P, Marazziti D, Marcel YL, Marchbank K, Marchetti P, Marciniak SJ, Marcondes M, Mardi M, Marfe G, Mariño G, Markaki M, Marten MR, Martin SJ, Martinand-Mari C, Martinet W, Martinez-Vicente M, Masini M, Matarrese P, Matsuo S, Matteoni R, Mayer A, Mazure NM, McConkey DJ, McConnell MJ, McDermott C, McDonald C, McInerney GM, McKenna SL, McLaughlin B, McLean PJ, McMaster CR, McQuibban GA, Meijer AJ, Meisler MH, Meléndez A, Melia TJ, Melino G, Mena MA, Menendez JA, Menna-Barreto RFS, Menon MB, Menzies FM, Mercer CA, Merighi A, Merry DE, Meschini S, Meyer CG, Meyer TF, Miao CY, Miao JY, Michels PA, Michiels C, Mijaljica D, Milojkovic A, Minucci S, Miracco C, Miranti CK, Mitroulis I, Miyazawa K, Mizushima N, Mograbi B, Mohseni S, Molero X, Mollereau B, Mollinedo F, Momoi T, Monastyrska I, Monick MM, Monteiro MJ, Moore MN, Mora R, Moreau K, Moreira PI, Moriyasu Y, Moscat J, Mostowy S, Mottram JC, Motyl T, Moussa CEH, Müller S, Muller S, Münger K, Münz C, Murphy LO, Murphy ME, Musarò A, Mysorekar I, Nagata E, Nagata K, Nahimana A, Nair U, Nakagawa T, Nakahira K, Nakano H, Nakatogawa H, Nanjundan M, Naqvi NI, Narendra DP, Narita M, Navarro M, Nawrocki ST, Nazarko TY, Nemchenko A, Netea MG, Neufeld TP, Ney PA, Nezis IP, Nguyen HP, Nie D, Nishino I, Nislow C, Nixon RA, Noda T, Noegel AA, Nogalska A, Noguchi S, Notterpek L, Novak I, Nozaki T, Nukina N, Nürnberger T, Nyfeler B, Obara K, Oberley TD, Oddo S, Ogawa M, Ohashi T, Okamoto K, Oleinick NL, Oliver FJ, Olsen LJ, Olsson S, Opota O, Osborne TF, Ostrander GK, Otsu K, Ou JHJ, Ouimet M, Overholtzer M, Ozpolat B, Paganetti P, Pagnini U, Pallet N, Palmer GE, Palumbo C, Pan T, Panaretakis T, Pandey UB, Papackova Z, Papassideri I, Paris I, Park J, Park OK, Parys JB, Parzych KR, Patschan S, Patterson C, Pattingre S, Pawelek JM, Peng J, Perlmutter DH, Perrotta I, Perry G, Pervaiz S, Peter M, Peters GJ, Petersen M, Petrovski G, Phang JM, Piacentini M, Pierre P, Pierrefite-Carle V, Pierron G, Pinkas-Kramarski R, Piras A, Piri N, Platanias LC, Pöggeler S, Poirot M, Poletti A, Poüs C, Pozuelo-Rubio M, Prætorius-Ibba M, Prasad A, Prescott M, Priault M, Produit-Zengaffinen N, Progulske-Fox A, Proikas-Cezanne T, Przedborski S, Przyklenk K, Puertollano R, Puyal J, Qian SB, Qin L, Qin ZH, Quaggin SE, Raben N, Rabinowich H, Rabkin SW, Rahman I, Rami A, Ramm G, Randall G, Randow F, Rao VA, Rathmell JC, Ravikumar B, Ray SK, Reed BH, Reed JC, Reggiori F, Régnier-Vigouroux A, Reichert AS, Reiners, Jr. JJ, Reiter RJ, Ren J, Revuelta JL, Rhodes CJ, Ritis K, Rizzo E, Robbins J, Roberge M, Roca H, Roccheri MC, Rocchi S, Rodemann HP, Rodríguez de Córdoba S, Rohrer B, Roninson IB, Rosen K, Rost-Roszkowska MM, Rouis M, Rouschop KM, Rovetta F, Rubin BP, Rubinsztein DC, Ruckdeschel K, Rucker EB, Rudich A, Rudolf E, Ruiz-Opazo N, Russo R, Rusten TE, Ryan KM, Ryter SW, Sabatini DM, Sadoshima J, Saha T, Saitoh T, Sakagami H, Sakai Y, Salekdeh GH, Salomoni P, Salvaterra PM, Salvesen G, Salvioli R, Sanchez AM, Sánchez-Alcázar JA, Sánchez-Prieto R, Sandri M, Sankar U, Sansanwal P, Santambrogio L, Saran S, Sarkar S, Sarwal M, Sasakawa C, Sasnauskiene A, Sass M, Sato K, Sato M, Schapira AH, Scharl M, Schätzl HM, Scheper W, Schiaffino S, Schneider C, Schneider ME, Schneider-Stock R, Schoenlein PV, Schorderet DF, Schüller C, Schwartz GK, Scorrano L, Sealy L, Seglen PO, Segura-Aguilar J, Seiliez I, Seleverstov O, Sell C, Seo JB, Separovic D, Setaluri V, Setoguchi T, Settembre C, Shacka JJ, Shanmugam M, Shapiro IM, Shaulian E, Shaw RJ, Shelhamer JH, Shen HM. Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy. Autophagy 2012. [DOI: 10.4161/auto.19496 order by 1-- -] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
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Klionsky DJ, Abdalla FC, Abeliovich H, Abraham RT, Acevedo-Arozena A, Adeli K, Agholme L, Agnello M, Agostinis P, Aguirre-Ghiso JA, Ahn HJ, Ait-Mohamed O, Ait-Si-Ali S, Akematsu T, Akira S, Al-Younes HM, Al-Zeer MA, Albert ML, Albin RL, Alegre-Abarrategui J, Aleo MF, Alirezaei M, Almasan A, Almonte-Becerril M, Amano A, Amaravadi RK, Amarnath S, Amer AO, Andrieu-Abadie N, Anantharam V, Ann DK, Anoopkumar-Dukie S, Aoki H, Apostolova N, Arancia G, Aris JP, Asanuma K, Asare NY, Ashida H, Askanas V, Askew DS, Auberger P, Baba M, Backues SK, Baehrecke EH, Bahr BA, Bai XY, Bailly Y, Baiocchi R, Baldini G, Balduini W, Ballabio A, Bamber BA, Bampton ET, Juhász G, Bartholomew CR, Bassham DC, Bast RC, Batoko H, Bay BH, Beau I, Béchet DM, Begley TJ, Behl C, Behrends C, Bekri S, Bellaire B, Bendall LJ, Benetti L, Berliocchi L, Bernardi H, Bernassola F, Besteiro S, Bhatia-Kissova I, Bi X, Biard-Piechaczyk M, Blum JS, Boise LH, Bonaldo P, Boone DL, Bornhauser BC, Bortoluci KR, Bossis I, Bost F, Bourquin JP, Boya P, Boyer-Guittaut M, Bozhkov PV, Brady NR, Brancolini C, Brech A, Brenman JE, Brennand A, Bresnick EH, Brest P, Bridges D, Bristol ML, Brookes PS, Brown EJ, Brumell JH, Shen WC, Sheng ZH, Shi Y, Shibuya K, Shidoji Y, Shieh JJ, Shih CM, Shimada Y, Shimizu S, Shintani T, Brunetti-Pierri N, Shirihai OS, Shore GC, Sibirny AA, Sidhu SB, Sikorska B, Silva-Zacarin EC, Simmons A, Simon AK, Simon HU, Simone C, Brunk UT, Simonsen A, Sinclair DA, Singh R, Sinha D, Sinicrope FA, Sirko A, Siu PM, Sivridis E, Skop V, Skulachev VP, Bulman DE, Slack RS, Smaili SS, Smith DR, Soengas MS, Soldati T, Song X, Sood AK, Soong TW, Sotgia F, Spector SA, Bultman SJ, Spies CD, Springer W, Srinivasula SM, Stefanis L, Steffan JS, Stendel R, Stenmark H, Stephanou A, Stern ST, Sternberg C, Bultynck G, Stork B, Strålfors P, Subauste CS, Sui X, Sulzer D, Sun J, Sun SY, Sun ZJ, Sung JJ, Suzuki K, Burbulla LF, Suzuki T, Swanson MS, Swanton C, Sweeney ST, Sy LK, Szabadkai G, Tabas I, Taegtmeyer H, Tafani M, Takács-Vellai K, Bursch W, Takano Y, Takegawa K, Takemura G, Takeshita F, Talbot NJ, Tan KS, Tanaka K, Tanaka K, Tang D, Tang D, Butchar JP, Tanida I, Tannous BA, Tavernarakis N, Taylor GS, Taylor GA, Taylor JP, Terada LS, Terman A, Tettamanti G, Thevissen K, Buzgariu W, Thompson CB, Thorburn A, Thumm M, Tian F, Tian Y, Tocchini-Valentini G, Tolkovsky AM, Tomino Y, Tönges L, Tooze SA, Bydlowski SP, Tournier C, Tower J, Towns R, Trajkovic V, Travassos LH, Tsai TF, Tschan MP, Tsubata T, Tsung A, Turk B, Cadwell K, Turner LS, Tyagi SC, Uchiyama Y, Ueno T, Umekawa M, Umemiya-Shirafuji R, Unni VK, Vaccaro MI, Valente EM, Van den Berghe G, Cahová M, van der Klei IJ, van Doorn WG, van Dyk LF, van Egmond M, van Grunsven LA, Vandenabeele P, Vandenberghe WP, Vanhorebeek I, Vaquero EC, Velasco G, Cai D, Vellai T, Vicencio JM, Vierstra RD, Vila M, Vindis C, Viola G, Viscomi MT, Voitsekhovskaja OV, von Haefen C, Votruba M, Cai J, Wada K, Wade-Martins R, Walker CL, Walsh CM, Walter J, Wan XB, Wang A, Wang C, Wang D, Wang F, Cai Q, Wang F, Wang G, Wang H, Wang HG, Wang HD, Wang J, Wang K, Wang M, Wang RC, Wang X, Calabretta B, Wang XJ, Wang YJ, Wang Y, Wang ZB, Wang ZC, Wang Z, Wansink DG, Ward DM, Watada H, Waters SL, Calvo-Garrido J, Webster P, Wei L, Weihl CC, Weiss WA, Welford SM, Wen LP, Whitehouse CA, Whitton JL, Whitworth AJ, Wileman T, Camougrand N, Wiley JW, Wilkinson S, Willbold D, Williams RL, Williamson PR, Wouters BG, Wu C, Wu DC, Wu WK, Wyttenbach A, Campanella M, Xavier RJ, Xi Z, Xia P, Xiao G, Xie Z, Xie Z, Xu DZ, Xu J, Xu L, Xu X, Campos-Salinas J, Yamamoto A, Yamamoto A, Yamashina S, Yamashita M, Yan X, Yanagida M, Yang DS, Yang E, Yang JM, Yang SY, Candi E, Yang W, Yang WY, Yang Z, Yao MC, Yao TP, Yeganeh B, Yen WL, Yin JJ, Yin XM, Yoo OJ, Cao L, Yoon G, Yoon SY, Yorimitsu T, Yoshikawa Y, Yoshimori T, Yoshimoto K, You HJ, Youle RJ, Younes A, Yu L, Caplan AB, Yu L, Yu SW, Yu WH, Yuan ZM, Yue Z, Yun CH, Yuzaki M, Zabirnyk O, Silva-Zacarin E, Zacks D, 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Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy. Autophagy 2012. [DOI: 10.4161/auto.19496 and 1880=1880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
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Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy. Autophagy 2012. [DOI: 10.4161/auto.19496 order by 8029-- #] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
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Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy. Autophagy 2012. [DOI: 10.4161/auto.19496 order by 8029-- awyx] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
