No Evidence of Competition Between the Blacklegged Tick (Acari: Ixodidae) and American Dog Tick on the Rodent Host White-Footed Deermouse (Rodentia: Cricetidae) in Southwestern Tennessee

Investigations that analyze interspecific associations of vectors on their hosts are important for understanding community structure and implementing ways to comprehend mechanisms of pathogen transmission. We assessed the interspecific association of two tick species (Ixodes scapularis Say (Ixodida: Ixodidae) and Dermacentor variabilis Say (Ixodida: Ixodidae)) on the rodent host Peromyscus leucopus Rafinesque (Rodentia: Cricetidae) at the Hobart Ames Research and Education Center in southwestern Tennessee. Of the rodents captured, 95 (63%) had neither species of tick, 6 (4%) had both tick species, 25 (16%) had I. scapularis only, and 26 (17%) had D. variabilis only. A coefficient of association (C7 = -0.08) was calculated, which suggested there was competition between the two species of ectoparasites, but this value was not significant, indicating that there was a neutral relationship between the tick species on P. leucopus. The co-occurrence of both tick species on their host at the same time suggested that the two tick species can occupy the same host and use the same resources without competing.

Small-mammal characteristics affect tick communities in southwestern Tennessee (USA)

Life histories can influence the degree of parasite infestations on a host. Pressures exerted on hosts based on age and sex convey varying degrees of parasite prevalence due to differences in host lifestyles, but it is not known how interactions between different host traits affect tick numbers. The objective of this study was to determine if host characteristics (e.g., age, sex, weight, and their interactions) affect the mean number of ticks found on small mammals regardless of host species or habitat. Sherman live traps were placed in forest and grass/forb habitats representative of the southeastern United States. After capture, host characteristics were recorded, and hosts were then searched for ticks. A total of 281 small mammals (148 Peromyscus leucopus, 34 P. maniculatus, 76 Sigmodon hispidus, 16 Microtus pinetorum, and 7 Ochrotomys nuttalli) and 610 ticks (488 Dermacentor variabilis, 114 Ixodes scapularis, 1 Amblyomma americanum, and 7 A. maculatum) were collected in this study. Host's age, sex, and weight affected the number of ticks collected from small mammals and significant interaction effects between host traits occurred (weight by sex, weight by age, and sex by age). For instance, female subadult rodents had significantly more ticks compared to female adults, male subadults had significantly fewer ticks compared to male adults, and the number of ticks on a host increased as host body mass increased. These results support the hypothesis that the number of ticks vary on rodent hosts based on life histories and trait interactions. Therefore, understanding the behavioral mechanisms of a host can aid in the management of parasites in the environment.

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Host life histories predict the number of ticks present on a rodent.

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Male and subadult rodents are infested with an overall greater number of ticks than females and adults.

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Rodents have more ticks as their weight increases.

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Interactions between sex and age predict the number of ticks present on a rodent.

Macrophage migration inhibitory factor expression and protein localization in Amblyomma americanum (Ixodidae)

Amblyomma americanum (L.) ticks continue to emerge as disease vectors in many areas of the United States. Tick macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) was first identified in A. americanum females and has been demonstrated to inhibit macrophage movement to the same extent as human MIF. This study was conducted to further characterize and elucidate the physiological role for MIF in tick feeding. A relative quantitative PCR assay was developed to determine the level of MIF gene expression during tick feeding. In addition, RNAi techniques were used to silence MIF prior to blood feeding. Physiological parameters of tick engorgement weight, length of feeding interval, and egg masses were observed to check for phenotypic manifestations of RNA silencing. Specific tick MIF antibody was used to localize MIF protein in frozen tick tissue sections. Tissue specific gene expression indicated that the midgut tissues were the most highly enriched for the MIF. Levels of gene expression did not parallel MIF protein pools seen in tissue sections. Of particular importance was the finding that unfed tick salivary glands appear to contain vesicles that are specific for MIF protein. This is the first demonstration of a pool of MIF that could be secreted during the first hours of tick feeding. While MIF silencing was demonstrated at the molecular level, no physiological phenotype was apparent. The MIF protein pools already available in the tissues may be sufficient to accomplish female tick feeding. Our studies show that the most prominent source of MIF during tick feeding is the midgut tissue. Future studies will address the role of MIF in blood feeding and nutrient digestion in the immature life stages of the tick.

