The effects of temporally secondary co-morbid mental disorders on the associations of DSM-IV ADHD with adverse outcomes in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A)

BACKGROUND

Although DSM-IV attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is known to be associated with numerous adverse outcomes, uncertainties exist about how much these associations are mediated temporally by secondary co-morbid disorders.

METHOD

The US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A), a national survey of adolescents aged 13-17 years (n = 6483 adolescent-parent pairs), assessed DSM-IV disorders with the World Health Organization (WHO) Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). Statistical decomposition was used to compare direct effects of ADHD with indirect effects of ADHD through temporally secondary mental disorders (anxiety, mood, disruptive behavior, substance disorders) in predicting poor educational performance (suspension, repeating a grade, below-average grades), suicidality (ideation, plans, attempts) and parent perceptions of adolescent functioning (physical and mental health, interference with role functioning and distress due to emotional problems).

RESULTS

ADHD had significant gross associations with all outcomes. Direct effects of ADHD explained most (51.9-67.6%) of these associations with repeating a grade in school, perceived physical and mental health (only girls), interference with role functioning and distress, and significant components (34.5-44.6%) of the associations with school suspension and perceived mental health (only boys). Indirect effects of ADHD on educational outcomes were predominantly through disruptive behavior disorders (26.9-52.5%) whereas indirect effects on suicidality were predominantly through mood disorders (42.8-59.1%). Indirect effects on most other outcomes were through both mood (19.8-31.2%) and disruptive behavior (20.1-24.5%) disorders, with anxiety and substance disorders less consistently important. Most associations were comparable for girls and boys.

CONCLUSIONS

Interventions aimed at reducing the adverse effects of ADHD might profitably target prevention or treatment of temporally secondary co-morbid disorders.

Abstract P6-15-04: Targeting the PI3K Pathway Enhances the Effect of PARP-1 Inhibition in BRCA1 Deficient Breast Cancer Cells

Background: Available targeted therapies have improved the prognosis for many women diagnosed with breast cancer. However, more than 15% of cases do not benefit from these targeted agents. Amongst these are tumours with Breast cancer 1 (BRCA1) dysfunction, triple-negative and basal-like breast cancers, which remain a treatment challenge and are associated with a poor outcome. New approaches to specifically target these groups of breast tumors are needed. The DNA damage repair defects associated with lack of BRCA1 confers sensitivity to poly-(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1) inhibitors. Furthermore, most BRCA1 mutated tumours do not express the phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) implying activation of the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K) pathway which promotes cell survival and resistance to apoptosis. The aim of this study was to investigate if co-targeting the PI3K pathway can improve the response of BRCA1 mutated cells to PARP-1 inhibition.

Material and methods:, Two BRCA1 and PTEN deficient breast cancer cell lines; MDA-MB-436 and SUM149, were treated with the PARP-1 inhibitor AG14361 (1-(4-dimethylaminomethyl-phenyl)-8-9-dihydro-7H-2,7,9a-benzo[cd]azulen-6-one) and the PI3K inhibitor LY294002 (2-(4-morpholinyl)-8-phenyl-chromone), as single agents and in combination. Cytotoxicity was estimated using the sulpho-rhodamine B assay while cell cycle phase distribution and DNA integrity were analyzed by flow cytometry.

Results: AG14361 induced DNA damage leading to G2/M arrest and decreased viability. LY294002, on the other hand, affected the cell cycle by arresting cells in G1. Importantly, combining AG14361 with LY294002 further decreased survival (P<0.001) with a concomitant decrease in G2/M (P<0.05).

Discussion: This observation may indicate a combination specific up-regulation of apoptosis and suggests that LY294002 potentiates the effects of AG14361. Our results may represent an improved selective targeted treatment strategy for BRCA1 deficient breast cancers and other cancers with DNA damage repair defects and activated PI3K signalling.

Citation Information: Cancer Res 2010;70(24 Suppl):Abstract nr P6-15-04.

Cyclin E confers a prognostic value in premenopausal breast cancer patients with tumours exhibiting an infiltrative growth pattern

AIMS

To investigate the prognostic value of cyclin E in relation to tumour growth pattern by analysing stage II primary breast cancers from premenopausal women not subjected to any further adjuvant treatment. To analyse the value of cyclin E as a predictor of tamoxifen response, by comparing untreated and treated patients with oestrogen receptor positive tumours.