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Milojkovic A, Minucci S, Miracco C, Miranti CK, Mitroulis I, Miyazawa K, Mizushima N, Mograbi B, Mohseni S, Molero X, Mollereau B, Mollinedo F, Momoi T, Monastyrska I, Monick MM, Monteiro MJ, Moore MN, Mora R, Moreau K, Moreira PI, Moriyasu Y, Moscat J, Mostowy S, Mottram JC, Motyl T, Moussa CEH, Müller S, Muller S, Münger K, Münz C, Murphy LO, Murphy ME, Musarò A, Mysorekar I, Nagata E, Nagata K, Nahimana A, Nair U, Nakagawa T, Nakahira K, Nakano H, Nakatogawa H, Nanjundan M, Naqvi NI, Narendra DP, Narita M, Navarro M, Nawrocki ST, Nazarko TY, Nemchenko A, Netea MG, Neufeld TP, Ney PA, Nezis IP, Nguyen HP, Nie D, Nishino I, Nislow C, Nixon RA, Noda T, Noegel AA, Nogalska A, Noguchi S, Notterpek L, Novak I, Nozaki T, Nukina N, Nürnberger T, Nyfeler B, Obara K, Oberley TD, Oddo S, Ogawa M, Ohashi T, Okamoto K, Oleinick NL, Oliver FJ, Olsen LJ, Olsson S, Opota O, Osborne TF, Ostrander GK, Otsu K, Ou JHJ, Ouimet M, Overholtzer M, Ozpolat B, Paganetti P, Pagnini U, Pallet N, Palmer GE, Palumbo C, Pan T, Panaretakis T, Pandey UB, Papackova Z, Papassideri I, Paris I, Park J, Park OK, Parys JB, Parzych KR, Patschan S, Patterson C, Pattingre S, Pawelek JM, Peng J, Perlmutter DH, Perrotta I, Perry G, Pervaiz S, Peter M, Peters GJ, Petersen M, Petrovski G, Phang JM, Piacentini M, Pierre P, Pierrefite-Carle V, Pierron G, Pinkas-Kramarski R, Piras A, Piri N, Platanias LC, Pöggeler S, Poirot M, Poletti A, Poüs C, Pozuelo-Rubio M, Prætorius-Ibba M, Prasad A, Prescott M, Priault M, Produit-Zengaffinen N, Progulske-Fox A, Proikas-Cezanne T, Przedborski S, Przyklenk K, Puertollano R, Puyal J, Qian SB, Qin L, Qin ZH, Quaggin SE, Raben N, Rabinowich H, Rabkin SW, Rahman I, Rami A, Ramm G, Randall G, Randow F, Rao VA, Rathmell JC, Ravikumar B, Ray SK, Reed BH, Reed JC, Reggiori F, Régnier-Vigouroux A, Reichert AS, Reiners, Jr. JJ, Reiter RJ, Ren J, Revuelta JL, Rhodes CJ, Ritis K, Rizzo E, Robbins J, Roberge M, Roca H, Roccheri MC, Rocchi S, Rodemann HP, Rodríguez de Córdoba S, Rohrer B, Roninson IB, Rosen K, Rost-Roszkowska MM, Rouis M, Rouschop KM, Rovetta F, Rubin BP, Rubinsztein DC, Ruckdeschel K, Rucker EB, Rudich A, Rudolf E, Ruiz-Opazo N, Russo R, Rusten TE, Ryan KM, Ryter SW, Sabatini DM, Sadoshima J, Saha T, Saitoh T, Sakagami H, Sakai Y, Salekdeh GH, Salomoni P, Salvaterra PM, Salvesen G, Salvioli R, Sanchez AM, Sánchez-Alcázar JA, Sánchez-Prieto R, Sandri M, Sankar U, Sansanwal P, Santambrogio L, Saran S, Sarkar S, Sarwal M, Sasakawa C, Sasnauskiene A, Sass M, Sato K, Sato M, Schapira AH, Scharl M, Schätzl HM, Scheper W, Schiaffino S, Schneider C, Schneider ME, Schneider-Stock R, Schoenlein PV, Schorderet DF, Schüller C, Schwartz GK, Scorrano L, Sealy L, Seglen PO, Segura-Aguilar J, Seiliez I, Seleverstov O, Sell C, Seo JB, Separovic D, Setaluri V, Setoguchi T, Settembre C, Shacka JJ, Shanmugam M, Shapiro IM, Shaulian E, Shaw RJ, Shelhamer JH, Shen HM. Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy. Autophagy 2012. [DOI: 10.4161/auto.19496 order by 8029-- -] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
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Klionsky DJ, Abdalla FC, Abeliovich H, Abraham RT, Acevedo-Arozena A, Adeli K, Agholme L, Agnello M, Agostinis P, Aguirre-Ghiso JA, Ahn HJ, Ait-Mohamed O, Ait-Si-Ali S, Akematsu T, Akira S, Al-Younes HM, Al-Zeer MA, Albert ML, Albin RL, Alegre-Abarrategui J, Aleo MF, Alirezaei M, Almasan A, Almonte-Becerril M, Amano A, Amaravadi RK, Amarnath S, Amer AO, Andrieu-Abadie N, Anantharam V, Ann DK, Anoopkumar-Dukie S, Aoki H, Apostolova N, Arancia G, Aris JP, Asanuma K, Asare NY, Ashida H, Askanas V, Askew DS, Auberger P, Baba M, Backues SK, Baehrecke EH, Bahr BA, Bai XY, Bailly Y, Baiocchi R, Baldini G, Balduini W, Ballabio A, Bamber BA, Bampton ET, Juhász G, Bartholomew CR, Bassham DC, Bast RC, Batoko H, Bay BH, Beau I, Béchet DM, Begley TJ, Behl C, Behrends C, Bekri S, Bellaire B, Bendall LJ, Benetti L, Berliocchi L, Bernardi H, Bernassola F, Besteiro S, Bhatia-Kissova I, Bi X, Biard-Piechaczyk M, Blum JS, Boise LH, Bonaldo P, Boone DL, Bornhauser BC, Bortoluci KR, Bossis I, Bost F, Bourquin JP, Boya P, Boyer-Guittaut M, Bozhkov PV, Brady NR, Brancolini C, Brech A, Brenman JE, Brennand A, Bresnick EH, Brest P, Bridges D, Bristol ML, Brookes PS, Brown EJ, Brumell JH, Shen WC, Sheng ZH, Shi Y, Shibuya K, Shidoji Y, Shieh JJ, Shih CM, Shimada Y, Shimizu S, Shintani T, Brunetti-Pierri N, Shirihai OS, Shore GC, Sibirny AA, Sidhu SB, Sikorska B, Silva-Zacarin EC, Simmons A, Simon AK, Simon HU, Simone C, Brunk UT, Simonsen A, Sinclair DA, Singh R, Sinha D, Sinicrope FA, Sirko A, Siu PM, Sivridis E, Skop V, Skulachev VP, Bulman DE, Slack RS, Smaili SS, Smith DR, Soengas MS, Soldati T, Song X, Sood AK, Soong TW, Sotgia F, Spector SA, Bultman SJ, Spies CD, Springer W, Srinivasula SM, Stefanis L, Steffan JS, Stendel R, Stenmark H, Stephanou A, Stern ST, Sternberg C, Bultynck G, Stork B, Strålfors P, Subauste CS, Sui X, Sulzer D, Sun J, Sun SY, Sun ZJ, Sung JJ, Suzuki K, Burbulla LF, Suzuki T, Swanson MS, Swanton C, Sweeney ST, Sy LK, Szabadkai G, Tabas I, Taegtmeyer H, Tafani M, Takács-Vellai K, Bursch W, Takano Y, Takegawa K, Takemura G, Takeshita F, Talbot NJ, Tan KS, Tanaka K, Tanaka K, Tang D, Tang D, Butchar JP, Tanida I, Tannous BA, Tavernarakis N, Taylor GS, Taylor GA, Taylor JP, Terada LS, Terman A, Tettamanti G, Thevissen K, Buzgariu W, Thompson CB, Thorburn A, Thumm M, Tian F, Tian Y, Tocchini-Valentini G, Tolkovsky AM, Tomino Y, Tönges L, Tooze SA, Bydlowski SP, Tournier C, Tower J, Towns R, Trajkovic V, Travassos LH, Tsai TF, Tschan MP, Tsubata T, Tsung A, Turk B, Cadwell K, Turner LS, Tyagi SC, Uchiyama Y, Ueno T, Umekawa M, Umemiya-Shirafuji R, Unni VK, Vaccaro MI, Valente EM, Van den Berghe G, Cahová M, van der Klei IJ, van Doorn WG, van Dyk LF, van Egmond M, van Grunsven LA, Vandenabeele P, Vandenberghe WP, Vanhorebeek I, Vaquero EC, Velasco G, Cai D, Vellai T, Vicencio JM, Vierstra RD, Vila M, Vindis C, Viola G, Viscomi MT, Voitsekhovskaja OV, von Haefen C, Votruba M, Cai J, Wada K, Wade-Martins R, Walker CL, Walsh CM, Walter J, Wan XB, Wang A, Wang C, Wang D, Wang F, Cai Q, Wang F, Wang G, Wang H, Wang HG, Wang HD, Wang J, Wang K, Wang M, Wang RC, Wang X, Calabretta B, Wang XJ, Wang YJ, Wang Y, Wang ZB, Wang ZC, Wang Z, Wansink DG, Ward DM, Watada H, Waters SL, Calvo-Garrido J, Webster P, Wei L, Weihl CC, Weiss WA, Welford SM, Wen LP, Whitehouse CA, Whitton JL, Whitworth AJ, Wileman T, Camougrand N, Wiley JW, Wilkinson S, Willbold D, Williams RL, Williamson PR, Wouters BG, Wu C, Wu DC, Wu WK, Wyttenbach A, Campanella M, Xavier RJ, Xi Z, Xia P, Xiao G, Xie Z, Xie Z, Xu DZ, Xu J, Xu L, Xu X, Campos-Salinas J, Yamamoto A, Yamamoto A, Yamashina S, Yamashita M, Yan X, Yanagida M, Yang DS, Yang E, Yang JM, Yang SY, Candi E, Yang W, Yang WY, Yang Z, Yao MC, Yao TP, Yeganeh B, Yen WL, Yin JJ, Yin XM, Yoo OJ, Cao L, Yoon G, Yoon SY, Yorimitsu T, Yoshikawa Y, Yoshimori T, Yoshimoto K, You HJ, Youle RJ, Younes A, Yu L, Caplan AB, Yu L, Yu SW, Yu WH, Yuan ZM, Yue Z, Yun CH, Yuzaki M, Zabirnyk O, Silva-Zacarin E, Zacks D, Carding SR, Zacksenhaus E, Zaffaroni N, Zakeri Z, Zeh, III HJ, Zeitlin SO, Zhang H, Zhang HL, Zhang J, Zhang JP, Zhang L, Cardoso SM, Zhang L, Zhang MY, Zhang XD, Zhao M, Zhao YF, Zhao Y, Zhao ZJ, Zheng X, Zhivotovsky B, Zhong Q, Carew JS, Zhou CZ, Zhu C, Zhu WG, Zhu XF, Zhu X, Zhu Y, Zoladek T, Zong WX, Zorzano A, Zschocke J, Carlin CR, Zuckerbraun B, Carmignac V, Carneiro LA, Carra S, Caruso RA, Casari G, Casas C, Castino R, Cebollero E, Cecconi F, Celli J, Chaachouay H, Chae HJ, Chai CY, Chan DC, Chan EY, Chang RCC, Che CM, Chen CC, Chen GC, Chen GQ, Chen M, Chen Q, Chen SSL, Chen W, Chen X, Chen X, Chen X, Chen YG, Chen Y, Chen Y, Chen YJ, Chen Z, Cheng A, Cheng CH, Cheng Y, Cheong H, Cheong JH, Cherry S, Chess-Williams R, Cheung ZH, Chevet E, Chiang HL, Chiarelli R, Chiba T, Chin LS, Chiou SH, Chisari FV, Cho CH, Cho DH, Choi AM, Choi D, Choi KS, Choi ME, Chouaib S, Choubey D, Choubey V, Chu CT, Chuang TH, Chueh SH, Chun T, Chwae YJ, Chye ML, Ciarcia R, Ciriolo MR, Clague MJ, Clark RS, Clarke PG, Clarke R, Codogno P, Coller HA, Colombo MI, Comincini S, Condello M, Condorelli F, Cookson MR, Coombs GH, Coppens I, Corbalan R, Cossart P, Costelli P, Costes S, Coto-Montes A, Couve E, Coxon FP, Cregg JM, Crespo JL, Cronjé MJ, Cuervo AM, Cullen JJ, Czaja MJ, D'Amelio M, Darfeuille-Michaud A, Davids LM, Davies FE, De Felici M, de Groot JF, de Haan CA, De Martino L, De Milito A, De Tata V, Debnath J, Degterev A, Dehay B, Delbridge LM, Demarchi F, Deng YZ, Dengjel J, Dent P, Denton D, Deretic V, Desai SD, Devenish RJ, Di Gioacchino M, Di Paolo G, Di Pietro C, Díaz-Araya G, Díaz-Laviada I, Diaz-Meco MT, Diaz-Nido J, Dikic I, Dinesh-Kumar SP, Ding WX, Distelhorst CW, Diwan A, Djavaheri-Mergny M, Dokudovskaya S, Dong Z, Dorsey FC, Dosenko V, Dowling JJ, Doxsey S, Dreux M, Drew ME, Duan Q, Duchosal MA, Duff KE, Dugail I, Durbeej M, Duszenko M, Edelstein CL, Edinger AL, Egea G, Eichinger L, Eissa NT, Ekmekcioglu S, El-Deiry WS, Elazar