Evidence that dilation of isolated salivary ducts from the tick Dermacentor variabilis (Say) is mediated by nitric oxide

We used pharmacological methods to test the hypothesis that female Dermacentor variabilis salivary ducts dilated when dopamine-stimulated and that dilation was nitric oxide-mediated. Stimulation with dopamine resulted in an increased diameter (19.7%) compared to unstimulated ducts (P<0.005). Pretreatment with L-NAME, an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, or cytochalasin D abolished the dilation. Addition of L-arginine to L-NAME-treated ducts partially restored the ability to dilate. A cuticular coil composed of a series of concentric rings ran the length of the duct adjacent to the epithelial cell layer. In stimulated ducts, the center-to-center periodicity of these rings increased from 0.59 µm in unfed ducts to 1.0 µm from partially fed ducts (P<0.05). When the ducts from partially fed females were stimulated with dopamine, the periodicity increased further to 1.75 µm (P<0.05), suggesting the coils moved further apart in response to stimulation. Prominent folds lining the lumen of unstimulated ducts were less pronounced in stimulated preparations, suggesting that the cuticle stretches, thereby increasing lumen size. Actin was localized in epithelial cells as a honeycomb pattern that we suggest links the epithelial cells to the rings. Together, these data support the following hypothesis: stimulated ducts dilated during fluid production; dilation involved an actin-based system, and was mediated by nitric oxide. Dilation of the duct may enhance its role as a reservoir for saliva produced by the acini during the period between imbibition and salivation.

Nitric oxide synthase and cGMP activity in the salivary glands of the American dog tick Dermacentor variabilis

We colocalized nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity in epithelial cells that surround the salivary gland duct in female Dermacentor variabilis with NADPH diaphorase histochemistry and immunohistochemistry using a polyclonal anti-endothelial NOS. Using size-exclusion chromatography, a fraction with a molecular mass of about 185 kDa that had diaphorase activity was eluted from tick salivary gland homogenate. This fraction converted arginine to citrulline with the production of nitric oxide (NO), which was detected by using electron spin resonance spectroscopy. The complete activity of the diaphorase fraction was dependent on NADPH, FAD, tetrahydrobiopterin, calmodulin, (CaM), and Ca(2+), but was not dependent on dithiothreitol. The arginine analog N(G)-monomethyl-L-arginine inhibited the activity of this fraction. NO and arginine activated soluble guanylate cyclase to produce cGMP in dopamine-stimulated isolated salivary glands. Dopamine-stimulated isolated salivary glands treated with tick saline containing either EDTA, the NOS inhibitor N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester, or the calcium/CaM binding inhibitor W-7 showed no increase in cGMP. The NO donor sodium nitroprusside significantly increased cGMP levels in unstimulated isolated salivary glands. A possible function for NO in salivation by this ixodid tick is discussed.

Tick saliva: recent advances and implications for vector competence

Secretions of the tick salivary glands are essential to the successful completion of the prolonged feeding of these ectoparasites as well as the conduit by which most tick-borne pathogens are transmitted to the host. In ixodid ticks the salivary glands are the organs of osmoregulation, and excess water from the bloodmeal is returned via saliva into the host. Host blood must continue to flow into the feeding lesion as well as remain fluid in the tick mouthparts and gut. The host's haemostatic mechanisms are thwarted by various anti-platelet aggregatory, anticoagulatory and anti-vasoconstrictory factors in tick saliva. Saliva components suppress the immune and inflammatory response of the host permitting the ticks to remain on the host for an extended period of time and, adventitiously, enhancing the transmission and establishment of tick-borne pathogens. Over the years much work has been done on the numerous enzyme and pharmacological activities found in the tick saliva. The present article reviews the most recent work on salivary gland secretions with special emphasis on how they favour pathogen transmission.

Variabilin, a novel RGD-containing antagonist of glycoprotein IIb-IIIa and platelet aggregation inhibitor from the hard tick Dermacentor variabilis

A novel inhibitor of human platelet aggregation, named variabilin, was isolated from salivary glands of the hard tick Dermacentor variabilis using a combination of gel filtration and high pressure liquid chromatography. Variabilin was a potent antagonist of the fibrinogen receptor glycoprotein IIb-IIIa (GPIIb-IIIa; alphaIIbbeta3) and the vitronectin receptor alphavbeta3. Amino acid sequence analysis by Edman degradation revealed that it has 47 residues, with a molecular weight of 4968.5. Like many other naturally occurring antagonists of GPIIb-IIIa, variabilin contains the RGD (Arg-Gly-Asp) motif. However, unlike the RGD-containing antagonists of GPIIb-IIIa, the RGD sequence of variabilin is not positioned in a loop bracketed by cysteine residues. It has little sequence homology to the other known naturally occurring antagonists of GPIIb-IIIa, including the disintegrins from snakes, decorsin and ornatin from leeches, and disagregin from soft ticks. Variabilin is the first RGD-containing antagonist isolated from ticks.

