Variable parallelism in the genomic basis of age at maturity across spatial scales in Atlantic Salmon

Complex traits often exhibit complex underlying genetic architectures resulting from a combination of evolution from standing variation, hard and soft sweeps, and alleles of varying effect size. Increasingly, studies implicate both large-effect loci and polygenic patterns underpinning adaptation, but the extent that common genetic architectures are utilized during repeated adaptation is not well understood. Sea age or age at maturation represents a significant life history trait in Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar), the genetic basis of which has been studied extensively in European Atlantic populations, with repeated identification of large-effect loci. However, the genetic basis of sea age within North American Atlantic Salmon populations remains unclear, as does the potential for a parallel trans-Atlantic genomic basis to sea age. Here, we used a large single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array and low-coverage whole-genome resequencing to explore the genomic basis of sea age variation in North American Atlantic Salmon. We found significant associations at the gene and SNP level with a large-effect locus (vgll3) previously identified in European populations, indicating genetic parallelism, but found that this pattern varied based on both sex and geographic region. We also identified nonrepeated sets of highly predictive loci associated with sea age among populations and sexes within North America, indicating polygenicity and low rates of genomic parallelism. Despite low genome-wide parallelism, we uncovered a set of conserved molecular pathways associated with sea age that were consistently enriched among comparisons, including calcium signaling, MapK signaling, focal adhesion, and phosphatidylinositol signaling. Together, our results indicate parallelism of the molecular basis of sea age in North American Atlantic Salmon across large-effect genes and molecular pathways despite population-specific patterns of polygenicity. These findings reveal roles for both contingency and repeated adaptation at the molecular level in the evolution of life history variation.

Evaluating the effect of dorsal muscle biopsies on adult Atlantic salmon growth and marine return rates

Increasing conservation and animal-welfare concerns have driven the development of non-lethal sampling of fish populations, with the use of muscle tissue biopsies now being routinely applied as a sampling method in the wild. Crucial to the success of non-lethal sampling, however, is an evaluation of the short- and long-term consequences of the treatment and ultimately the determination of how these may affect organism mortality and other fitness-related traits. The current study evaluated the use of a dorsal muscle biopsies on post-spawned Atlantic salmon emigrating to sea and undertaking a 2-month long-feeding migration before returning to spawn. Using mark-recapture, return rates and growth were compared between fish that were biopsied and externally tagged, and a control group tagged only with external tags. The biopsy treatment showed no lasting effects on fish as estimated from the two key fitness-related parameters. Results, therefore, suggest the technique can be more widely applied to gather information on marine migrating Atlantic salmon and other anadromous fishes that can be intercepted as they descend and ascend rivers during seasonal migrations. Coupled with modern tagging technologies, the use of biopsies may facilitate an improved understanding of movement and its consequences in terms of feeding patterns and growth.

Environmental extremes drive population structure at the northern range limit of Atlantic salmon in North America

Conservation of exploited species requires an understanding of both genetic diversity and the dominant structuring forces, particularly near range limits, where climatic variation can drive rapid expansions or contractions of geographic range. Here, we examine population structure and landscape associations in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) across a heterogeneous landscape near the northern range limit in Labrador, Canada. Analysis of two amplicon-based data sets containing 101 microsatellites and 376 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from 35 locations revealed clear differentiation between populations spawning in rivers flowing into a large marine embayment (Lake Melville) compared to coastal populations. The mechanisms influencing the differentiation of embayment populations were investigated using both multivariate and machine-learning landscape genetic approaches. We identified temperature as the strongest correlate with genetic structure, particularly warm temperature extremes and wider annual temperature ranges. The genomic basis of this divergence was further explored using a subset of locations (n = 17) and a 220K SNP array. SNPs associated with spatial structuring and temperature mapped to a diverse set of genes and molecular pathways, including regulation of gene expression, immune response, and cell development and differentiation. The results spanning molecular marker types and both novel and established methods clearly show climate-associated, fine-scale population structure across an environmental gradient in Atlantic salmon near its range limit in North America, highlighting valuable approaches for predicting population responses to climate change and managing species sustainability.

Whole body-element composition of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar influenced by migration direction and life stage in three distinct populations

Body-element content was measured for three life stages of wild Atlantic salmon Salmo salar from three distinct Newfoundland populations as individuals crossed between freshwater and marine ecosystems. Life stage explained most of the variation in observed body-element concentration whereas river of capture explained very little variation. Element composition of downstream migrating post-spawn adults (i.e. kelts) and juvenile smolts were similar and the composition of these two life stages strongly differed from adults migrating upstream to spawn. Low variation within life stages and across populations suggests that S. salar may exert rheostatic control of their body-element composition. Additionally, observed differences in trace element concentration between adults and other life stages were probably driven by the high carbon concentration in adults because abundant elements, such as carbon, can strongly influence the observed concentrations of less abundant elements. Thus, understanding variation among individuals in trace elements composition requires the measurement of more abundant elements. Changes in element concentration with ontogeny have important consequences the role of fishes in ecosystem nutrient cycling and should receive further attention.

Relationship of ECMO duration with outcomes after pediatric cardiac surgery: a multi-institutional analysis

BACKGROUND

There are very sparse data on the outcomes of children receiving prolonged extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) after cardiac surgery. This study was aimed to evaluate the association of ECMO duration with outcomes in children undergoing surgery for congenital heart disease using the Pediatric Health Information System (PHIS) database.

METHODS

Patients aged ≤18 years receiving ECMO after pediatric cardiac surgery (with or without cardiopulmonary bypass) at a PHIS-participating hospital (2004-2013) were included. De-identified data obtained from retrospective, observational dataset included demographic information, baseline characteristics, pre-ECMO risk factors, operation details, patient diagnoses, and center data. Outcomes evaluated included in-hospital mortality, length of mechanical ventilation, length of ICU stay, length of hospital stay, and hospital charges. Cox proportional hazards models were fitted to study the probability of study outcomes as a function of ECMO duration.

RESULTS

Nine hundred ninety-eight patients from 37 hospitals qualified for inclusion. The median duration of ECMO run was 4 days (IQR: 1.7). After adjusting for patient and center characteristics, there was 12% increase in the odds of mortality for every 24 hours increase in ECMO duration (OR: 1.12, 95% CI: 1.07-1.18, P<0.001). Patients receiving longer duration of ECMO were associated with longer length of mechanical ventilation, longer length of ICU stay, longer length of hospital stay, and higher hospital charges.

CONCLUSION

Data from this large multicenter database suggest that longer duration of ECMO support after pediatric cardiac surgery is associated with worsening outcomes.

Residency time, migration route and survival of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar smolts in a Canadian fjord

Atlantic salmon Salmo salar smolts (n = 181) from two rivers were surgically implanted with acoustic transmitters and released to determine migration route, residency time and survival in a 50 km long estuarine fjord located on the south coast of Newfoundland, Canada. Data obtained from automated receivers placed throughout the Bay d'Espoir fjord indicated that migrating smolts used different routes to reach the outer areas of the fjord. The duration of time that smolts spent in the immediate estuary zone also differed between the two localities (7 and 17 days) although the total time smolts were resident in the fjord was similar and extensive (40 days). Many smolts were resident for periods of 4-8 weeks moving back and forth in the outer part of the fjord where maximum water depths range from 300 to 700 m. Survival in the estuary zone was greater for smolts with prolonged residency in estuarine habitat. Overall smolt survival to the fjord exit was moderately high (54-85%), indicating that the initial phase of migration did not coincide with a period of unusually high mortality.