Z, Elgendy M, Ellerby LM, Eng KE, Engelbrecht AM, Engelender S, Erenpreisa J, Escalante R, Esclatine A, Eskelinen EL, Espert L, Espina V, Fan H, Fan J, Fan QW, Fan Z, Fang S, Fang Y, Fanto M, Fanzani A, Farkas T, Farre JC, Faure M, Fechheimer M, Feng CG, Feng J, Feng Q, Feng Y, Fésüs L, Feuer R, Figueiredo-Pereira ME, Fimia GM, Fingar DC, Finkbeiner S, Finkel T, Finley KD, Fiorito F, Fisher EA, Fisher PB, Flajolet M, Florez-McClure ML, Florio S, Fon EA, Fornai F, Fortunato F, Fotedar R, Fowler DH, Fox HS, Franco R, Frankel LB, Fransen M, Fuentes JM, Fueyo J, Fujii J, Fujisaki K, Fujita E, Fukuda M, Furukawa RH, Gaestel M, Gailly P, Gajewska M, Galliot B, Galy V, Ganesh S, Ganetzky B, Ganley IG, Gao FB, Gao GF, Gao J, Garcia L, Garcia-Manero G, Garcia-Marcos M, Garmyn M, Gartel AL, Gatti E, Gautel M, Gawriluk TR, Gegg ME, Geng J, Germain M, Gestwicki JE, Gewirtz DA, Ghavami S, Ghosh P, Giammarioli AM, Giatromanolaki AN, Gibson SB, Gilkerson RW, Ginger ML, Ginsberg HN, Golab J, Goligorsky MS, Golstein P, Gomez-Manzano C, Goncu E, Gongora C, Gonzalez CD, Gonzalez R, González-Estévez C, González-Polo RA, Gonzalez-Rey E, Gorbunov NV, Gorski S, Goruppi S, Gottlieb RA, Gozuacik D, Granato GE, Grant GD, Green KN, Gregorc A, Gros F, Grose C, Grunt TW, Gual P, Guan JL, Guan KL, Guichard SM, Gukovskaya AS, Gukovsky I, Gunst J, Gustafsson ÅB, Halayko AJ, Hale AN, Halonen SK, Hamasaki M, Han F, Han T, Hancock MK, Hansen M, Harada H, Harada M, Hardt SE, Harper JW, Harris AL, Harris J, Harris SD, Hashimoto M, Haspel JA, Hayashi SI, Hazelhurst LA, He C, He YW, Hébert MJ, Heidenreich KA, Helfrich MH, Helgason GV, Henske EP, Herman B, Herman PK, Hetz C, Hilfiker S, Hill JA, Hocking LJ, Hofman P, Hofmann TG, Höhfeld J, Holyoake TL, Hong MH, Hood DA, Hotamisligil GS, Houwerzijl EJ, Høyer-Hansen M, Hu B, Hu CAA, Hu HM, Hua Y, Huang C, Huang J, Huang S, Huang WP, Huber TB, Huh WK, Hung TH, Hupp TR, Hur GM, Hurley JB, Hussain SN, Hussey PJ, Hwang JJ, Hwang S, Ichihara A, Ilkhanizadeh S, Inoki K, Into T, Iovane V, Iovanna JL, Ip NY, Isaka Y, Ishida H, Isidoro C, Isobe KI, Iwasaki A, Izquierdo M, Izumi Y, Jaakkola PM, Jäättelä M, Jackson GR, Jackson WT, Janji B, Jendrach M, Jeon JH, Jeung EB, Jiang H, Jiang H, Jiang JX, Jiang M, Jiang Q, Jiang X, Jiang X, Jiménez A, Jin M, Jin SV, Joe CO, Johansen T, Johnson DE, Johnson GV, Jones NL, Joseph B, Joseph SK, Joubert AM, Juhász G, Juillerat-Jeanneret L, Jung CH, Jung YK, Kaarniranta K, Kaasik A, Kabuta T, Kadowaki M, Kågedal K, Kamada Y, Kaminskyy VO, Kampinga HH, Kanamori H, Kang C, Kang KB, Kang KI, Kang R, Kang YA, Kanki T, Kanneganti TD, Kanno H, Kanthasamy AG, Kanthasamy A, Karantza V, Kaushal GP, Kaushik S, Kawazoe Y, Ke PY, Kehrl JH, Kelekar A, Kerkhoff C, Kessel DH, Khalil H, Kiel JA, Kiger AA, Kihara A, Kim DR, Kim DH, Kim DH, Kim EK, Kim HR, Kim JS, Kim JH, Kim JC, Kim JK, Kim PK, Kim SW, Kim YS, Kim Y, Kimchi A, Kimmelman AC, King JS, Kinsella TJ, Kirkin V, Kirshenbaum LA, Kitamoto K, Kitazato K, Klein L, Klimecki WT, Klucken J, Knecht E, Ko BC, Koch JC, Koga H, Koh JY, Koh YH, Koike M, Komatsu M, Kominami E, Kong HJ, Kong WJ, Korolchuk VI, Kotake Y, Koukourakis MI, Flores JBK, Kovács AL, Kraft C, Krainc D, Krämer H, Kretz-Remy C, Krichevsky AM, Kroemer G, Krüger R, Krut O, Ktistakis NT, Kuan CY, Kucharczyk R, Kumar A, Kumar R, Kumar S, Kundu M, Kung HJ, Kurz T, Kwon HJ, La Spada AR, Lafont F, Lamark T, Landry J, Lane JD, Lapaquette P, Laporte JF, László L, Lavandero S, Lavoie JN, Layfield R, Lazo PA, Le W, Le Cam L, Ledbetter DJ, Lee AJ, Lee BW, Lee GM, Lee J, lee JH, Lee M, Lee MS, Lee SH, Leeuwenburgh C, Legembre P, Legouis R, Lehmann M, Lei HY, Lei QY, Leib DA, Leiro J, Lemasters JJ, Lemoine A, Lesniak MS, Lev D, Levenson VV, Levine B, Levy E, Li F, Li JL, Li L, Li S, Li W, Li XJ, Li YB, Li YP, Liang C, Liang Q, Liao YF, Liberski PP, Lieberman A, Lim HJ, Lim KL, Lim K, Lin CF, Lin FC, Lin J, Lin JD, Lin K, Lin WW, Lin WC, Lin YL, Linden R, Lingor P, Lippincott-Schwartz J, Lisanti MP, Liton PB, Liu B, Liu CF, Liu K, Liu L, Liu QA, Liu W, Liu YC, Liu Y, Lockshin RA, Lok CN, Lonial S, Loos B, Lopez-Berestein G, López-Otín C, Lossi L, Lotze MT, Low P, Lu B, Lu B, Lu B, Lu Z, Luciano F, Lukacs NW, Lund AH, Lynch-Day MA, Ma Y, Macian F, MacKeigan JP, Macleod KF, Madeo F, Maiuri L, Maiuri MC, Malagoli D, Malicdan MCV, Malorni W, Man N, Mandelkow EM, Manon S, Manov I, Mao K, Mao X, Mao Z, Marambaud P, Marazziti D, Marcel YL, Marchbank K, Marchetti P, Marciniak SJ, Marcondes M, Mardi M, Marfe G, Mariño G, Markaki M, Marten MR, Martin SJ, Martinand-Mari C, Martinet W, Martinez-Vicente M, Masini M, Matarrese P, Matsuo S, Matteoni R, Mayer A, Mazure NM, McConkey DJ, McConnell MJ, McDermott C, McDonald C, McInerney GM, McKenna SL, McLaughlin B, McLean PJ, McMaster CR, McQuibban GA, Meijer AJ, Meisler MH, Meléndez A, Melia TJ, Melino G, Mena MA, Menendez JA, Menna-Barreto RFS, Menon MB, Menzies FM, Mercer CA, Merighi A, Merry DE, Meschini S, Meyer CG, Meyer TF, Miao CY, Miao JY, Michels PA, Michiels C, Mijaljica D, Milojkovic A, Minucci S, Miracco C, Miranti CK, Mitroulis I, Miyazawa K, Mizushima N, Mograbi B, Mohseni S, Molero X, Mollereau B, Mollinedo F, Momoi T, Monastyrska I, Monick MM, Monteiro MJ, Moore MN, Mora R, Moreau K, Moreira PI, Moriyasu Y, Moscat J, Mostowy S, Mottram JC, Motyl T, Moussa CEH, Müller S, Muller S, Münger K, Münz C, Murphy LO, Murphy ME, Musarò A, Mysorekar I, Nagata E, Nagata K, Nahimana A, Nair U, Nakagawa T, Nakahira K, Nakano H, Nakatogawa H, Nanjundan M, Naqvi NI, Narendra DP, Narita M, Navarro M, Nawrocki ST, Nazarko TY, Nemchenko A, Netea MG, Neufeld TP, Ney PA, Nezis IP, Nguyen HP, Nie D, Nishino I, Nislow C, Nixon RA, Noda T, Noegel AA, Nogalska A, Noguchi S, Notterpek L, Novak I, Nozaki T, Nukina N, Nürnberger T, Nyfeler B, Obara K, Oberley TD, Oddo S, Ogawa M, Ohashi T, Okamoto K, Oleinick NL, Oliver FJ, Olsen LJ, Olsson S, Opota O, Osborne TF, Ostrander GK, Otsu K, Ou JHJ, Ouimet M, Overholtzer M, Ozpolat B, Paganetti P, Pagnini U, Pallet N, Palmer GE, Palumbo C, Pan T, Panaretakis T, Pandey UB, Papackova Z, Papassideri I, Paris I, Park J, Park OK, Parys JB, Parzych KR, Patschan S, Patterson C, Pattingre S, Pawelek JM, Peng J, Perlmutter DH, Perrotta I, Perry G, Pervaiz S, Peter M, Peters GJ, Petersen M, Petrovski G, Phang JM, Piacentini M, Pierre P, Pierrefite-Carle V, Pierron G, Pinkas-Kramarski R, Piras A, Piri N, Platanias LC, Pöggeler S, Poirot M, Poletti A, Poüs C, Pozuelo-Rubio M, Prætorius-Ibba M, Prasad A, Prescott M, Priault M, Produit-Zengaffinen N, Progulske-Fox A, Proikas-Cezanne T, Przedborski S, Przyklenk K, Puertollano R, Puyal J, Qian SB, Qin L, Qin ZH, Quaggin SE, Raben N, Rabinowich H, Rabkin SW, Rahman I, Rami A, Ramm G, Randall G, Randow F, Rao VA, Rathmell JC, Ravikumar B, Ray SK, Reed BH, Reed JC, Reggiori F, Régnier-Vigouroux A, Reichert AS, Reiners, Jr. JJ, Reiter RJ, Ren J, Revuelta JL, Rhodes CJ, Ritis K, Rizzo E, Robbins J, Roberge M, Roca H, Roccheri MC, Rocchi S, Rodemann HP, Rodríguez de Córdoba S, Rohrer B, Roninson IB, Rosen K, Rost-Roszkowska MM, Rouis M, Rouschop KM, Rovetta F, Rubin BP, Rubinsztein DC, Ruckdeschel K, Rucker EB, Rudich A, Rudolf E, Ruiz-Opazo N, Russo R, Rusten TE, Ryan KM, Ryter SW, Sabatini DM, Sadoshima J, Saha T, Saitoh T, Sakagami H, Sakai Y, Salekdeh GH, Salomoni P, Salvaterra PM, Salvesen G, Salvioli R, Sanchez AM, Sánchez-Alcázar JA, Sánchez-Prieto R, Sandri M, Sankar U, Sansanwal P, Santambrogio L, Saran S, Sarkar S, Sarwal M, Sasakawa C, Sasnauskiene A, Sass M, Sato K, Sato M, Schapira AH, Scharl M, Schätzl HM, Scheper W, Schiaffino S, Schneider C, Schneider ME, Schneider-Stock R, Schoenlein PV, Schorderet DF, Schüller C, Schwartz GK, Scorrano L, Sealy L, Seglen PO, Segura-Aguilar J, Seiliez I, Seleverstov O, Sell C, Seo JB, Separovic D, Setaluri V, Setoguchi T, Settembre C, Shacka JJ, Shanmugam M, Shapiro IM, Shaulian E, Shaw RJ, Shelhamer JH, Shen HM. Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy. Autophagy 2012. [DOI: 10.4161/auto.19496 order by 1-- #] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