Evidence of a myoepithelial cell in tick salivary glands

Type III acini from feeding female Dermacentor variabilis varied in size during in vitro and in vivo fluid production. As the type III acinus enlarged, its lumen enlarged and the adlumenal cell became thinner. As the acinus contracted, its lumen became smaller while the adlumenal cell became wider. Actin was demonstrated in salivary glands using an immunoblot technique. Actin was localized in the adlumenal cells of type III acini with fluorescent microscopy using rhodamine-phalloidin and with electron microscopy using heavy meromyosin to decorate actin filaments. Pre-treatment of salivary glands with cytochalasin D abolished fluorescence in adlumenal cells subsequently treated with rhodamine-phalloidin. These results support the hypothesis that the adlumenal cell in type III acini functions as a myoepithelial cell.

Fluid secretion by isolated tick salivary glands dependent on an intact cytoskeleton

Isolated salivary glands from female Dermacentor variabilis (Say) were pre-treated with either cytochalasin D or nocodazol, followed by stimulation with dopamine. Glands pre-treated with 1 microM-cytochalasin D did not secrete fluid; pre-treatment with 1 nM-cytochalasin D did not significantly reduce fluid secretion. Glands pre-treated with 1 microM-nocodazol had a significant reduction in fluid secretion (P = 0.003); 1 nM-nocodazol did not significantly affect fluid secretion. Ligation of the main salivary duct and pre-treatment with 1 microM-cytochalasin D significantly increased gland weight compared to the dopamine stimulated controls (P = 0.0412). Cytochalasin D-treated type III acini had a significantly larger mean diameter compared to the dopamine control (P = 0.0047). Glands treated with 1 mM-verapamil plus 10 microM-dopamine exhibited a significant decrease in fluid secretion (P = 0.017), and when ligated, had a significantly decreased weight compared to the controls (P = 0.0028).

The role of the fat body, midgut and ovary in vitellogenin production and vitellogenesis in the female tick, Dermacentor variabilis

Polyclonal antibodies directed against D. variabilis vitellin were utilized for immunocytochemistry at the ultrastructural level. We localized vitellogenin (Vg) in rough endoplasmic reticulum cisternae, secretory granules and secreted products of fat body trophocytes and midgut vitellogenic cells from feeding and ovipositing females. Vg was localized in the oocyte Golgi bodies and in the yolk bodies of both feeding and ovipositing females. Uptake of exogenous Vg was indicated by the presence of immunospecific gold probe in coated pits and coated vesicles at the apical plasma membrane of oocytes from females in rapid engorgement and oviposition. In unmated females little detectable evidence of Vg uptake by developing oocytes suggests that mating and host detachment signal the beginning of vitellogenesis. We conclude that fat body trophocytes, midgut vitellogenic cells and oocytes are involved in the synthesis and/or processing of Vg and that feeding is the signal associated with the initiation of Vg synthesis and/or processing.

The effect of glycoprotein IIb-IIIa receptor occupancy on the cytoskeleton of resting and activated platelets

The platelet integrin, glycoprotein IIb-IIIa (GPIIb-IIIa), serves as the receptor for fibrinogen. This study examined what effect GPIIb-IIIa receptor occupancy had on the cytoskeleton of resting and activated platelets. Triton X-100-insoluble residues (cytoskeletons) were isolated from resting washed platelets incubated with either 500 microM RGDS or 500 microM RGES and examined for protein content. RGDS did not increase the amount of GPIIb-IIIa associated with the cytoskeletal residues which sedimented at either 15,800 x g or 100,000 x g. To determine the effect of receptor occupancy on the formation of the activated platelet cytoskeleton, stirred and nonstirred RGDS-treated platelets in plasma were activated with ADP. Triton X-100-insoluble residues were isolated and examined for both protein content and retention of GPIIb-IIIa. Further, morphological studies were performed on the RGDS-ADP-stimulated platelets. The results of this study suggest that 1) RGDS peptide receptor occupancy does not lead to GPIIb-IIIa linkage to the cytoskeleton, 2) ADP-stimulated platelet shape change, polymerization of actin, and association of myosin with the cytoskeleton are unaffected by RGDS peptide receptor occupancy. 3) RGDS inhibits an aggregation-dependent incorporation of ABP, alpha-actinin, talin, and GPIIb-IIIa into the Triton-insoluble residue.