Effectiveness of a publicly-funded demonstration program to promote management of dryland salinity

Community and catchment-based approaches to salinity management continue to attract interest in Australia. In one such approach, Catchment Demonstration Initiative (CDI) projects were established by the Western Australian (WA) Government in 2000 for targeted investment in large-scale catchment-based demonstrations of integrated salinity management practices. The aim was to promote a process for technically-informed salinity management by landholders. This paper offers an evaluation of the effectiveness of one CDI project in the central wheatbelt of WA, covering issues including: its role in fostering adoption of salinity management options, the role of research and the technical requirements for design and implementation of on-ground works, the role of monitoring and evaluation, the identification and measurement of public and private benefits, comparison and identification of the place and value of plant-based and engineering-based options, reliance on social processes and impacts of constraints on capacity, management of governance and administration requirements and an appreciation of the value of group-based approaches. A number of factors may reduce the effectiveness of CDI-type approaches in facilitating landholder action to address salinity, many of these are socially-based. Such approaches can create considerable demands on landholders, can be expensive (because of the planning and accountability required) on the basis of dollars per hectare impacted, and can be difficult to garner ownership from all involved. An additional problem could be that few community groups would have the capacity to run such programs and disseminate the new knowledge so that the CDI-type projects can impact outside the focus catchment. In common with many publicly-funded approaches to salinity, we found that direct benefits on public assets are smaller than planned and that results from science-based requirements of monitoring and evaluation have long lead times, causing farmers to either wait for the information or act sooner and take risks based on initial results. We also found that often it is a clear outline of the process that is of most importance in decision making as opposed to the actual results. We identified limitations in regulatory processes and the capacity for local government to engage in the CDI. The opportunities that CDI-type approaches provide centre around the value of its group-based approach. We conclude that they can overcome knowledge constraints in managing salinity by fostering group-based learning, offer a structured process of trialling options so that the costs and benefits can be clearly and transparently quantified, and avoid the costly mistakes and "learning failures" of the past.

Bortezomib in patients with relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma: updated time-to-event analyses of the multicenter phase 2 PINNACLE study

BACKGROUND

We previously reported results of the phase 2, multicenter PINNACLE study, which confirmed the substantial single-agent activity of bortezomib in patients with relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We report updated time-to-event data, in all patients and by response to treatment, after extended follow-up (median 26.4 months).

RESULTS

Median time to progression (TTP) was 6.7 months. Median time to next therapy (TTNT) was 7.4 months. Median overall survival (OS) was 23.5 months. In responding patients, median TTP was 12.4 months, median duration of response (DOR) was 9.2 months, median TTNT was 14.3 months, and median OS was 35.4 months. Patients achieving complete response had heterogeneous disease characteristics; among these patients, median TTP and DOR were not reached, and median OS was 36.0 months. One-year survival rate was 69% overall and 91% in responding patients. Median OS from diagnosis was 61.1 months, after median follow-up of 63.7 months. Activity was seen in patients with refractory disease and patients relapsing following high-intensity treatment. Toxicity was generally manageable.

CONCLUSIONS

Single-agent bortezomib is associated with lengthy responses and notable survival in patients with relapsed or refractory MCL, with considerable TTP and TTNT in responding patients, suggesting substantial clinical benefit.

Macrophage activation syndrome and other systemic inflammatory conditions after BMT

Autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) is being used to treat autoimmune diseases refractory to conventional therapy, including rheumatoid arthritis. Macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) is a descriptive term for a systemic inflammatory disorder that has been described in patients with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA). This case report describes a young adult with systemic JRA (sJRA) who developed MAS on day # 12 post-autologous transplantation. The patient developed high fever, laboratory evidence of disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), hepatocellular injury, pancytopenia and hyper-ferritinemia. All viral, bacterial and fungal studies were negative and the patient improved with high-dose glucocorticosteroid and cyclosporine therapy. Extreme elevation of serum ferritin was documented and helpful in monitoring response to therapy. A number of systemic inflammatory syndromes have been described in association with HCT. These include DIC, 'engraftment syndrome,' infection-associated hemophagocytic syndrome and familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Macrophage activation syndrome presents with features of DIC and is closely related or identical to infection-associated hemophagocytic syndrome. The diagnosis needs to be established in a timely fashion because early and appropriate treatment may improve outcome.

Lymphocyte subset differences in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome, multiple sclerosis and major depression

Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is a heterogeneous disorder of unknown aetiology characterized by debilitating fatigue, along with other symptoms, for at least 6 months. Many studies demonstrate probable involvement of the central and autonomic nervous system, as well as a state of generalized immune activation and selective immune dysfunction in patients with CFS. The aim of this study was to compare the lymphocyte subsets of patients with chronic fatigue syndrome to those of patients with major depression and multiple sclerosis as well as those of healthy control subjects. No differences were found in total numbers of T cells, B cells or natural killer (NK) cells. However, differences were found in T, B and NK cell subsets. Patients with major depression had significantly fewer resting T (CD3(+)/CD25(-)) cells than the other groups. Patients with major depression also had significantly more CD20(+)/CD5(+) B cells, a subset associated with the production of autoantibodies. Compared to patients with multiple sclerosis, patients with CFS had greater numbers of CD16(+)/CD3(-) NK cells. Further study will be required to determine whether these alterations in lymphocyte subsets are directly involved in the pathophysiology of these disorders, or are secondary effects of the causal agent(s).

Can the poor adhere? Incentives for adherence to TB prevention in homeless adults

SETTING

Community-based population of homeless adults living in San Francisco, California.

OBJECTIVE

To compare the effect of cash and non-cash incentives on 1) adherence to treatment for latent tuberculosis infection, and 2) length of time needed to look for participants who missed their dose of medications.

DESIGN

Prospective, randomized clinical trial comparing a 5 dollar cash or a 5 dollar non-cash incentive. All participants received directly observed preventive therapy and standardized follow-up per a predetermined protocol. Completion rates and amount of time needed to follow up participants was measured.

RESULTS

Of the 119 participants, 102 (86%) completed therapy. There was no difference between the cash and non-cash arms. Completion was significantly higher among males (OR 5.65, 95%CI 1.36-23.40, P = 0.02) and persons in stable housing at study entry (OR 4.86, 95%CI 1.32-17.94, P = 0.02). No substance use or mental health measures were associated with completion. Participants in the cash arm needed significantly less follow-up to complete therapy compared to the non-cash arm (P = 0.03). In multivariate analysis, non-cash incentive, use of crack cocaine, and no prior preventive therapy were associated with more follow-up time.

CONCLUSION

Simple, low cost incentives can be used to improve adherence to TB preventive therapy in indigent adults.

Cutting edge: IL-17F, a novel cytokine selectively expressed in activated T cells and monocytes, regulates angiogenesis and endothelial cell cytokine production

A novel secreted cytokine, termed IL-17F, was cloned using nested RACE PCR. This cytokine bears homology to IL-17. IL-17F was expressed only in activated CD4(+) T cells and activated monocytes. Recombinant human IL-17F did not stimulate the proliferation of hematopoietic progenitors or the migration of mature leukocytes. However, it markedly inhibited the angiogenesis of human endothelial cells and induced endothelial cells to produce IL-2, TGF-beta, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1.

Hepatitis B among homeless and other impoverished US military veterans in residential care in Los Angeles

Findings are presented for a cross-sectional study of serological markers of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in an underserved population-impoverished veterans of the US armed forces in a Veterans Administration (VA) residential program in the US. We examine the demographic, background, and risk factors associated with HBV infection in this high-risk population. This paper presents a secondary analysis of cross-sectional survey and clinical data for 370 male veterans who were residents of a domiciliary care program for homeless veterans in Los Angeles, using chi(2), Fisher's Exact, and logistic regression analysis. About one-third (30.8%) of the sample tested positive for current or past HBV infection (ie, seropositive for either the HBV core antibody or surface antigen). After multivariate analysis, rates of HBV were significantly higher among veterans who were older, non-white, or who had a history of regular heroin use (a proxy measure for injection drug use), drug overdose, or drug detoxification treatment. The rate of current or past HBV infection among veterans in this sample (30.8%) was high compared to an estimated 5% to 8% of the general US population. Also, 3% of the sample were currently infected with HBV. Strategies for intervention include broader screening, immunization, and treatment interventions with this high-risk group.