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Klionsky DJ, Abdalla FC, Abeliovich H, Abraham RT, Acevedo-Arozena A, Adeli K, Agholme L, Agnello M, Agostinis P, Aguirre-Ghiso JA, Ahn HJ, Ait-Mohamed O, Ait-Si-Ali S, Akematsu T, Akira S, Al-Younes HM, Al-Zeer MA, Albert ML, Albin RL, Alegre-Abarrategui J, Aleo MF, Alirezaei M, Almasan A, Almonte-Becerril M, Amano A, Amaravadi R, Amarnath S, Amer AO, Andrieu-Abadie N, Anantharam V, Ann DK, Anoopkumar-Dukie S, Aoki H, Apostolova N, Arancia G, Aris JP, Asanuma K, Asare NYO, Ashida H, Askanas V, Askew DS, Auberger P, Baba M, Backues SK, Baehrecke EH, Bahr BA, Bai XY, Bailly Y, Baiocchi R, Baldini G, Balduini W, Ballabio A, Bamber BA, Bampton ETW, Bánhegyi G, Bartholomew CR, Bassham DC, Bast RC, Batoko H, Bay BH, Beau I, Béchet DM, Begley TJ, Behl C, Behrends C, Bekri S, Bellaire B, Bendall LJ, Benetti L, Berliocchi L, Bernardi H, Bernassola F, Besteiro S, Bhatia-Kissova I, Bi X, Biard-Piechaczyk M, Blum JS, Boise LH, Bonaldo P, Boone DL, Bornhauser BC, Bortoluci KR, Bossis I, Bost F, Bourquin JP, Boya P, Boyer-Guittaut M, Bozhkov PV, Brady NR, Brancolini C, Brech A, Brenman JE, Brennand A, Bresnick EH, Brest P, Bridges D, Bristol ML, Brookes PS, Brown EJ, Brumell JH, Brunetti-Pierri N, Brunk UT, Bulman DE, Bultman SJ, Bultynck G, Burbulla LF, Bursch W, Butchar JP, Buzgariu W, Bydlowski SP, Cadwell K, Cahová M, Cai D, Cai J, Cai Q, Calabretta B, Calvo-Garrido J, Camougrand N, Campanella M, Campos-Salinas J, Candi E, Cao L, Caplan AB, Carding SR, Cardoso SM, Carew JS, Carlin CR, Carmignac V, Carneiro LAM, Carra S, Caruso RA, Casari G, Casas C, Castino R, Cebollero E, Cecconi F, Celli J, Chaachouay H, Chae HJ, Chai CY, Chan DC, Chan EY, Chang RCC, Che CM, Chen CC, Chen GC, Chen GQ, Chen M, Chen Q, Chen SSL, Chen W, Chen X, Chen X, Chen X, Chen YG, Chen Y, Chen Y, Chen YJ, Chen Z, Cheng A, Cheng CHK, Cheng Y, Cheong H, Cheong JH, Cherry S, Chess-Williams R, Cheung ZH, Chevet E, Chiang HL, Chiarelli R, Chiba T, Chin LS, Chiou SH, Chisari FV, Cho CH, Cho DH, Choi AMK, Choi D, Choi KS, Choi ME, Chouaib S, Choubey D, Choubey V, Chu CT, Chuang TH, Chueh SH, Chun T, Chwae YJ, Chye ML, Ciarcia R, Ciriolo MR, Clague MJ, Clark RSB, Clarke PGH, Clarke R, Codogno P, Coller HA, Colombo MI, Comincini S, Condello M, Condorelli F, Cookson MR, Coombs GH, Coppens I, Corbalan R, Cossart P, Costelli P, Costes S, Coto-Montes A, Couve E, Coxon FP, Cregg JM, Crespo JL, Cronjé MJ, Cuervo AM, Cullen JJ, Czaja MJ, D'Amelio M, Darfeuille-Michaud A, Davids LM, Davies FE, De Felici M, de Groot JF, de Haan CAM, De Martino L, De Milito A, De Tata V, Debnath J, Degterev A, Dehay B, Delbridge LMD, Demarchi F, Deng YZ, Dengjel J, Dent P, Denton D, Deretic V, Desai SD, Devenish RJ, Di Gioacchino M, Di Paolo G, Di Pietro C, Díaz-Araya G, Díaz-Laviada I, Diaz-Meco MT, Diaz-Nido J, Dikic I, Dinesh-Kumar SP, Ding WX, Distelhorst CW, Diwan A, Djavaheri-Mergny M, Dokudovskaya S, Dong Z, Dorsey FC, Dosenko V, Dowling JJ, Doxsey S, Dreux M, Drew ME, Duan Q, Duchosal MA, Duff K, Dugail I, 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Huh WK, Hung TH, Hupp TR, Hur GM, Hurley JB, Hussain SNA, Hussey PJ, Hwang JJ, Hwang S, Ichihara A, Ilkhanizadeh S, Inoki K, Into T, Iovane V, Iovanna JL, Ip NY, Isaka Y, Ishida H, Isidoro C, Isobe KI, Iwasaki A, Izquierdo M, Izumi Y, Jaakkola PM, Jäättelä M, Jackson GR, Jackson WT, Janji B, Jendrach M, Jeon JH, Jeung EB, Jiang H, Jiang H, Jiang JX, Jiang M, Jiang Q, Jiang X, Jiang X, Jiménez A, Jin M, Jin S, Joe CO, Johansen T, Johnson DE, Johnson GVW, Jones NL, Joseph B, Joseph SK, Joubert AM, Juhász G, Juillerat-Jeanneret L, Jung CH, Jung YK, Kaarniranta K, Kaasik A, Kabuta T, Kadowaki M, Kagedal K, Kamada Y, Kaminskyy VO, Kampinga HH, Kanamori H, Kang C, Kang KB, Kang KI, Kang R, Kang YA, Kanki T, Kanneganti TD, Kanno H, Kanthasamy AG, Kanthasamy A, Karantza V, Kaushal GP, Kaushik S, Kawazoe Y, Ke PY, Kehrl JH, Kelekar A, Kerkhoff C, Kessel DH, Khalil H, Kiel JAKW, Kiger AA, Kihara A, Kim DR, Kim DH, Kim DH, Kim EK, Kim HR, Kim JS, Kim JH, Kim JC, Kim JK, Kim PK, Kim SW, Kim YS, 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JL, Whitworth AJ, Wileman T, Wiley JW, Wilkinson S, Willbold D, Williams RL, Williamson PR, Wouters BG, Wu C, Wu DC, Wu WKK, Wyttenbach A, Xavier RJ, Xi Z, Xia P, Xiao G, Xie Z, Xie Z, Xu DZ, Xu J, Xu L, Xu X, Yamamoto A, Yamamoto A, Yamashina S, Yamashita M, Yan X, Yanagida M, Yang DS, Yang E, Yang JM, Yang SY, Yang W, Yang WY, Yang Z, Yao MC, Yao TP, Yeganeh B, Yen WL, Yin JJ, Yin XM, Yoo OJ, Yoon G, Yoon SY, Yorimitsu T, Yoshikawa Y, Yoshimori T, Yoshimoto K, You HJ, Youle RJ, Younes A, Yu L, Yu L, Yu SW, Yu WH, Yuan ZM, Yue Z, Yun CH, Yuzaki M, Zabirnyk O, Silva-Zacarin E, Zacks D, Zacksenhaus E, Zaffaroni N, Zakeri Z, Zeh HJ, Zeitlin SO, Zhang H, Zhang HL, Zhang J, Zhang JP, Zhang L, Zhang L, Zhang MY, Zhang XD, Zhao M, Zhao YF, Zhao Y, Zhao ZJ, Zheng X, Zhivotovsky B, Zhong Q, Zhou CZ, Zhu C, Zhu WG, Zhu XF, Zhu X, Zhu Y, Zoladek T, Zong WX, Zorzano A, Zschocke J, Zuckerbraun B. Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy. Autophagy 2012; 8:445-544. [PMID: 22966490 PMCID: PMC3404883 DOI: 10.4161/auto.19496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2742] [Impact Index Per Article: 228.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In 2008 we published the first set of guidelines for standardizing research in autophagy. Since then, research on this topic has continued to accelerate, and many new scientists have entered the field. Our knowledge base and relevant new technologies have also been expanding. Accordingly, it is important to update these guidelines for monitoring autophagy in different organisms. Various reviews have described the range of assays that have been used for this purpose. Nevertheless, there continues to be confusion regarding acceptable methods to measure autophagy, especially in multicellular eukaryotes. A key point that needs to be emphasized is that there is a difference between measurements that monitor the numbers or volume of autophagic elements (e.g., autophagosomes or autolysosomes) at any stage of the autophagic process vs. those that measure flux through the autophagy pathway (i.e., the complete process); thus, a block in macroautophagy that results in autophagosome accumulation needs to be differentiated from stimuli that result in increased autophagic activity, defined as increased autophagy induction coupled with increased delivery to, and degradation within, lysosomes (in most higher eukaryotes and some protists such as Dictyostelium) or the vacuole (in plants and fungi). In other words, it is especially important that investigators new to the field understand that the appearance of more autophagosomes does not necessarily equate with more autophagy. In fact, in many cases, autophagosomes accumulate because of a block in trafficking to lysosomes without a concomitant change in autophagosome biogenesis, whereas an increase in autolysosomes may reflect a reduction in degradative activity. Here, we present a set of guidelines for the selection and interpretation of methods for use by investigators who aim to examine macroautophagy and related processes, as well as for reviewers who need to provide realistic and reasonable critiques of papers that are focused on these processes. These guidelines are not meant to be a formulaic set of rules, because the appropriate assays depend in part on the question being asked and the system being used. In addition, we emphasize that no individual assay is guaranteed to be the most appropriate one in every situation, and we strongly recommend the use of multiple assays to monitor autophagy. In these guidelines, we consider these various methods of assessing autophagy and what information can, or cannot, be obtained from them. Finally, by discussing the merits and limits of particular autophagy assays, we hope to encourage technical innovation in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Klionsky
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
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Sanchez CG, Penfornis P, Oskowitz AZ, Boonjindasup AG, Cai DZ, Dhule SS, Rowan BG, Kelekar A, Krause DS, Pochampally RR. Activation of autophagy in mesenchymal stem cells provides tumor stromal support. Carcinogenesis 2011; 32:964-72. [PMID: 21317300 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgr029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have implicated multipotential mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) as an aid to breast cancer cell proliferation and metastasis, partly as a result of the MSCs secretome. As the tumor gets beyond 2 mm in diameter, the stromal cells could undergo starvation due to the lack of sufficient nutrients in solid tumor microenvironment. In this study, we investigated the survival mechanisms used by stressed stromal cells in breast cancers. We used serum-deprived mesenchymal stem cells (SD-MSCs) and MCF-7 breast cancer cells as model system with a hypothesis that stromal cells in the nutrient-deprived core utilize survival mechanisms for supporting surrounding cells. We tested this hypothesis using in vivo tumor xenografts in immunodeficient mice, which indicated that SD-MSCs supported MCF-7 tumor growth by protection from apoptosis. Histochemical assays showed that SD-MSCs-injected tumors exhibited higher cellularity, decreased apoptosis and decreased differentiation. Beclin-1 staining indicated autophagic areas surrounded by actively proliferating cells. Furthermore, in vitro studies demonstrate that SD-MSCs survive using autophagy and secrete paracrine factors that support tumor cells following nutrient/serum deprivation. Western blot and immunocytochemistry analysis of SD-MSCs demonstrated upregulation and perinuclear relocation of autophagy key regulators such as beclin-1, ATG10, ATG12, MAP-LC3 and lysosomes. Electron microscopic analysis detected a time-dependent increase in autophagosome formation and HDAC6 activity assays indicated the upregulation of autophagy. Taken together, these data suggest that under nutrient-deprived conditions that can occur in solid tumors, stromal cells utilize autophagy for survival and also secrete anti-apoptotic factors that can facilitate solid tumor survival and growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia G Sanchez