Ultrastructure of the midgut and blood meal digestion in the adult tick Dermacentor variabilis

Digestive cells in the midgut of male and female Dermacentor variabilis (Say) took up the blood meal in coated vesicles and smooth flask-shaped vesicles, and deposited it in endosomes which were digested via heterophagy. Iron was concentrated in residual bodies. Digestion occurred in three distinct phases in mated females: (1) continuous digestion (initiated by feeding) occurred during slow engorgement; (2) reduced digestion (initiated by mating) occurred in mated females during the period of rapid engorgement; (3) a second continuous digestion phase (initiated by detachment from the host) occurred throughout the post-feeding periods of preoviposition and oviposition. It proposed that the stem cells in the midguts of unfed females were progenitor of digestive, replacement, and presumed vitellogenic cells in midguts of mated feeding females. Digestive cells were present in all three digestion phases. Only during the first continuous digestion phase did digestive cells fill up with residual bodies, rupture and slough into the lumen, or did whole cells slough into the lumen. During the other two digestion phases no sloughing of digestive cells was observed. At the end of oviposition the digestive cells were filled with residual bodies. Replacement cells were present only during the first continuous-digestion phase. Presumed vitellogenic cells were present only during the reduced-digestion phase and during the second continuous-digestion phase. Stem cells in unfed males developed only into digestive cells in feeding males. Fed males and fed unmated females had only the first continuous-digestion phase. After being hand-detached from the host, unmated 13-day-fed females went through cellular changes associated with the reduced-digestion phase and second continuous-digestion phase of fed mated females, then began ovipositing. Maximum development of the basal labyrinth system and lateral spaces matched the known time of maximum water and ion movement across the midgut epithelia. Spectrophotometric analyses of lumen contents and midgut cells, sampled after detachment from the host, showed that concentrations of protein and hemoglobin at day 1 post-detachment decreased by one-half at the beginning of oviposition, while hematin increased about twofold by the end of oviposition. This supported the idea of the presence of a second continuous-digestion phase.

The subgenus Persicargas (Ixodoidea: Argasidae: Argas). 23. Fine structure of the salivary glands of unfed A. (P.) Arboreus Kaiser, Hoogstraal, and Kohls

Salivary glands of the unfed adult Argas (Persicargas) arboreus (family Argasidae) contain 2 types of alveoli, one nongranular and one granule-secreting. The fine structure of the nongranular alveolus is similar to that of the family Ixodidae. In the granule-secreting alveolus, the presence of 3 types of secretory cells, each with morphologically distinct granular inclusions, confirms histological and histochemical observations on argasid salivary glands. Epithelial cells with numerous membranous infoldings, mitochondria, microtubules, and a complex canalicular system probably concerned with fluid regulation and secretion are located between granule-secreting cells and form caps over their basal regions. The luminal border of both secretory and epithelial cells is microvillate. The alveolar lumen leads into the chitinous alveolar duct which lacks the complex valvular structure of ixodid alveoli. Axons containing neurosecretory material occur in both nongranular and granule-secreting alveoli and probably control salivary secretion.

A comparative cytological study between hepatocytes of insecticide-resistant and susceptible mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis)

The livers from a naturally occurring insecticide-resistant mosquitofish population were examined cytologically and compared to liver preparations from a susceptible population. There was a marked increase in cell size and lipid inclusions in the hepatocytes of resistant mosquitofish as compared to susceptible mosquitofish. The pronounced lipid inclusions in the liver preparations of resistant mosquitofish remained essentially unchanged in mosquitofish starved for up to 2 weeks. No observable differences were noted in any cellular organelles.

The occurrence of multiple forms of cytochrome P-450 in hepatic microsomes from untreated rats and mice

The hepatic microsomes of rat and mice were subfractionated by the procedure of Dallner. When a 1.3 M sucrose lower layer was used for the two-step discontinuous gradient, no differences in spectral characteristics were noted between subfractions, though the smooth fractions (SER) had higher oxidative activity towards the substrates tested. When lower layers of 1.05, 1.1 or 1.15 M sucrose were used, and the SER isolated contained cytochdrome P-450 with significantly different spectral characteristics from that of the rough fraction (RER). The SER cytochrome P-450 had a wavelength maximum in the carbon-monoxide reduced difference spectrum that was significantly lower (ca. 1.0 nm) than that in the RER. In addition, the type I:CO-reduced spectral ratio of these fractions is significantly elevated. These data indicate that liver microsomes from untreated rats and mice contain more than one cytochrome P-450 and that of these cytochromes may be located in different parts of the endoplasmic reticulum.