Performance and design of InGaAs /InP photodiodes for single-photon counting at 1.55 microm

The performance of selected, commercially available InGaAs/InP avalanche photodiodes operating in a photon-counting mode at an incident wavelength of 1.55 microm is described. A discussion on the optimum operating conditions and their relationship to the electric field distribution within the device is presented.

Concurrent validity of negative symptom assessments in treatment refractory schizophrenia: relationship between interview-based ratings and inpatient ward observations

The concurrent validity of interview-based ratings of negative symptoms in 35 inpatients with chronic, treatment refractory schizophrenia was evaluated. Correlations were examined between interview-based ratings of negative symptoms, measured by the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale and the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale, and the naturalistic behavior of inpatients as assessed by the Time Sample Behavior Checklist. Higher levels of interview-based negative symptoms were related to reduced interpersonal activity on the inpatient ward, but not to entertainment, instrumental or self-maintenance activities. These findings offer partial support for the concurrent validity of office-based ratings of negative symptoms, and highlight the importance of longitudinal observations of patients for accurate identification of negative symptoms.

Efficient retrovirus-mediated transfer of the multidrug resistance 1 gene into autologous human long-term repopulating hematopoietic stem cells

Pre-clinical studies indicate that efficient retrovirus-mediated gene transfer into hematopoietic stem cells and progenitor cells can be achieved by co-localizing retroviral particles and target cells on specific adhesion domains of fibronectin. In this pilot study, we used this technique to transfer the human multidrug resistance 1 gene into stem and progenitor cells of patients with germ cell tumors undergoing autologous transplantation. There was efficient gene transfer into stem and progenitor cells in the presence of recombinant fibronectin fragment CH-296. The infusion of these cells was associated with no harmful effects and led to prompt hematopoietic recovery. There was in vivo vector expression, but it may have been limited by the high rate of aberrant splicing of the multidrug resistance 1 gene in the vector. Gene marking has persisted more than a year at levels higher than previously reported in humans.

Regulation of human natural killer cell migration and proliferation by the exodus subfamily of CC chemokines

Natural killer (NK) cells play an important role in innate and adaptive immune responses to obligate intracellular pathogens. Nevertheless, the regulation of NK cell trafficking and migration to inflammatory sites is poorly understood. Exodus-1/MIP-3alpha/LARC, Exodus-2/6Ckine/SLC, and Exodus-3/MIP-3beta/ELC/CKbeta-11 are CC chemokines that share a unique aspartate-cysteine-cysteine-leucine motif near their amino terminus and preferentially stimulate the migration of T lymphocytes. The effects of Exodus chemokines on human NK cells were examined. Exodus-1, -2, and -3 did not induce detectable chemotaxis of resting peripheral blood NK cells. In contrast, Exodus-2 and -3 stimulated migration of polyclonal activated peripheral blood NK cells in a dose-dependent fashion. Exodus-2 and -3 also induced dose-dependent chemotaxis of NKL, an IL-2-dependent human NK cell line. Results of modified checkerboard assays indicate that migration of NKL cells in response to Exodus-2 and -3 represents true chemotaxis and not simply chemokinesis. Exodus-1, -2, and -3 did not induce NK cell proliferation in the absence of other stimuli. Nevertheless, Exodus-2 and -3 significantly augmented IL-2-induced proliferation of normal human CD56(dim) NK cells. In contrast, Exodus-1, -2, and -3 did not affect the cytolytic activity of resting or activated peripheral blood NK cells. Expression of message for CCR7, a shared receptor for Exodus-2 and -3, was detected in activated polyclonal NK cells and NKL cells but not resting NK cells. Taken together, these results indicate that Exodus-2 and -3 can participate in the recruitment and proliferation of activated NK cells. Exodus-2 and -3 may regulate interactions between T cells and NK cells that are crucial for the generation of optimal immune responses.

ADP can induce aggregation of human platelets via both P2Y(1) and P(2T) receptors

1. In the present study we have investigated the roles of P2Y(1) and P(2T) receptor subtypes in adenosine 5'-diphosphate (ADP)-induced aggregation of human platelets in heparinized platelet rich plasma. 2. The response to ADP can be characterized as the initial rate or the maximum or final extent of aggregation. The response profile is determined by the concentration of ADP used, being transient at lower and sustained at higher concentrations. 3. The P2Y(1) receptor antagonist, adenosine-3'-phosphate-5'-phosphate (A3P5P) competitively antagonized the initial rate of aggregation (pK(B) 5. 47) and transformed the response profile to a slowly developing but sustained response. Both maximum and final extents were also inhibited by A3P5P although not in a competitive manner (Schild slope <1). 4. The P(2T) receptor antagonist, AR-C67085, competitively antagonized the final extent of aggregation (pK(B) 8.54), transforming the response profile to one of rapid, transient aggregation. Its effect on maximum extent (the most widely used index of aggregation) was complex, and further supported the involvement of both receptor subtypes in the aggregation response. 5. ADP-induced aggregation is a complex phenomenon, the nature of which is determined by the relative occupancy of the two receptor subtypes. While P2Y(1) receptor activation causes a rapid and transient aggregation, the extent of sustained aggregation is determined by the level of P(2T) receptor occupancy. Hence, detailed analysis of the aggregation response is essential to correctly define the purinergic pharmacology of the platelet and interpretation of results is critically dependent on the response index chosen.

The impact of childhood foster care and other out-of-home placement on homeless women and their children

OBJECTIVE

This study compares homeless women who had childhood histories of foster care or other out-of-home placement to those who have not.

METHOD

A countywide probability sample of homeless women (n = 179) received structured interviews.

RESULTS

One-third of homeless women reported being raised apart from their parents. Among women with children under age 18, most (61.5%) had children who had lived in foster care or other out-of-home placements. Variables associated with homeless mothers' children living in foster care or other out-of-home placements were: Child was school-age, mother was age 35 or older, mother had a current alcohol or drug use disorder, mother experienced childhood sexual abuse, and mother ran away from home (when under age 18).

CONCLUSIONS

Parenting is difficult for homeless mothers who may need to place their children with others to facilitate school attendance. Parent-child interaction may be problematic in family shelters where privacy is rare. Thus, programs promoting family preservation for homeless mothers should provide parenting support as well as permanent housing.

Flt3 ligand antitumor activity in a murine breast cancer model: a comparison with granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and a potential mechanism of action

We have shown that Flk2/Flt3 ligand (Flt3L)-transduced tumor vaccine induces transferable T cell protection against a murine breast cancer cell line, but a direct comparison with the potent effector GM-CSF, the activity against preestablished tumors, and the mechanism of antitumor response in this breast cancer model are not known. We compared vaccination with C3L5 cells expressing Flt3L (C3Lt-Flt3L) and GM-CSF (C3L5-GMCSF) by injecting 1 x 10(4) cells subcutaneously into the chest wall and then, after 4 weeks, challenging the contralateral chest of tumor-free mice with parental C3L5 cells. C3L5-Flt3L and C3L5-GMCSF had reduced in vivo growth rates (25% tumor formation each) compared with 100% tumor formation of C3L5 cells expressing only neomycin phosphotransferase (C3L5-G1N). However, when tumor-free animals were challenged with parental C3L5 cells, C3L5-Flt3L vaccination was significantly better at preventing tumor growth (p < 0.05) than C3L5-GMCSF vaccination (33% of C3L5-Flt3L-vaccinated animals developed tumor compared with 77% of C3L5-GMCSF-vaccinated animals). Adoptive transfer of immunity for both vaccines was demonstrated; splenic T cells from tumor-free mice protected naive mice from parental tumor challenge. To simulate minimal disease, parental C3L5 cells at two concentrations (high, 5 x 10(3) cells; or low, 1 x 10(3) cells) were injected into the contralateral chest wall 4 days prior to treatment with C3L5-G1N or C3L5-Flt3L. C3L5-Flt3L treatment decreased contralateral parental tumor formation (high, 67% tumor free; low, 90% tumor free) compared with C3L5-G1N treatment (high and low, 0% tumor free). Immunodepletion of activated natural killer cells with anti-asialo-GM1 blocked C3L5-Flt3L- and C3L5 plus soluble Flt3L-mediated antitumor activity. Thus, Flt3L-transduced tumor cells manifest potent antitumor activity, apparently mediated, at least partially, by natural killer cells.