- Gene Therapy Center, Tulane University Health Science Center, 1430 Tulane avenue, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
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Lowman XH, McDonnell MA, Kosloske A, Odumade OA, Jenness C, Karim CB, Jemmerson R, Kelekar A. The proapoptotic function of Noxa in human leukemia cells is regulated by the kinase Cdk5 and by glucose. Mol Cell 2011; 40:823-33. [PMID: 21145489 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2010.11.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2010] [Revised: 08/20/2010] [Accepted: 10/05/2010] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The BH3-only protein, Noxa, is induced in response to apoptotic stimuli, such as DNA damage, hypoxia, and proteasome inhibition in most human cells. Noxa is constitutively expressed in proliferating cells of hematopoietic lineage and required for apoptosis in response to glucose stress. We show that Noxa is phosphorylated on a serine residue (S(13)) in the presence of glucose. Phosphorylation promotes its cytosolic sequestration and suppresses its apoptotic function. We identify Cdk5 as the Noxa kinase and show that Cdk5 knockdown or expression of a Noxa S(13) to A mutant increases sensitivity to glucose starvation, confirming that the phosphorylation is protective. Both glucose deprivation and Cdk5 inhibition promote apoptosis by dephosphorylating Noxa. Paradoxically, Noxa stimulates glucose consumption and may enhance glucose turnover via the pentose phosphate pathway rather than through glycolysis. We propose that Noxa plays both growth-promoting and proapoptotic roles in hematopoietic cancers with phospho-S(13) as the glucose-sensitive toggle switch controlling these opposing functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xazmin H Lowman
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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29
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Separovic D, Kelekar A, Nayak A, Tarca A, Bielawski J. Increased ceramide accumulation correlates with downregulation of the autophagy protein ATG‐7 in MCF‐7 cells sensitized to photodamage. FASEB J 2010. [DOI: 10.1096/fasebj.24.1_supplement.475.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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30
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Separovic D, Kelekar A, Nayak AK, Tarca AL, Hanada K, Pierce JS, Bielawski J. Increased ceramide accumulation correlates with downregulation of the autophagy protein ATG-7 in MCF-7 cells sensitized to photodamage. Arch Biochem Biophys 2010; 494:101-5. [PMID: 19944062 PMCID: PMC2877393 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2009.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2009] [Revised: 11/17/2009] [Accepted: 11/18/2009] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the sphingolipid (SL) profile in cells defective in autophagy protein ATG-7 and overall cell death after photodynamic therapy (PDT) with the photosensitizer Pc 4. MCF-7 human breast cancer cells with downregulated ATG-7 and their scrambled controls (Scr) were used. Exposure of ATG-7 knockdown cells to PDT led to increased cell killing. PDT evoked an early (2h) greater global increase in ceramides in ATG-7 defective cells compared to Scr cells. The total increases in dihydroceramide (DHceramide) were significant at 2 and 24h in both cell types post-PDT. The levels of sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) and sphingosine were decreased below resting levels at both time points irrespective of the cell type. The data imply that ceramide might be a marker of ATG-7 deficiency in cells sensitized to PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duska Separovic
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
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31
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Codina R, Vanasse A, Kelekar A, Vezys V, Jemmerson R. Cytochrome c-induced lymphocyte death from the outside in: inhibition by serum leucine-rich alpha-2-glycoprotein-1. Apoptosis 2009; 15:139-52. [DOI: 10.1007/s10495-009-0412-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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32
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Nguyen TMB, Subramanian IV, Xiao X, Ghosh G, Nguyen P, Kelekar A, Ramakrishnan S. Endostatin induces autophagy in endothelial cells by modulating Beclin 1 and beta-catenin levels. J Cell Mol Med 2009; 13:3687-98. [PMID: 19298526 PMCID: PMC4516517 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2009.00722.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Endostatin is a well-characterized endogenous inhibitor of angiogenesis that affects cell proliferation and migration by inhibiting integrin and Wnt-mediated signalling pathways. Here, we show that endothelial cells treated with native and P125A-endostatin activate autophagy. Because autophagy can either be protective or induce programmed cell death, experiments were carried out to understand the signalling pathways leading to autophagy in endothelial cells. P125A-endostatin treatment increased the levels of Beclin 1, a crucial molecule in vesicle nucleation and autophagy. The treatment also reduced the levels of Bcl-2, Bcl-xL and β-catenin; however, progressively increasing amounts of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL were found to be complexed with Beclin 1. Increased β-catenin and Wnt-mediated signalling reduced Beclin 1 levels and rescued endothelial cells from endostatin-induced autophagy. Finally, knocking down Beclin 1 levels by RNA interference decreased autophagy and accelerated caspase activation in endostatin-treated cells. These studies suggest that endothelial cells may initiate autophagy as a survival response to limit the effects of angiogenesis inhibitors. Thus, interfering with autophagy can potentiate the effects of endostatin by promoting a switch to apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tri Minh Bui Nguyen
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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33
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Kelekar A. Introduction to the review series Autophagy in Higher Eukaryotes--a matter of survival or death. Autophagy 2008; 4:555-556. [PMID: 18552551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Single celled eukaryotes utilize autophagy (or self-consumption) to adapt to fluctuating energy sources in the environment. The identification in multicellular organisms of orthologs of autophagy-related yeast genes has led to some of the major advances in the molecular dissection of the pathway in the last decade. In higher eukaryotes, autophagy is much more than a 'stress response' pathway. The complexity of multicellular systems calls for greater sophistication and coordination not only in regulating the stress response but also in sustaining normal physiological functions and a homeostatic environment in the whole organism. The review series on 'Autophagy in Higher Eukaryotes--a matter of survival or death' in the current issue comprises a variety of perspectives on the role of autophagy in cell growth, survival and death, in neurodegeneration, tumor suppression and tumor progression. For example, Høyer-Hansen and Jäättellä cogitate on the emergence of autophagy as a target in cancer therapy. In addition, Sanjuan and Green examine its role in the defense against microbial pathogens and Sachdeva and Thompson offer an intriguing look at autophagy in the context of circadian clocks and diurnal rhythms. Presented below are some of the salient points from these perspectives.