METHODS

Breast cancer samples, assembled in tissue microarrays, were immunohistochemically stained for cyclin E and evaluated regarding the presence of nuclear staining. The overall growth characteristics of each tumour were assessed using whole tissue sections.

RESULTS

Tumours displaying a pushing margin phenotype were strongly associated with high cyclin E levels, lymph node negative disease, a high histological grade and oestrogen receptor negativity, and exhibited a better prognosis compared to tumours with an infiltrative growth pattern. In the total cohort of non-treated patients (n = 187), cyclin E was not associated with recurrence free survival (RFS). However, when analysing the subgroup of tumours lacking a pushing growth pattern (n = 141), cyclin E was significantly associated with RFS, independent of histological grade and node status. There was no significant difference in tamoxifen response with regard to different cyclin E levels.

CONCLUSION

The prognostic value of cyclin E in premenopausal breast cancer is limited to patients with breast carcinomas exhibiting an exclusively infiltrative growth pattern. This limitation could be explained by the presence of a small but distinct subgroup of cyclin E-high breast cancers with a pushing margin phenotype and a more favourable outcome.

First measurement of the transverse spin asymmetries of the deuteron in semi-inclusive deep inelastic scattering

First measurements of the Collins and Sivers asymmetries of charged hadrons produced in deep-inelastic scattering of muons on a transversely polarized 6LiD target are presented. The data were taken in 2002 with the COMPASS spectrometer using the muon beam of the CERN SPS at 160 GeV/c. The Collins asymmetry turns out to be compatible with zero, as does the measured Sivers asymmetry within the present statistical errors.

Pollen and mold exposure impairs the work performance of employees with allergic rhinitis

BACKGROUND

Although quality of life studies suggest that allergic rhinitis has a substantial impact on work impairment, national survey estimates of the magnitude of this impairment have varied widely. Retrospective recall bias is likely to be a major cause of this variability.

OBJECTIVE

This study used a nationally representative daily diary sample to obtain prospective data that improve on previous estimates of the work impairment because of allergic rhinitis.

METHODS

The MacArthur Foundation National Survey of Daily Experience is a daily diary survey that included a nationally representative subsample of 739 employed people, each of whom provided daily reports on work performance for 1 randomly assigned week of the calendar year. National Allergy Bureau monitoring station data were merged with the survey data to study the association of time-space variation in pollen/mold exposure with impaired daily work quality and quantity.

RESULTS

National Allergy Bureau pollen/mold counts are significantly related to work impairments only among respondents with self-reported allergic rhinitis. The average estimated monthly salary-equivalent work impairment costs associated with pollen/mold exposure for each allergy sufferer is between $109 and $156, with an annualized national projection of between $5.4 billion and $7.7 billion.

CONCLUSIONS

The extent to which these costs can be recovered by increasing the proportion of allergy sufferers who are successfully treated remains unknown and can only be evaluated definitively in effectiveness trials.

Enhanced simian immunodeficiency virus-specific immune responses in macaques induced by priming with recombinant Semliki Forest virus and boosting with modified vaccinia virus Ankara

The immunogenicity of two vector-based vaccines, either given alone or in a prime-boost regimen, was investigated. Cynomolgus macaques were immunised with modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) expressing simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)macJ5 env, gag-pol, nef, rev, and tat genes (MVA-SIVmac) or primed with a Semliki forest virus (SFV) vaccine expressing the same genes (SFV-SIVmac) and boosted with MVA-SIVmac. Generally, antibody responses, T-cell proliferative responses and cytotoxic T-cell responses remained low or undetectable in vaccinees receiving MVA-SIVmac or SFV-SIVmac alone. In contrast, monkeys who first received SFV-SIVmac twice and then were boosted with MVA-SIVmac showed increased antibody responses as well as high T-cell proliferative responses. Three of these vaccinees had cytotoxic T-lymphocytes directed against three or four of the gene products. No evidence of protection was seen against an intrarectal heterologous SIVsm challenge given 3 months after the last immunisation. The study demonstrates a prime-boost strategy that efficiently induces both humoral and cellular immune responses.