CD69 is a stimulatory receptor for natural killer cell and its cytotoxic effect is blocked by CD94 inhibitory receptor

CD69 is a differentiation antigen expressed shortly after activation on T lymphocytes and other cells of haematopoietic origin, including natural killer (NK) cells. The function of CD69 on T lymphocytes acting as a costimulatory molecule in proliferation and lymphokine secretion is well established. NK cells express CD69 after activation by different stimuli such as phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), interleukin (IL)-2, IL-12, interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) or anti-CD16 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). However, although it has been shown that CD69 triggers NK-cell-mediated cytolytic activity, its effect on other NK-cell functions has not been studied. Furthermore, the possible interaction of CD69 triggering with other C-lectin type inhibitory receptors is not known. Thus, the objective of this work is to determine whether CD69-mediated NK cytotoxicity can be regulated by CD94 inhibitory receptor and the role of CD69 on other NK-cell functions different of cytotoxicity. The results show that CD69-mediated NK cytotoxicity can be abrogated by CD94 stimulation in NK cells expressing the CD94 inhibitory form of the receptor, indicating that CD94 regulates the cytotoxic events initiated by a wide variety of NK activatory receptors. We also show that anti-CD69 mAbs, not only triggered NK cytotoxicity, but also induce NK-cell proliferation, CD25 and intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) expression, TNF-alpha production and Ca2+ mobilization in preactivated NK cells. These results suggest that CD69 plays a crucial role in NK-cell function contributing to sustain NK-cell activation, as it has been previously demonstrated in T cells.

Differential role of tyrosine phosphorylation in the induction of apoptosis in T cell clones via CD95 or the TCR/CD3-complex

Activated T cells undergo apoptosis when the Fas-antigen (APO-1, CD95) is ligated by Fas Ligand (FasL) or agonistic anti-Fas antibodies. Repeated stimulation of T lymphocytes via the TCR/CD3-complex induces activation-induced cell death (AICD) associated with FasL surface expression. FasL binding to Fas molecules triggers the Fas-dependent death signaling cascade. Since it is still controversial whether Fas-induced cell death is associated with tyrosine kinase activity, we investigated the tyrosine kinase activation requirements in anti-Fas antibody-induced cell death and AICD in human T cell clones. We report that cell death triggered by anti-Fas antibody is not accompanied by an increase in tyrosine phosphorylation and cannot be blocked by inhibitors of protein tyrosine kinases (PTK). Under the same conditions, AICD of T cell clones is clearly associated with tyrosine kinase activation. In fact, semiquantitative RT-PCR analysis of FasL mRNA expression triggered in T cell clones via the TCR/CD3-complex revealed that tyrosine phosphorylation is required for functional FasL mRNA and surface expression.

Immunological effects of interleukin 12 administered by bolus intravenous injection to patients with cancer

The immunological effects of recombinant human interleukin 12 (rhIL-12) administration were examined during the conduct of a Phase I clinical trial. Forty patients with advanced cancer received bolus i.v. injections of rhIL-12 in doses ranging between 3 and 1000 ng/kg. Dose-dependent increases in serum IFN-gamma levels were seen during rhIL-12 therapy. Significant lymphopenia was observed 24 h after single i.v. injections of rhIL-12 at each dose level. The degree of lymphopenia was dose dependent, and a plateau effect was seen with rhIL-12 doses of 100 ng/kg and higher. Lymphocyte counts reached nadir levels at approximately 10 h after rhIL-12 injection and returned to baseline within 14 days postinjection. Rebound lymphocytosis, as seen after interleukin 2 therapy, was not observed after recovery from rhIL-12-induced lymphopenia. rhIL-12-induced lymphopenia involved all major lymphocyte subsets, although natural killer (NK) cell numbers were the most profoundly affected, and CD4 T-cell numbers were the least affected. CD2, LFA-1, and CD56 were transiently up-regulated on the surface of NK cells exposed to rhIL-12 in vivo. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells obtained from cancer patients before rhIL-12 therapy exhibited defective NK cell cytotoxicity and T-cell-proliferative responses. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells obtained after lymphocyte recovery following the administration of a single 500 ng/kg dose of rhIL-12 displayed augmented NK cell cytolytic activity in four of four patients tested and enhanced T-cell proliferation in three of four patients tested. These studies confirm that doses of rhIL-12 resulting in significant immunological activity can be administered with acceptable toxicity to cancer patients. Furthermore, rhIL-12 therapy can reverse defects in NK cell and T-cell function that are associated with advanced cancer in humans.

Autologous transplantation of mobilized peripheral blood CD34+ cells selected by immunomagnetic procedures in patients with multiple myeloma

In the use of autologous PBPC transplantation in patients with multiple myeloma, contamination of PBPC with myeloma cells is commonly observed. Enrichment for CD34+ cells has been employed as a method of reducing this contamination. In this study the reduction of myeloma cells in PBPC was accomplished by the positive selection of CD34+ cells using immunomagnetic bead separation (Isolex 300 system). PBPC were mobilized from 18 patients using cyclophosphamide (4.5 g/m2) and G-CSF (10 microg/kg/day). A median of two leukaphereses and one selection was performed per patient. The median number of mononuclear cells processed was 3.50 x 10(10) with a recovery of 1.11 x 10(8) cells after selection. The median recovery of CD34+ cells was 48% (range 17-78) and purity was 90% (29-99). The median log depletion of CD19+ cells was 3.0. IgH rearrangement, assessed by PCR, was undetectable in 13 of 24 evaluable CD34+ enriched products. Patients received 200 mg/m2 of melphalan followed by the infusion of a median of 2.91 x 10(6)/kg CD34+ cells (1.00-16.30). The median time to absolute neutrophil count >0.5 x 10(9)/l was 11 days, and sustained platelet recovery of >20 x 10(9)/l was 14 days. We conclude that immunomagnetic-based enrichment of CD34+ cells results in a marked reduction in myeloma cells without affecting engraftment kinetics.

Cloning of BY55, a novel Ig superfamily member expressed on NK cells, CTL, and intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes

Expression of the BY55 protein has been shown to be tightly associated with NK and CD8+ T lymphocytes with cytolytic effector activity. To determine the function of this protein, we molecularly cloned BY55 cDNA. The cDNA sequence predicts a cysteine-rich, glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored protein of 181 amino acids with a single Ig-like domain weakly homologous to killer inhibitory receptors. Reduction and carboxyamidomethylation of immunoprecipitated BY55 gave a band of 27 kDa, whereas reduction alone led to an 80-kDa species, suggesting that BY55 is a tightly disulfide-linked multimer. RNA blot analysis revealed BY55 mRNAs of 1.5 and 1.6 kb whose expression was highly restricted to NK and T cells. BY55 was expressed on the CD56dim, CD16+ subset of NK cells, which have high cytolytic activity, but was not expressed and was not induced on the CD56bright, CD16-subset of NK cells, a subset with high proliferative, but low cytolytic, capacity. In human tissues, BY55 mRNA was expressed only in spleen, PBL, and small intestine (in gut lymphocytes). BY55 was expressed on all intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes, which were predominantly CD3+TCRalpha/beta+CD4-CD8+CD11b+CD28-CD45RO+C D56-CD101+CD103+ (alphaEbeta7 integrin). In addition, BY55 was expressed on most CD8+CD28- peripheral blood T cells. These phenotypic relationships suggest that CD8+CD28+ precursor CTL may terminally differentiate into CD8+CD28-BY55+ effector CTL and that some of the peripheral blood CD8+CD28- subset may represent recirculation from mucosal epithelial immune sites.