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Abstract
Single celled eukaryotes utilize autophagy (or self-consumption) to adapt to fluctuating energy sources in the environment. The identification in multicellular organisms of orthologs of autophagy-related yeast genes has led to some of the major advances in the molecular dissection of the pathway in the last decade. In higher eukaryotes, autophagy is much more than a 'stress response' pathway. The complexity of multicellular systems calls for greater sophistication and coordination not only in regulating the stress response but also in sustaining normal physiological functions and a homeostatic environment in the whole organism. The review series on 'Autophagy in Higher Eukaryotes - a matter of survival or death' in the current issue comprises a variety of perspectives on the role of autophagy in cell growth, survival and death, in neurodegeneration, tumor suppression and tumor progression. For example, Høyer-Hansen and Jäättellä cogitate on the emergence of autophagy as a target in cancer therapy. In addition, Sanjuan and Green examine its role in the defense against microbial pathogens and Sachdeva and Thompson offer an intriguing look at autophagy in the context of circadian clocks and diurnal rhythms. Presented below are some of the salient points from these perspectives.
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35
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McDonnell MA, Abedin MJ, Melendez M, Platikanova TN, Ecklund JR, Ahmed K, Kelekar A. Phosphorylation of murine caspase-9 by the protein kinase casein kinase 2 regulates its cleavage by caspase-8. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:20149-58. [PMID: 18467326 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m802846200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous studies from our laboratory had indicated that cytochrome c-independent processing and activation of caspase-9 by caspase-8 contributed to early amplification of the caspase cascade in tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha-treated murine cells. Here we show that murine caspase-9 is phosphorylated by casein kinase 2 (CK2) on a serine near the site of caspase-8 cleavage. CK2 has been shown to regulate cleavage of the pro-apoptotic Bid protein by phosphorylating serine residues near its caspase-8 cleavage site. Similarly, CK2 modification of Ser(348) on caspase-9 appears to render the protease refractory to cleavage by active caspase-8. This phosphorylation did not affect the ability of caspase-9 to autoprocess. Substitution of Ser(348) abolished phosphorylation but not cleavage, and a phospho-site mutant promoted apoptosis in TNF-alpha-treated caspase-9 knock-out mouse embryo fibroblasts. Furthermore, inhibition of CK2 activity and RNA interference-mediated knockdown of the kinase accelerated caspase-9 activation, whereas phosphatase inhibition delayed both caspase-9 activation and death in response to TNF receptor occupation. Taken together, these studies show that TNF receptor cross-linking promotes dephosphorylation of caspase-9, rendering it susceptible to processing by activated caspase-8 protein. Thus, our data suggest that modification of procaspase-9 to protect it from inappropriate cleavage and activation is yet another mechanism by which the oncogenic kinase CK2 promotes survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maureen A McDonnell
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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36
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Klionsky DJ, Abeliovich H, Agostinis P, Agrawal DK, Aliev G, Askew DS, Baba M, Baehrecke EH, Bahr BA, Ballabio A, Bamber BA, Bassham DC, Bergamini E, Bi X, Biard-Piechaczyk M, Blum JS, Bredesen DE, Brodsky JL, Brumell JH, Brunk UT, Bursch W, Camougrand N, Cebollero E, Cecconi F, Chen Y, Chin LS, Choi A, Chu CT, Chung J, Clarke PGH, Clark RSB, Clarke SG, Clavé C, Cleveland JL, Codogno P, Colombo MI, Coto-Montes A, Cregg JM, Cuervo AM, Debnath J, Demarchi F, Dennis PB, Dennis PA, Deretic V, Devenish RJ, Di Sano F, Dice JF, Difiglia M, Dinesh-Kumar S, Distelhorst CW, Djavaheri-Mergny M, Dorsey FC, Dröge W, Dron M, Dunn WA, Duszenko M, Eissa NT, Elazar Z, Esclatine A, Eskelinen EL, Fésüs L, Finley KD, Fuentes JM, Fueyo J, Fujisaki K, Galliot B, Gao FB, Gewirtz DA, Gibson SB, Gohla A, Goldberg AL, Gonzalez R, González-Estévez C, Gorski S, Gottlieb RA, Häussinger D, He YW, Heidenreich K, Hill JA, Høyer-Hansen M, Hu X, Huang WP, Iwasaki A, Jäättelä M, Jackson WT, Jiang X, Jin S, Johansen T, Jung JU, Kadowaki M, Kang C, Kelekar A, Kessel DH, Kiel JAKW, Kim HP, Kimchi A, Kinsella TJ, Kiselyov K, Kitamoto K, Knecht E, Komatsu M, Kominami E, Kondo S, Kovács AL, Kroemer G, Kuan CY, Kumar R, Kundu M, Landry J, Laporte M, Le W, Lei HY, Lenardo MJ, Levine B, Lieberman A, Lim KL, Lin FC, Liou W, Liu LF, Lopez-Berestein G, López-Otín C, Lu B, Macleod KF, Malorni W, Martinet W, Matsuoka K, Mautner J, Meijer AJ, Meléndez A, Michels P, Miotto G, Mistiaen WP, Mizushima N, Mograbi B, Monastyrska I, Moore MN, Moreira PI, Moriyasu Y, Motyl T, Münz C, Murphy LO, Naqvi NI, Neufeld TP, Nishino I, Nixon RA, Noda T, Nürnberg B, Ogawa M, Oleinick NL, Olsen LJ, Ozpolat B, Paglin S, Palmer GE, Papassideri I, Parkes M, Perlmutter DH, Perry G, Piacentini M, Pinkas-Kramarski R, Prescott M, Proikas-Cezanne T, Raben N, Rami A, Reggiori F, Rohrer B, Rubinsztein DC, Ryan KM, Sadoshima J, Sakagami H, Sakai Y, Sandri M, Sasakawa C, Sass M, Schneider C, Seglen PO, Seleverstov O, Settleman J, Shacka JJ, Shapiro IM, Sibirny A, Silva-Zacarin ECM, Simon HU, Simone C, Simonsen A, Smith MA, Spanel-Borowski K, Srinivas V, Steeves M, Stenmark H, Stromhaug PE, Subauste CS, Sugimoto S, Sulzer D, Suzuki T, Swanson MS, Tabas I, Takeshita F, Talbot NJ, Tallóczy Z, Tanaka K, Tanaka K, Tanida I, Taylor GS, Taylor JP, Terman A, Tettamanti G, Thompson CB, Thumm M, Tolkovsky AM, Tooze SA, Truant R, Tumanovska LV, Uchiyama Y, Ueno T, Uzcátegui NL, van der Klei I, Vaquero EC, Vellai T, Vogel MW, Wang HG, Webster P, Wiley JW, Xi Z, Xiao G, Yahalom J, Yang JM, Yap G, Yin XM, Yoshimori T, Yu L, Yue Z, Yuzaki M, Zabirnyk O, Zheng X, Zhu X, Deter RL. Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy in higher eukaryotes. Autophagy 2008; 4:151-75. [PMID: 18188003 PMCID: PMC2654259 DOI: 10.4161/auto.5338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1821] [Impact Index Per Article: 113.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Research in autophagy continues to accelerate,(1) and as a result many new scientists are entering the field. Accordingly, it is important to establish a standard set of criteria for monitoring macroautophagy in different organisms. Recent reviews have described the range of assays that have been used for this purpose.(2,3) There are many useful and convenient methods that can be used to monitor macroautophagy in yeast, but relatively few in other model systems, and there is much confusion regarding acceptable methods to measure macroautophagy in higher eukaryotes. A key point that needs to be emphasized is that there is a difference between measurements that monitor the numbers of autophagosomes versus those that measure flux through the autophagy pathway; thus, a block in macroautophagy that results in autophagosome accumulation needs to be differentiated from fully functional autophagy that includes delivery to, and degradation within, lysosomes (in most higher eukaryotes) or the vacuole (in plants and fungi). Here, we present a set of guidelines for the selection and interpretation of the methods that can be used by investigators who are attempting to examine macroautophagy and related processes, as well as by reviewers who need to provide realistic and reasonable critiques of papers that investigate these processes. This set of guidelines is not meant to be a formulaic set of rules, because the appropriate assays depend in part on the question being asked and the system being used. In addition, we emphasize that no individual assay is guaranteed to be the most appropriate one in every situation, and we strongly recommend the use of multiple assays to verify an autophagic response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Klionsky
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2216, USA.