Recombinant Semliki Forest virus vaccine vectors: the route of injection determines the localization of vector RNA and subsequent T cell response

Vectors based on Semliki Forest virus (SFV) have been widely used in vitro and in vivo to express heterologous genes in animal cells. In particular, the ability of recombinant SFV (rSFV) to elicit specific, protective immune responses in animal models suggests that rSFV may be used as a vaccine vehicle. In this study, we examined the distribution of rSFV in vivo by immunohistochemistry and RT-PCR after intravenous, intramuscular and subcutaneous injection of rSFV particles and related this to the degree of cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses and frequency of specific T cells detected by MHC-I tetramers. We found that after i.v. injection, rSFV-RNA was distributed to a variety of different tissues, whereas it was confined locally after i.m. and s.c. injections. The persistence of the rSFV vector was transient, and no viral RNA could be detected 10 days after inoculation. All tested routes of immunization generated significant levels of antigen-specific CTL responses and increased numbers of specific CD8+ T cells, as detected by tetramer binding. The distribution of antigen-specific CTLs correlated with the in vivo distribution pattern of rSFV, with a highest frequency in the spleen or local lymph node, depending on the injection route.

Controlling lipase enantioselectivity for organic synthesis

Lipases are used frequently as chiral catalysts in the synthesis of various fine chemicals and intermediates. The increasing need of compounds with high stereochemical purity requires catalysts with an improved and controlled performance. This overview emphasizes some important aspects for the control of lipase enantioselectivity and some examples where the enantioselectivity has been altered or reversed are highlighted. However, in several of these cases the complete explanation for the altered or reversed enantioselectivity remains unclear and needs to be solved. Three different strategies (engineering of the reaction medium, the substrate molecule, and the enzyme) for exploring lipase enantioselectivity at a molecular level are discussed and summarized. These three different approaches represent powerful tools for understanding the molecular basis for lipase enantioselective catalysis and can guide the rational improvement and tailoring of catalyst performance. By combining approaches from chemistry and biology much is learnt about the most important parameters controlling lipase enantioselectivity for organic synthesis.

Comparative immunization study using RNA and DNA constructs encoding a part of the Plasmodium falciparum antigen Pf332

Development of nucleic acid-based vaccines against parasitic diseases shows great promise, although certain concerns about safety aspects of conventional DNA vaccines have been raised. This study presents a comparison of antibody responses induced in mice by DNA and RNA-based immunization with vectors encoding a part of the P. falciparum antigen Pf332. Two types of plasmids were used, one conventional DNA plasmid containing a cytomegalovirus promoter and one suicidal DNA plasmid encoding the Semliki Forest virus (SFV) replicase. RNA, encoding the SFV replicase and the relevant antigen, was delivered either as naked RNA or packaged in SFV suicide particles. In general, the antibody responses induced by the DNA plasmids were low and peaking after three injections, the conventional plasmid giving the highest responses. Also the RNA delivered in SFV particles consistently induced antibody responses, although comparatively low. Analyses of the ratio of immunoglobulin (Ig)G1/IgG2a subclasses in the responses indicated that all plasmids resulted in a bias for a Th2-type of response, while the SFV-particles elicited a Th1 type of response. Importantly, all these immunogens induced an immunological memory, which could be efficiently activated by a booster injection with the corresponding protein, with unchanged patterns of IgG subclasses.

Self-replicative RNA vaccines elicit protection against influenza A virus, respiratory syncytial virus, and a tickborne encephalitis virus

In genetic vaccination, recipients are immunized with antigen-encoding nucleic acid, usually DNA. This study addressed the possibility of using the recombinant alpha virus RNA molecule, which replicates in the cytoplasm of transfected cells, as a novel approach for genetic vaccination. Mice were immunized with recombinant Semliki Forest virus RNA-encoding envelope proteins from one of 3 viruses: influenza A virus, a tickborne flavivirus (louping ill virus), or respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Serologic analyses showed that antigen-specific antibody responses were elicited. IgG isotyping indicated that predominantly Th1 type immune responses were induced after immunization with RSV F protein-encoding RNA, which is relevant for protection against RSV infection. Challenge infection showed that RNA immunization had elicited significant levels of protection against the 3 model virus diseases.