A longitudinal perspective on entitlement income among homeless adults

OBJECTIVE

Sources of entitlement income were examined in a sample of homeless adults to determine whether certain subgroups more consistently obtain entitlement income and are more likely to continue receiving it over time.

METHODS

From a baseline sample of 564 homeless residents of Alameda County, California, 397 were interviewed at both five- and 15-month follow-ups. Information was obtained on income received from public sources in the 30 days before each interview, including general assistance, Aid to Families With Dependent Children (AFDC), Supplemental Security Income, or Social Security Disability Insurance. Data were also obtained on psychiatric diagnosis, race, marital status, education, duration of homelessness in adulthood, household status, and reported disability.

RESULTS

At baseline fewer than half of the respondents were receiving any entitlement income. The benefits of almost half of the AFDC and general assistance recipients were terminated during the 15-month period. Respondents who continued receiving entitlement income over the 15-month period were more likely to be black, to be women alone or with children, to have a family history of receiving welfare, and to report a disability. Respondents with dual disorders were six times more likely than others to have their benefits terminated.

CONCLUSIONS

Entitlement income is tenuous for many homeless adults, particularly those with dual diagnoses.

Cancer screening in homeless women: attitudes and behaviors

Little is known about the use of cancer-screening services in homeless women and their attitudes about early detection programs. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with homeless women in San Francisco to determine rates of clinical breast exams, mammograms, and Pap smears. A total of 105 women were randomly selected from two homeless shelters. By self-report, 51 percent were current on clinical breast exams, 47 percent on mammograms, and 54 percent on Pap smears. These women had very positive attitudes toward receiving cancer-screening exams. In multivariate analyses, discussion about cancer prevention with a health care provider predicted current clinical breast exams and mammograms. More medical visits predicted being current on mammograms and Pap smears. Although homeless women represent a unique group of the urban poor, they are accessing cancer-screening exams at rates comparable to the general population.

Familial backgrounds and risk behaviors of youth with thrownaway experiences

Many homeless youth may also be considered "thrownaway" in that they have specifically been told to leave home. In this study, thrownaway experiences among homeless youth are examined in two national samples: (a) a nationally representative sample of youth residing in youth shelters, and (b) a purposive sample of street youth in 10 cities. Prevalence of thrownaway experiences for the total samples and for demographic subgroups is provided, along with comparisons of the familial backgrounds and high-risk behaviors of youth with and without such experiences. In both samples, youth with thrownaway experiences (who constituted nearly half of each sample) were more likely than youth without such experiences to report (a) that they had attempted suicide, used marijuana and other drugs (excluding cocaine), and had been involved in the drug trade and carried hidden weapons; (b) that other family members had used illicit drugs during the 30 days before the youth left home; and (c) that they had spent at least 1 night away from home due to physical and/or emotional abuse or neglect, familial conflict, and familial substance use. Thrownaway youth constitute a particularly vulnerable subpopulation of homeless youth. A greater recognition and understanding of such youth will facilitate design of services that better address their needs.

P2Y1-receptors in human platelets which are pharmacologically distinct from P2Y(ADP)-receptors

1. In the present study we have classified the receptor(s) mediating increases in intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) in human washed platelets and compared the pharmacological profile obtained with that observed in Jurkat cells, stably transfected with a bovine P2Y1-receptor. 2. The P2Y1-receptor antagonist, adenosine-3'-phosphate-5'-phosphate (A3P5P), competitively antagonized agonist responses in both Jurkat cells, and in platelets with similar affinities (pK(B) of 5.8 and 6.0, respectively). 3. The selective P2Y(ADP) antagonist, AR-C66096, exhibited partial agonism in the Jurkat cells with an affinity (pK(A)) of 4.9. This value is consistent with its known P2Y1-receptor activity. In platelets, AR-C66096 at a concentration (0.1 microM) approximately 100 fold greater than its known P2Y(ADP) receptor affinity, had no effect on ADP-induced increases in [Ca2+]i. 4. The ability of adenine nucleotide analogues to elevate [Ca2+]i in the Jurkat cells was also determined. The rank order of agonist potency (p[A]50) was: 2-MeSADP (8.3)>2-ClATP (7.8)>ADP (7.5)=2-MeSATP (7.4)>ATPgammaS (6.5)>ATP (6.2), with ATP appearing to be a partial agonist. 5. The same rank order of potency was observed when similar experiments were performed in platelets. However, the absolute potencies of all the agonists and the intrinsic activities of both ATPgammaS and ATP were lower in platelets. 6. The operational model of agonism was used to test whether the agonist concentration-effect profiles obtained in these two cell types could be explained on the basis of differences in receptor reserve. The analysis indicated that the data obtained in platelets closely resembled that predicted for a low density or poorly coupled P2Y1-receptor system. 7. The hypothesis that the observed partial agonist behaviour of ATP was the result of receptor activation by contaminating ADP with concomitant receptor blockade by ATP, was tested in the platelet system. This hypothesis was supported by a theoretical analysis, which yielded an affinity value for ATP similar to that obtained previously at P2Y1-receptors. 8. In summary, the results of this study indicate that human washed platelets contain P2Y1-receptors which mediate increases in [Ca2+]i and that this receptor population is pharmacologically distinct from P2Y(ADP)-receptors.

Participation of the CD94 receptor complex in costimulation of human natural killer cells

Optimal proliferation and expansion of human NK cells require mitogenic cytokines together with cell contact-dependent co-stimulation. Production of mAb that can modulate human NK cell proliferation yielded NKH3, which recognizes the CD94 Ag. NKH3 immunoprecipitates contain approximately 70-kDa heterodimeric complexes consisting of a approximately 25-kDa glycoprotein and approximately 40- to 45-kDa molecules. Analysis by two-dimensional isoelectric focusing/SDS-PAGE suggests that several different 40- to 45-kDa species are present in the CD94 receptor complex in human NK cells. NKH3 reacted with essentially all resting NK cells, although CD94 is expressed at higher levels on the CD56(bright) (i.e., high level of CD56) CD16(dim/neg) (i.e., low level of or absent CD16) subpopulation than on the more abundant CD56(dim)CD16(bright) NK cell subset. Moreover, the Z199 mAb, which appears to recognize NKG2-A species that can form heterodimers with CD94, stained virtually all CD56(bright) NK cells, but only a subset of CD56(dim) NK cells. Ligation of CD94 augmented the proliferation of CD56(bright) NK cells in response to IL-2 or IL-15 by as much as 10-fold. Secretion of IFN-gamma by CD56(bright) NK cells stimulated with IL-2 or IL-15 was also enhanced up to 10-fold after CD94 ligation. CD94 mAb did not consistently costimulate proliferation of or IFN-gamma production by CD56(dim) NK cells cultured with IL-2 or IL-15. In contrast, irradiated K562 cells costimulated proliferation of both CD56(bright) and CD56(dim) NK cells. These results indicate that CD56(bright) and CD56(dim) NK cells can be costimulated through different receptors, which may allow these distinct NK cell subsets to be independently regulated in vivo.