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Abstract
Angiogenesis, the process by which new blood vessels are formed is critical for embryonic development and physiological functioning of normal tissues. Angiogenesis also plays a critical role in the pathology of many diseases including cancer, wherein the supply and demand for blood vessels determines the rate of cancer growth. A number of therapeutic strategies are being developed to inhibit pathological angiogenesis. Kringle domains of plasminogen such as kringle 5 (K5) and a proteolytic fragment of collagen type XVIII (endostatin) are well-characterized, potent angiogenesis inhibitors. These inhibitors activate different intracellular signaling pathways to induce apoptosis and inhibit cell proliferation. Recent studies from our group have shown that K5 and endostatin can also induce autophagy in addition to apoptosis in endothelial cells. A common feature of the two treatments was the upregulation of Beclin 1 levels leading to alterations in the Beclin 1-Bcl-2 complex. Angiogenesis inhibitor-induced autophagy in endothelial cells was independent of nutritional or hypoxic stress and initiated even in the presence of endothelial-specific survival factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Interfering with the autophagic response by knocking down Beclin 1 levels dramatically increased apoptosis of endothelial cells. These findings identify the autophagic response as a novel target for enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of angiogenesis inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sundaram Ramakrishnan
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA.
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Nguyen TMB, Subramanian IV, Kelekar A, Ramakrishnan S. Kringle 5 of human plasminogen, an angiogenesis inhibitor, induces both autophagy and apoptotic death in endothelial cells. Blood 2007; 109:4793-802. [PMID: 17272502 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2006-11-059352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractInhibition of endothelial cell proliferation and angiogenesis is emerging as an important strategy in cancer therapeutics. Kringle 5 (K5) of human plasminogen is a potent angiogenesis inhibitor. Previous studies have shown K5 exposure promotes caspase activity and apoptosis in endothelial cells. Here we report that K5 treatment evokes an autophagic response in endothelial cells that is specific and initiated even in the absence of nutritional stress. Endothelial cells exposed to K5 up-regulated Beclin 1 levels within a few hours. Furthermore, progressively increasing amounts of antiapoptotic Bcl-2 were found to be complexed with Beclin 1, although total levels of Bcl-2 remained unchanged. Prolonged exposure to K5 ultimately led to apoptosis via mitochondrial membrane depolarization and caspase activation in endothelial cells. Knocking down Beclin 1 levels by RNA interference decreased K5 induced autophagy but accelerated K5-induced apoptosis. These studies suggest that interfering with the autophagic survival response can potentiate the antiangiogenic effects of Kringle 5 in endothelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tri Minh Bui Nguyen
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, 321 Church Street SE, Minnesota, MN 55455, USA
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Zhao Y, Altman BJ, Coloff JL, Herman CE, Jacobs SR, Wieman HL, Wofford JA, Dimascio LN, Ilkayeva O, Kelekar A, Reya T, Rathmell JC. Glycogen synthase kinase 3alpha and 3beta mediate a glucose-sensitive antiapoptotic signaling pathway to stabilize Mcl-1. Mol Cell Biol 2007; 27:4328-39. [PMID: 17371841 PMCID: PMC1900055 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00153-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucose uptake and utilization are growth factor-stimulated processes that are frequently upregulated in cancer cells and that correlate with enhanced cell survival. The mechanism of metabolic protection from apoptosis, however, has been unclear. Here we identify a novel signaling pathway initiated by glucose catabolism that inhibited apoptotic death of growth factor-deprived cells. We show that increased glucose metabolism protected cells against the proapoptotic Bcl-2 family protein Bim and attenuated degradation of the antiapoptotic Bcl-2 family protein Mcl-1. Maintenance of Mcl-1 was critical for this protection, as glucose metabolism failed to protect Mcl-1-deficient cells from apoptosis. Increased glucose metabolism stabilized Mcl-1 in both cell lines and primary lymphocytes via inhibitory phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase 3alpha and 3beta (GSK-3alpha/beta), which otherwise promoted Mcl-1 degradation. While a number of kinases can phosphorylate and inhibit GSK-3alpha/beta, we provide evidence that protein kinase C may be stimulated by glucose-induced alterations in diacylglycerol levels or distribution to phosphorylate GSK-3alpha/beta, maintain Mcl-1 levels, and inhibit cell death. These data provide a novel nutrient-sensitive mechanism linking glucose metabolism and Bcl-2 family proteins via GSK-3 that may promote survival of cells with high rates of glucose utilization, such as growth factor-stimulated or cancerous cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuxing Zhao
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, DUMC Box 3813, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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Abstract
Early signaling in camptothecin-treated MCF-7 cells followed an intrinsic pathway, but death was delayed and late events exhibited few hallmarks of apoptosis. BH3-only proteins, such as Noxa, Puma and BimEL, were activated and localized to mitochondrial sites within 24 h following drug exposure. However, caspase activity was low and death was unaffected by caspase inhibition. Transmission electron micrographs showed the presence of large vacuoles in drug-treated cells. An autophagic survival response has been attributed to MCF-7 cells following nutrient starvation or exposure to tamoxifen. Here, we show that autophagy also plays an important role in the delayed DNA damage response. Confocal microscopy revealed colocalization of mitochondria with large autophagic vacuoles and inhibitors of autophagy increased mitochondrial depolarization and caspase-9 activity, and accelerated cell death. Furthermore, downregulation of autophagy proteins, Beclin 1 and Atg7, unmasked a caspase-dependent, apoptotic response to DNA damage. We propose that a post-mitochondrial caspase cascade is delayed as a result of early disposal of damaged mitochondria within autophagosomes. Our data also suggest that the use of autophagy as a means of delaying apoptosis or prolonging survival may be characteristic of noninvasive breast tumor cells. These studies underscore a potential role for autophagy inhibitors in combination with conventional chemotherapeutic drugs in early breast cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Abedin
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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41
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Abstract
Autophagy is a major intracellular pathway for the degradation and recycling of long-lived proteins and cytoplasmic organelles. Like apoptotic programmed cell death, autophagy is an essential part of growth regulation and maintenance of homeostasis in multicellular organisms. Autophagic vacuole formation is also activated as an adaptive response to a variety of extracellular and intracellular stimuli, including nutrient deprivation, hormonal or therapeutic treatment, bacterial infection, aggregated and misfolded proteins and damaged organelles. Mediators of class I and class III PI3 kinase signaling pathways and trimeric G proteins play major roles in regulating autophagosome formation during the stress response. Defective autophagy is the underlying cause of a number of pathological conditions, including vacuolar myopathies, neurodegenerative diseases, liver disease, and some forms of cancer. This chapter provides an overview of the morphology and molecular basis of autophagosome formation and offers a glimpse into the role of autophagy in normal growth and development, while discussing the pathological implications of its deregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ameeta Kelekar
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
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Goldstein JC, Muñoz-Pinedo C, Ricci JE, Adams SR, Kelekar A, Schuler M, Tsien RY, Green DR. Cytochrome c is released in a single step during apoptosis. Cell Death Differ 2005; 12:453-62. [PMID: 15933725 DOI: 10.1038/sj.cdd.4401596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Release of cytochrome c from mitochondria is a central event in apoptotic signaling. In this study, we utilized a cytochrome c fusion that binds fluorescent biarsenical ligands (cytochrome c-4CYS (cyt. c-4CYS)) as well as cytochrome c-green fluorescent protein (cyt. c-GFP) to measure its release from mitochondria in different cell types during apoptosis. In single cells, the kinetics of cyt. c-4CYS release was indistinguishable from that of cyt. c-GFP in apoptotic cells expressing both molecules. Lowering the temperature by 7 degrees C did not affect this corelease, but further separated cytochrome c release from the subsequent decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential (DeltaPsi(m)). Cyt. c-GFP rescued respiration in cells lacking endogenous cytochrome c, and the duration of cytochrome c release was approximately 5 min in a variety of cell types induced to die by various forms of cellular stress. In addition, we could observe no evidence of caspase-dependent amplification of cytochrome c release or changes in DeltaPsi(m) preceding the release of cyt. c-GFP. We conclude that there is a general mechanism responsible for cytochrome c release that proceeds in a single step that is independent of changes in DeltaPsi(m).