Costimulation of human natural killer cell proliferation: role of accessory cytokines and cell contact-dependent signals

Despite the importance of natural killer (NK) cells in the immune response, the regulation of human NK cell growth has not been well characterized. We have hypothesized that, similar to the proliferation of T and B lymphocytes, optimal proliferation of NK cells requires costimulatory signals as well as a primary mitogenic stimulus. Evidence for costimulation by both soluble cytokines and cell contact-dependent factors is presented. Soluble IL-1 and TNF were found to augment NK cell proliferation in response to primary mitogenic cytokines, including IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, and IL-12. The costimulatory effect of IL-1 and TNF is strongly enhanced by the calcium ionophore ionomycin. Coculture of NK cells with irradiated K562 cells can largely substitute for the costimulatory signal provided by ionomycin. Costimulation by K562 requires intimate cell contact and is not reconstituted by cell-free supernatants. Activated T lymphocytes can also mediate contact-dependent costimulation of NK cells; resting PBMC, several NK-sensitive cell lines, and all NK-resistant cell lines tested were not found to be costimulatory. Engagement of CD16 did not augment NK cell proliferation. Thus, triggering of natural killing or antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) does not consistently provide a costimulatory signal for NK cell proliferation. Cell contact-dependent costimulation of NK cells does not appear to involve known receptors that can costimulate T cells, including CD2, CD27, CD28, CD29, or LFA-1. The molecular nature of the putative NK cell costimulatory receptor remains to be elucidated. Nevertheless, human NK cells could be expanded in vitro using leukocyte-conditioned medium (LCM) as a source of IL-2 and accessory cytokines and ionomycin to bypass the putative receptor for cell contact-dependent costimulation. NK cells expanded in LCM and ionomycin express typical NK cell antigens and mediate natural killing and ADCC. Further characterization of the costimulatory signals for NK cell proliferation may elucidate the physiologic regulation of NK cell growth and may ultimately allow more effective manipulation of these lymphocytes in the immunotherapy of human diseases.

Activation of T-cells through an antigen-independent alternative pathway induces precocious sensitivity to Fas-induced apoptosis

Autoreactive T-cells can be activated inadvertently during immune responses through antigen-independent pathways. It has been suggested that Fas/Fas ligand interactions may play a role in eliminating these cells, but the extent that cells activated through such alternative pathways are sensitive to Fas-induced apoptosis has not been extensively evaluated. Proliferation of peripheral blood T-cells from normal individuals activated for 4 days with PHA or PMA + ionophore was not influenced by the presence of anti-Fas antibody. When the same cells were activated with soluble factors produced by previously activated T-cells (lymphostimulatory activity), anti-Fas antibodies inhibited thymidine incorporation by 74+/-4%. The presence of typical morphological changes and oligonucleosomal fragmentation of DNA indicated that the reduced proliferation resulted from apoptotic death of the lymphoblasts. Fas-sensitivity of T-cells activated by lymphostimulatory activity was first detectable 4 days after activation, and at 5 days the majority of lymphoblasts had become sensitive to Fas, whereas no evidence of sensitivity to Fas was observed for lymphoblasts generated by PHA or PMA + ionophore during the first 5 days of culture. Incubation of cells activated with PHA or PMA+ ionophore in the presence of IL-2 at concentrations 10-fold higher than that present in lymphostimulatory activity did not induce early sensitivity to Fas, indicating that exposure to IL-2 could not explain the precocious development of sensitivity to Fas seen following activation by lymphostimulatory activity. These studies demonstrate that T-cells activated through an antigen-independent 'alternative' pathway develop precocious sensitivity to Fas-induced apoptosis, which may be important in permitting the elimination of autoreactive bystander cells activated in the course of immune responses.

CD94 ligation induces apoptosis in a subset of IL-2-stimulated NK cells

CD94 (Kp43) is a member of the human C-type lectin superfamily encoding type II membrane glycoproteins expressed on NK cells and a subset of T cells. Ligation of CD94 has been shown to either potentiate or inhibit NK cell proliferation and cytolytic effector function. Here we show that CD94 ligation triggers apoptosis in IL-2-primed NK cells. Evidence for CD94-induced apoptosis includes: 1) chromatin condensation as measured by increased fluorescence of Hoechst dye, 2) induction of DNA fragmentation, and 3) characteristic morphology by transmission electron microscopy. IL-2 priming (at least 12 h) is required for activation-induced NK cell death triggered by CD94. Activation-induced NK cell death triggered by CD94 ligation is extremely rapid (DNA fragmentation is first observed at 120 min). Unlike activation-induced T cell death, it is not inhibited by neutralizing Abs reactive with TNF-alpha or Fas ligand. Our results suggest that CD94 may play a role in the elimination of activated NK cells during the transition from the innate to the Ag-specific immune response.

CD94 ligation induces apoptosis in a subset of IL-2-stimulated NK cells

CD94 (Kp43) is a member of the human C-type lectin superfamily encoding type II membrane glycoproteins expressed on NK cells and a subset of T cells. Ligation of CD94 has been shown to either potentiate or inhibit NK cell proliferation and cytolytic effector function. Here we show that CD94 ligation triggers apoptosis in IL-2-primed NK cells. Evidence for CD94-induced apoptosis includes: 1) chromatin condensation as measured by increased fluorescence of Hoechst dye, 2) induction of DNA fragmentation, and 3) characteristic morphology by transmission electron microscopy. IL-2 priming (at least 12 h) is required for activation-induced NK cell death triggered by CD94. Activation-induced NK cell death triggered by CD94 ligation is extremely rapid (DNA fragmentation is first observed at 120 min). Unlike activation-induced T cell death, it is not inhibited by neutralizing Abs reactive with TNF-alpha or Fas ligand. Our results suggest that CD94 may play a role in the elimination of activated NK cells during the transition from the innate to the Ag-specific immune response.

Role of the CD40 and CD95 (APO-1/Fas) antigens in the apoptosis of human B-cell malignancies

Ligation of CD40 inhibits apoptosis and stimulates proliferation of normal B cells, whereas ligation of CD95 (APO-1/Fas) induces apoptosis of activated lymphocytes. Aberrant signalling through the CD40 and CD95 antigens could thus participate in the pathogenesis of lymphoid malignancies. The expression and function of CD40 and CD95 on neoplastic B cells from patients with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL), chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) were examined. CD40 was expressed by all 30 B-cell tumours, whereas CD95 was detected on neoplastic B cells in only one of 10 cases of ALL, two of 10 cases of CLL, and three of 10 cases of NHL. Incubation with an agonistic CD95 monoclonal antibody (MoAb) did not augment apoptosis in any of the unstimulated B-cell neoplasms. CD40 triggering did not consistently inhibit spontaneous apoptosis, but ultimately stimulated the growth of neoplastic B cells in most cases. Furthermore, CD40 activation led to up-regulation of the CD95 antigen in all 30 B-cell neoplasms. Ligation of CD95 on CD40-activated tumour cells augmented apoptosis in five of 10 ALL, three of 10 CLL, and nine of 10 NHL cases. The degree of apoptosis induced by CD95 triggering was greater for NHL cells than for ALL cells or CLL cells. Bcl-2 expression by ALL and NHL cells was substantially decreased after in vitro culture, whereas Bcl-2 expression by CLL cells was not significantly changed. However, there was no correlation between the level of Bcl-2 expression and sensitivity to CD95-mediated apoptosis. Thus, factors other than levels of CD95 and Bcl-2 determine susceptibility of malignant B cells to apoptosis after CD95 triggering. CD40-activated lymphoma cells appear to be very sensitive to CD95-mediated apoptosis, suggesting potential strategies for treatment of NHL. Elucidation of the mechanisms underlying resistance of ALL and CLL cells to CD95 triggering may facilitate the development of novel therapeutic approaches to these diseases as well.

Phase I evaluation of intravenous recombinant human interleukin 12 in patients with advanced malignancies

A Phase I dose escalation trial of i.v. administered recombinant human interleukin 12 (rhIL-12) was performed to determine its toxicity, maximum tolerated dose (MTD), pharmacokinetics, and biological and potential antineoplastic effects. Cohorts of four to six patients with advanced cancer, Karnofsky performance >/=70%, and normal organ function received escalating doses (3-1000 ng/kg/day) of rhIL-12 (Genetics Institute, Inc.) by bolus i.v. injection once as an inpatient and then, after a 2-week rest period, once daily for five days every 3 weeks as an outpatient. Therapy was withheld for grade 3 toxicity (grade 4 hyperbilirubinemia or neutropenia), and dose escalation was halted if three of six patients experienced a dose-limiting toxicity (DLT). After establishment of the MTD, eight more patients were enrolled to further assess the safety, pharmacokinetics, and immunobiology of this dose. Forty patients were enrolled, including 20 with renal cancer, 12 with melanoma, and 5 with colon cancer; 25 patients had received prior systemic therapy. Common toxicities included fever/chills, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, and headache. Fever was first observed at the 3 ng/kg dose level, typically occurred 8-12 h after rhIL-12 administration, and was incompletely suppressed with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Routine laboratory changes included anemia, neutropenia, lymphopenia, hyperglycemia, thrombocytopenia, and hypoalbuminemia. DLTs included oral stomatitis and liver function test abnormalities, predominantly elevated transaminases, which occurred in three of four patients at the 1000 ng/kg dose level. The 500 ng/kg dose level was determined to be the MTD. This dose, administered by this schedule, was associated with asymptomatic hepatic function test abnormalities in three patients and an onstudy death due to Clostridia perfringens septicemia but was otherwise well tolerated by the 14 patients treated in the dose escalation and safety phases. The T1/2 elimination of rhIL-12 was calculated to be 5.3-9.6 h. Biological effects included dose-dependent increases in circulating IFN-gamma, which exhibited attenuation with subsequent cycles. Serum neopterin rose in a reproducible fashion regardless of dose or cycle. Tumor necrosis factor alpha was not detected by ELISA. One of 40 patients developed a low titer antibody to rhIL-12. Lymphopenia was observed at all dose levels, with recovery occurring within several days of completing treatment without rebound lymphocytosis. There was one partial response (renal cell cancer) and one transient complete response (melanoma), both in previously untreated patients. Four additional patients received all proposed treatment without disease progression. rhIL-12 administered according to this schedule is biologically and clinically active at doses tolerable by most patients in an outpatient setting. Nonetheless, additional Phase I studies examining different schedules and the mechanisms of the specific DLTs are indicated before proceeding to Phase II testing.

Drug use disorders and treatment contact among homeless adults in Alameda County, California

OBJECTIVES

This study estimates the extent and distribution of specific drug problems among homeless adults.

METHODS

A countywide probability sample of 564 homeless adults received structured interviews that included a standardized assessment of substance use disorders.

RESULTS

Two thirds of the sample (69.1%) had a lifetime history of a substance use disorder (including abuse of or dependence on alcohol [52.6%] or drugs [52.2%]); half had a current (52.4%) substance use disorder (including alcohol [38.8%] or drugs [31.3%]). Current drug disorders were higher among respondents who were younger, homeless longer, or sampled from the city of Oakland, Calif. Alcohol use disorders were higher among men than among women; surprisingly, drug use disorders were not.

CONCLUSION

Rates of current drug use disorders for homeless adults were more than eight times higher than general population estimates. However, estimates of drug problems among homeless adults vary as a function of case ascertainment and sampling strategy. Estimates based only on samples from urban areas may overestimate drug problems among the area's larger homeless populations.

Rapid modulation of T lymphocyte surface antigens induced by Fas (CD95, APO-1) ligation

Crosslinking the Fas (CD95, APO-1) antigen by mAb or Fas-ligand (Fas-L)-expressing cells triggers apoptosis. We have investigated the early consequences of Fas signaling on the expression of various cell surface antigens on T lymphocytes. Incubation of Fas-sensitive Jurkat (JM) cells with agonistic anti-Fas mAb induced rapid (within 4 hr) downmodulation of L-selectin (CD62L) and CD7 but not of CD3 or CD71. No modulation was observed on Fas-expressing but Fas-resistant JM variant 432.1. On PHA-activated, Fas-sensitive T cell blasts, anti-Fas mAb rapidly triggered downmodulation of a variety of antigens, including CD2, CD4, CD8, CD7, CD44, LFA1alpha, LFA1beta, and CD62L, but not CD3, CD25, or CD26. Most of these antigens were not downmodulated by either CD3 crosslinking (except CD3) or PMA treatment (except CD3, CD4, and CD62L). Comparable patterns of biphasic CD44, LFA1alpha, and LFA1beta expression were observed on CD4+ and CD8+ T cell blasts in response to Fas crosslinking. In these instances, downregulation occurred preferentially on cells undergoing rapid shrinkage. These results indicate that rapid downregulation of selected surface antigens is an early response of both normal and transformed T cells to Fas crosslinking.

High-dose therapy and autologous bone marrow transplantation in patients with follicular lymphoma during first remission

We report the results of a study in previously untreated advanced stage patients with follicular lymphoma (FL) who underwent uniform induction chemotherapy with cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisone (CHOP) followed by myeloablative therapy and anti-B-cell monoclonal antibody purged autologous bone marrow transplantation (ABMT). Eighty-three patients with previously untreated, low-grade FL were enrolled. After CHOP induction, only 36% achieved complete remission (CR) and 77 patients underwent ABMT. Before BM harvest, 70 patients had a known t(14;18), as determined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and all remained PCR positive in the BM at harvest. After ABMT, the disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival are estimated to be 63% and 89% at 3 years, respectively, with a median follow-up of 45 months. Patients whose BM was PCR negative after purging experienced significantly longer freedom from recurrence (FFR) than those whose BM remained PCR positive (P = .0006). Continued PCR negativity in follow-up BM samples was also strongly predictive of continued CR. This study suggests that a subset of patients with advanced FL may experience prolonged clinical and molecular remissions following high-dose ablative therapy, although longer follow-up will be necessary to determine potential impact on overall survival.

Expression of CD95 antigen and Bcl-2 protein in non-Hodgkin's lymphomas and Hodgkin's disease

CD95 (APO-1/Fas) is a member of the superfamily that includes the nerve growth factor and tumor necrosis factor receptors, OX40, CD27, CD30, and CD40. Present on a minority of resting blood lymphocytes, CD95 expression is upregulated on activated T and B lymphocytes and natural killer cells, where binding of the antigen by anti-Fas and anti-APO-1 antibodies has been shown to induce apoptosis. This CD95-mediated apoptosis is at least partially inhibited by expression of the Bcl-2 protooncogene. To evaluate possible roles of CD95 and Bcl-2 in growth regulation of lymphoid neoplasms, we studied by immunohistochemistry the expression of CD95 and Bcl-2 in 67 B- and 5 T-cell lymphomas, and 10 cases of Hodgkin's disease. In all, 29 B and 2 T cell lymphomas, and 9 cases of Hodgkin's disease expressed CD95. Compared with diffuse large B-cell and Burkitt-like lymphomas, lowgrade B-cell lymphomas more frequently expressed CD95 (52% versus 26%; P < .005). None of the B-cell small lymphocytic lymphomas or mantle cell lymphomas expressed CD95, whereas the majority of follicle center lymphomas, extranodal marginal zone B-cell lymphomas, and immunocytomas were CD95+. Of the 29 CD95+ B-cell lymphomas, only 33% of the high-grade group coexpressed Bcl-2, compared with 87% of the low-grade group (P < .04). Two of three peripheral T-cell lymphomas--including one anaplastic large cell lymphoma--expressed CD95. Staining for CD95 was seen in 9 of 10 cases of Hodgkin's disease. The infrequent expression of CD95 in high-grade B-cell lymphomas suggests an association between loss of CD95 expression/function and a more aggressive tumor grade. Whereas frequent coexpression of Bcl-2 with CD95 may protect low-grade B-cell lymphomas against CD95-mediated apoptosis, in the high-grade group such coexpression is infrequent, and other regulators besides Bcl-2 may be involved in modulating the apoptosis signal delivered by CD95.