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Goldstein
- La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, 10355 Science Center Dr., San Diego, CA 92121, USA
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Wang D, McDonnell MA, Kelekar A. Multi-probe RPA template sets to study RNA modulation and transcriptional control of BH3-only members of the Bcl-2 family. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 29:189-200. [PMID: 15829380 DOI: 10.1016/j.cdp.2004.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2004] [Accepted: 12/22/2004] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The Bcl-2 family of apoptotic regulators comprises both pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins. Pro-apoptotic BH3-only members of the Bcl-2 family are subject to stringent control in normal proliferating cells, but can be activated by a variety of mechanisms in response to diverse apoptotic signals. To facilitate the simultaneous identification of BH3-only targets that are regulated at the RNA level, we have designed and assembled multi-probe ribonuclease protection assay templates and demonstrated their ability to detect multiple BH3-only transcripts in a variety of human cell lines and primary tissues. Following this, we have determined the modulation of BH3-only transcripts to a variety of apoptotic stimuli, in selected primary and transformed cell lines. Early experiments, showing that a given cell type upregulates a unique subset of BH3-only RNAs in response to different death-inducing stimuli, indicate that the multi-probe BH3-only RPA template sets could serve as useful diagnostic and analytical tools in cancer research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dehua Wang
- Johns Hopkins University, Department of Pediatric Oncology, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Ke H, Pei J, Ni Z, Xia H, Qi H, Woods T, Kelekar A, Tao W. Putative tumor suppressor Lats2 induces apoptosis through downregulation of Bcl-2 and Bcl-x(L). Exp Cell Res 2004; 298:329-38. [PMID: 15265683 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2004.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2003] [Revised: 02/26/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Lats2, also known as Kpm, is the second mammalian member of the novel Lats tumor suppressor gene family. Recent studies have demonstrated that Lats2 negatively regulates the cell cycle by controlling G1/S and/or G2/M transition. To further understand the role of Lats2 in the control of human cancer development, we have expressed the protein in human lung cancer cells by transduction of a replication-deficient adenovirus expressing human Lats2 (Ad-Lats2). Using a variety of techniques, including Annexin V uptake, cleavage of PARP, and DNA laddering, we have demonstrated that the ectopic expression of human Lats2 induced apoptosis in two lung cancer cell lines, A549 and H1299. Caspases-3, 7, 8, and 9 were processed in the Ad-Lats2-transduced cells; however, it was active caspase-9, not caspase-8, that initiated the caspase cascade. Inhibitors specific to caspase-3 and 9 delayed the onset of Lats2-mediated apoptosis. Western blot analysis revealed that anti-apoptotic proteins, BCL-2 and BCL-x(L), but not the pro-apoptotic protein, BAX, were downregulated in Ad-Lats2-transduced human lung cancer cells. Overexpression of either Bcl-2 or Bcl-x(L) in these cells lead to the suppression of Lats2-mediated caspase cleavage and apoptosis. These results show that Lats2 induces apoptosis through downregulating anti-apoptotic proteins, BCL-2 and BCL-x(L), in human lung cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hengning Ke
- The Stem Cell Institute, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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Vallera DA, Jin N, Shu Y, Panoskaltsis-Mortari A, Kelekar A, Chen W. Retroviral Immunotoxin Gene Therapy of Leukemia in Mice Using Leukemia-Specific T Cells Transduced with an Interleukin-3/Bax Fusion Protein Gene. Hum Gene Ther 2003; 14:1787-98. [PMID: 14670129 DOI: 10.1089/104303403322611791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In past studies, we showed that T cells transduced with retroviral diphtheria immunotoxin (IT) target genes could serve as vehicles for delivering IT to tumors in vivo. We took advantage of the observation that antigen-specific T cells are able to penetrate tumors to design an approach delivering combined cellular and humoral therapy directly to the tumor site. To improve tumor specificity, we selected interleukin (IL)-3 as a ligand because its receptor is selectively overexpressed on myeloid leukemia progenitors. Because Bcl-2 family proteins show structural similarity to diphtheria toxin (DT), we constructed a unique retroviral IT using Bax, a proapoptotic member of the Bcl-2 family, in place of DT. Bax was chosen because several studies showed that its transduction induces lethal apoptosis in different cancers. The retroviral construct for gene therapy included IL-3 positioned downstream of its 80 amino acid leader, and permitted cotranslational protein synthesis of hybrid IL-3/human Bax fusion protein. Other vectors were constructed with IL-3 fused to DT or Pseudomonas exotoxin. Retroviral vectors were used to transiently transduce C8, a CD4(+) T cell clone that specifically recognized FBL-3, a lethal myeloid leukemia. Supernatants collected from transduced cells showed proapoptotic activity and selectively inhibited FBL-3 cells in vitro. Intraperitoneal injection of transduced but not nontransduced C8 into mice with subcutaneous tumors or systemic cancer significantly inhibited tumor growth. These results indicate that retroviral IT made with IL-3 and various toxic proteins may be useful in patients with acute myelogenous leukemia (AML). Furthermore, the Bax construct may be particularly useful as a nonimmunogenic substitute for bacterial toxins in retIT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel A Vallera
- University of Minnesota Cancer Center, Department of Therapeutic Radiology, Section on Experimental Cancer Immunology, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
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McDonnell MA, Wang D, Khan SM, Vander Heiden MG, Kelekar A. Caspase-9 is activated in a cytochrome c-independent manner early during TNFalpha-induced apoptosis in murine cells. Cell Death Differ 2003; 10:1005-15. [PMID: 12934075 DOI: 10.1038/sj.cdd.4401271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
FL5.12 pro-B lymphoma cells utilize the mitochondrial pathway to apoptosis in response to tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor occupation, yet high levels of the Bcl-2 family antiapoptotic protein, Bcl-x(L), fail to protect these cells against TNF-receptor-activated death. Bcl-x(L) expression delays, but does not totally block, the release of mitochondrial cytochrome c (cyt c) in these cells in response to TNFalpha-induced apoptosis and caspase-9 is processed prior to mitochondrial cyt c release under these circumstances. Early processing of caspase-9 also occurred in Apaf-1 knockout murine fibroblasts in response to TNF-receptor occupation. A caspase-9-specific inhibitor was more effective in delaying the progression of apoptosis in the FL5.12 Bcl-x(L) cells than was an inhibitor specific to caspase-3. Furthermore, downregulation of caspase-9 levels by RNA interference resulted in partial protection of these cells against TNF-receptor-activated apoptosis, indicating that caspase-9 activation contributed to early amplification of the caspase cascade. Consistent with this, proteolytic processing of caspase-9 was observed prior to processing by caspase-3, suggesting that caspase-3 was not responsible for early caspase-9 activation. We show that murine caspase-9 is efficiently processed by active caspase-8 at SEPD, the motif at which caspase-9 autoprocesses following its recruitment to the apoptosome. Our results suggest that, in addition to processing procaspase-3 and the BH3 protein Bid, active caspase-8 can cleave and activate procaspase-9 in response to TNF receptor crosslinking in murine cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A McDonnell
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis MN 55455, USA
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Kaspar AA, Okada S, Kumar J, Poulain FR, Drouvalakis KA, Kelekar A, Hanson DA, Kluck RM, Hitoshi Y, Johnson DE, Froelich CJ, Thompson CB, Newmeyer DD, Anel A, Clayberger C, Krensky AM. A distinct pathway of cell-mediated apoptosis initiated by granulysin. J Immunol 2001; 167:350-6. [PMID: 11418670 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.167.1.350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Granulysin is an antimicrobial and tumoricidal molecule expressed in granules of CTL and NK cells. In this study, we show that granulysin damages cell membranes based upon negative charge, disrupts the transmembrane potential (Deltapsi) in mitochondria, and causes release of cytochrome c. Granulysin-induced apoptosis is blocked in cells overexpressing Bcl-2. Despite the release of cytochrome c, procaspase 9 is not processed. Nevertheless, activation of caspase 3 is observed in granulysin-treated cells, suggesting that granulysin activates a novel pathway of CTL- and NK cell-mediated death distinct from granzyme- and death receptor-induced apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Kaspar
- Division of Immunology and Transplantation Biology, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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Chang BS, Kelekar A, Harris MH, Harlan JE, Fesik SW, Thompson CB. The BH3 domain of Bcl-x(S) is required for inhibition of the antiapoptotic function of Bcl-x(L). Mol Cell Biol 1999; 19:6673-81. [PMID: 10490606 PMCID: PMC84651 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.19.10.6673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
bcl-x is a member of the bcl-2 family of genes. The major protein product, Bcl-x(L), is a 233-amino-acid protein which has antiapoptotic properties. In contrast, one of the alternatively spliced transcripts of the bcl-x gene codes for the protein Bcl-x(S), which lacks 63 amino acids present in Bcl-x(L) and has proapoptotic activity. Unlike other proapoptotic Bcl-2 family members, such as Bax and Bak, Bcl-x(S) does not seem to induce cell death in the absence of an additional death signal. However, Bcl-x(S) does interfere with the ability of Bcl-x(L) to antagonize Bax-induced death in transiently transfected 293 cells. Mutational analysis of Bcl-x(S) was conducted to identify the domains necessary to mediate its proapoptotic phenotype. Deletion mutants of Bcl-x(S) which still contained an intact BH3 domain retained the ability to inhibit survival through antagonism of Bcl-x(L). Bcl-x(S) was able to form heterodimers with Bcl-x(L) in mammalian cells, and its ability to inhibit survival correlated with the ability to heterodimerize with Bcl-x(L). Deletion mutants of Bax and Bcl-2, which lacked BH1 and BH2 domains but contained a BH3 domain, were able to antagonize the survival effect conferred by Bcl-x(L). The results suggest that BH3 domains from both pro- and antiapoptotic Bcl-2 family members, while lacking an intrinsic ability to promote programmed cell death, can be potent inhibitors of Bcl-x(L) survival function.
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Affiliation(s)
- B S Chang
- Gwen Knapp Center for Lupus and Immunology Research, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
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Abstract
Transgenic mice that overexpress the anti-apoptotic gene bcl-xL under the control of the keratin 14 promoter have significantly shorter hair than non-transgenic littermates. The deficit in hair length correlated with a decrease in the duration of anagen, the growth phase of the hair cycle. A prolongation in telogen, the resting phase of the hair cycle, was also observed in adult animals. In the developing hair bulb, bcl-xL transgene expression was observed exclusively in the outer root sheath (ORS) cells. Bcl-xL expression enhanced the survival of ORS cells treated with apoptotic stimuli. The results suggest that preventing the apoptotic death of ORS cells during anagen leads to a more rapid termination of progenitor cell commitment/proliferation, while the increased survival of ORS cells during telogen delays the initiation of a new hair cycle. ORS cells produce fibroblast growth factor-5 (FGF-5), which acts in a paracrine fashion to terminate precursor cell division during anagen. The short hair phenotype of bcl-xL transgenic mice was substantially reversed in FGF-5-deficient mice. Thus, the production of growth inhibitory factors by ORS cells may provide a mechanism through which the hair-growth cycle is regulated by cell survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Pena
- The Gwen Knapp Center for Lupus and Immunology Research, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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50
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Minn AJ, Kettlun CS, Liang H, Kelekar A, Vander Heiden MG, Chang BS, Fesik SW, Fill M, Thompson CB. Bcl-xL regulates apoptosis by heterodimerization-dependent and -independent mechanisms. EMBO J 1999; 18:632-43. [PMID: 9927423 PMCID: PMC1171156 DOI: 10.1093/emboj/18.3.632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
A hydrophobic cleft formed by the BH1, BH2 and BH3 domains of Bcl-xL is responsible for interactions between Bcl-xL and BH3-containing death agonists. Mutants were constructed which did not bind to Bax but retained anti-apoptotic activity. Since Bcl-xL can form an ion channel in synthetic lipid membranes, the possibility that this property has a role in heterodimerization-independent cell survival was tested by replacing amino acids within the predicted channel-forming domain with the corresponding amino acids from Bax. The resulting chimera showed a reduced ability to adopt an open conductance state over a wide range of membrane potentials. Although this construct retained the ability to heterodimerize with Bax and to inhibit apoptosis, when a mutation was introduced that rendered the chimera incapable of heterodimerization, the resulting protein failed to prevent both apoptosis in mammalian cells and Bax-mediated growth defect in yeast. Similar to mammalian cells undergoing apoptosis, yeast cells expressing Bax exhibited changes in mitochondrial properties that were inhibited by Bcl-xL through heterodimerization-dependent and -independent mechanisms. These data suggest that Bcl-xL regulates cell survival by at least two distinct mechanisms; one is associated with heterodimerization and the other with the ability to form a sustained ion channel.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Minn
- Gwen Knapp Center for Lupus and Immunology Research, Chicago, IL, USA
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