Characterization of a cell line, NKL, derived from an aggressive human natural killer cell leukemia

Cell line NKL was established from the the peripheral blood of a patient with CD3-CD16+CD56+ large granular lymphocyte (LGL) leukemia. The neoplastic LGL of this patient mediated natural killing and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) and exhibited proliferative responses similar to normal CD16+CD56dim natural killer (NK) cells. The Morphology of NKL cells resembles that of normal activated NK cells. The karyotype of NKL is 47, XY, add (1) (q42), +6 del (6) (q15 q23), del (17) (p11). NKL cells express CD2, CD6, CD11a, CD26, CD27, CD29, CD38, CD43, CD58, CD81, CD94, CD95, class II MHC, and the C1.7.1 antigen, but do not express detectable levels of CD3, CD4, CD5, CD8, CD14, CD19, CD20, CD28, alpha/beta or gamma/delta T cell receptors on the cell surface. The density of the CD16, CD56, and CD57 antigens declined markedly on NKL cells during prolonged im vitro culture. Nevertheless, NKL cells can mediate ADCC as well as natural killing. NKL cells are strictly dependent on interleukin-2 (IL-2) for sustained growth and die if deprived of IL-2 for more than 7 days. NKL cells proliferate in response to concentrations of IL-2 as low as 1 pM, but an optimal proliferative response requires approximately 100 pM IL-2. NKL cells growing in the presence of IL-2 express abundant IL-2R alpha with little or no detectable IL-2 beta or gamma chain on the cell surface; NKL cells deprived of IL-2 express high levels of both IL-2R alpha and beta. IL-4, IL-7, and IL-12, unlike IL-2, do not maintain the viability of NKL cells. Furthermore, IL-1, IL-4, IL-6, IL-7, IL-12, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) and IFN-gamma do not support the growth of NKL cells. The NKL cell line may prove useful for studies of human NK cell biology.

Sources of income among homeless adults with major mental disorders or substance use disorders

OBJECTIVE

The study documented sources and amounts of income among homeless adults with major mental or substance use disorders. It examined whether income varied by diagnostic group and whether those who received case management would be more likely to have income.

METHODS

A total of 564 homeless adults from a countywide probability sample completed structured interviews. Based on DSM-III-R criteria, respondents were divided into four groups--those with current major mental disorders, substance use disorders, dual disorders, and no disorders. Income from entitlement benefits, formalsector employment, informal-sector employment, and other sources was documented by group. Logistic regression analysis was used to examine relationships between income sources, case management, and diagnostic groups.

RESULTS

Although informal-sector income was the most common income source, it provided the fewest median dollars per month ($42). Entitlement benefits provided the most monthly income ($340) and was the second most common source. Respondents with major mental disorders, substance use disorders, or dual disorders were no less likely than those with no disorders to report income from entitlement benefits or formal-sector employment. Among those with major mental disorders, substance use disorders, or dual disorders, respondents who had recent case management were four to nine times more likely to report entitlement income.

CONCLUSIONS

The results support other research and anecdotal findings on the importance of case management in obtaining entitlement income among homeless adults with major mental or substance use disorders.

Mental health problems of homeless women and differences across subgroups

Homeless women are a large and diverse group, constituting one fifth of the US homeless adult population. Although most homeless women do not have major mental illness, homeless women exhibit disproportionately high rates of major mental disorders and other mental problems. Rates of mental disorders are highest among whites and women without children, and important variations by subgroups of homeless women reinforce the need for disaggregated analysis. Many homeless women with serious mental illness are not receiving needed care, apparently due in part to the lack of perception of a mental health problem and the lack of services designed to meet the special needs of homeless women.

Induction of cell death via Fas (CD95, Apo-1) may be associated with but is not dependent on Fas-induced tyrosine phosphorylation

Cross-linking of the Fas-antigen (CD95, Apo-1) triggers apoptosis in activated T cells and transformed T cell lines. Fas-induced apoptosis has been previously reported to require Fas-triggered tyrosine phosphorylation of various proteins. In the present study, we have compared the protein tyrosine phosphorylation pattern and the apoptosis sensitivity in a set of Jurkat variants selected for the absence or presence of T cell receptor (TCR)/CD3 expression and resistance or sensitivity to Fas-mediated apoptosis. While tyrosine phosphorylation upon Fas-ligation was readily apparent in wild-type Jurkat cells (which are sensitive to anti-Fas-induced apoptosis), drastically reduced tyrosine phosphorylation was observed in Fas-resistant Jurkat subclones (which still express CD95 on their surface). More importantly, TCR/CD3-negative Jurkat variants which expressed normal levels of CD95 and were fully susceptible to Fas-triggered cell death, did not show any protein tyrosine phosphorylation upon Fas-ligation. Taken together, our data demonstrate that Fas-induced cell death can be associated with but is not dependent on protein tyrosine phosphorylation.

A triplet of nuclease proteins (NP42-50) is activated in human Jurkat cells undergoing apoptosis

Activation of a triplet of nuclear proteins (NP42-50) was observed in human Jurkat T cell line following treatment with an antibody to CD95 (Fas/Apo-1), a cell surface molecule involved in apoptotic cell death. The nuclease activity, corresponding to a triplet of proteins observed at approximately 42, 45, and 50 kDa in size, was extractable, heat-stable, and detected by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis containing deoxyribonucleic acids (SDS-PAGE-DNA) assay. The NP42-50 activity requires the presence of Mg2+/Ca2+ and is insensitive to inactivation by heating at 80 degrees C for 5 min. Zinc effectively inhibited the enzymatic activity of NP42-50 on SDS-PAGE-DNA and also protected Jurkat cells from the CD95-mediated apoptosis in cell cultures. The nuclease activation, however, was not a unique pathway for the CD95-mediated cell death. The apoptosis induced by arabinofuranosyl cytosine, a chemotherapeutic agent, also activated the NP42-50 nuclease activity in Jurkat cells, suggesting that a similar cascade of subsequent events in apoptosis may occur in most instances although many different signals can initiate apoptotic cell death in various cell types. The nuclease identified by this study appears to be distinguishable from DNase I or DNase II by its molecular characteristics and its enzymatic requirements. The NP42-50, with respect to the nuclease activity closely associated with apoptotic cell death, may serve as a candidate for the endonuclease(s) involved in the cleavage of DNA into fragments during apoptosis.

Phosphorylation of src family lck tyrosine kinase following interleukin-12 activation of human natural killer cells

Interleukin-12 (IL-12) is a heterodimeric cytokine that augments the cytolytic activity of human NK cells and T cells but has little mitogenic activity on resting lymphocytes. The intracellular signaling pathways involved in NK cell activation by IL-12 have not been fully characterized. In the present studies we found that IL-12 induces tyrosine phosphorylation of a 56-kDa protein, identified in Western blot experiments as p56lck, in resting NK cells. IL-12 was active in the range of 0.1 to 1000 U/ml, with maximal activity between 10 and 100 U/ml (30 and 300 pM). The maximal effect was noted 5 min after stimulation and was almost completely inhibited by genistein. IL-12 induced similar effects in resting and IL-2 activated NK cells. Following IL-12 stimulation of resting NK cells, immunoprecipitated lck kinase exhibited increased in vitro autophosphorylation activity 5 and 10 min after activation. Several additional substrates were phosphorylated in vitro following IL-12 stimulation, including proteins of 70 and 110 kDa. These studies indicate that lck tyrosine kinase is involved in the IL-12 signaling pathway in human NK cells. As the primary functional effect of IL-12 on resting NK cells is the enhancement of cytolytic activity and secretory function rather than cell proliferation, these findings suggest that lck tyrosine kinase is involved in these signaling pathways in human NK cells.