Emergence of CD8+ T cells expressing NK cell receptors in influenza A virus-infected mice

Both innate and adaptive immune responses play an important role in the recovery of the host from viral infections. In the present report, a subset of cells coexpressing CD8 and NKR-P1C (NK1.1) was found in the lungs of mice infected with influenza A virus. These cells were detected at low numbers in the lungs of uninfected mice, but represented up to 10% of the total CD8(+) T cell population at day 10 postinfection. Almost all of the CD8(+)NK1.1(+) cells were CD8alphabeta(+)CD3(+)TCRalphabeta(+) and a proportion of these cells also expressed the NK cell-associated Ly49 receptors. Interestingly, up to 30% of these cells were virus-specific T cells as determined by MHC class I tetramer staining and by intracellular staining of IFN-gamma after viral peptide stimulation. Moreover, these cells were distinct from conventional NKT cells as they were also found at increased numbers in influenza-infected CD1(-/-) mice. These results demonstrate that a significant proportion of CD8(+) T cells acquire NK1.1 and other NK cell-associated molecules, and suggests that these receptors may possibly regulate CD8(+) T cell effector functions during viral infection.

A vaccine strategy utilizing a combination of three different chimeric vectors which share specific vaccine antigens

A large number of recombinant of viral and bacterial systems have been engineered as vectors to express foreign genes for vaccination and/or gene therapy. A common problem is the immune response to the vector itself. The presence of anti-vector immune responses may preclude sufficient 'priming' or immunogenicity if pre-existing immune responses are present, or they may impair optimal 'boosting' upon repeated immunization or delivery with the same vector. To circumvent this problem we developed a strategy using different chimeric vectors which share only the expression of common specific antigens desired for immunization. This approach not only has the advantage of avoiding increased anti-vector responses, but allows the use of combinations of vectors which could subsequently present the same or related antigen differently to the immune system as well as at alternative sites to induce the optimal type of immunity against the pathogen of interest.

Recent care of common mental disorders in the United States : prevalence and conformance with evidence-based recommendations

OBJECTIVE

To relate the presence of recent mental disorders to use of mental health services.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional survey.

STUDY POPULATION

The study population was 3,032 respondents to the Midlife Development in the United States (MIDUS) survey, a nationally representative telephone-and-mail survey conducted in 1996. Twelve-month diagnoses according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Revised, Third Edition, of major depressive episode, panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and serious mental illness were made using a structured assessment. Information was obtained on 12-month treatment for mental health problems in the general medical, mental health specialty, human services, and self-help sectors. Definitions of treatments consistent with evidence-based recommendations were developed using available practice guidelines.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Crude and adjusted likelihoods of receiving any mental health care and guideline-concordant care were measured. Although 53. 8% of respondents with at least one 12-month mental disorder received any mental health care in the previous year, only 14.3% received care that could be considered consistent with evidence-based treatment recommendations. Even among those with the most serious and impairing mental illness, only 25% received guideline-concordant treatment. Predictors of receiving guideline-concordant care included being white, female, severely ill, and having mental health insurance coverage.

CONCLUSIONS

An epidemic of untreated and poorly treated mental disorders exists in the United States, especially among vulnerable groups such as African Americans and the underinsured. Cost-effective interventions are needed to improve both access to and quality of treatment.

Impairment in pure and comorbid generalized anxiety disorder and major depression at 12 months in two national surveys

OBJECTIVE

Generalized anxiety disorder might be better conceptualized as a prodrome, residual, or severity marker of major depression or other comorbid disorders than as an independent diagnosis. The authors questioned whether generalized anxiety disorder itself is associated with role impairment or whether the impairment of patients with generalized anxiety disorder is due to depression or other comorbid disorders.

METHOD

The authors assessed data from the National Comorbidity Survey and the Midlife Development in the United States Survey for generalized anxiety disorder and major depression at 12 months by using the DSM-III-R criteria with modified versions of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview.

RESULTS

The prevalences of generalized anxiety disorder at 12 months were 3.1% and 3.3%, respectively, in the National Comorbidity Survey and the Midlife Development in the United States Survey; the prevalences of major depression at 12 months were 10.3% and 14.1%. The majority of respondents with generalized anxiety disorder at 12 months in the National Comorbidity Survey (58.1%) and the Midlife Development in the United States Survey (69.7%) also met the criteria for major depression at 12 months. Comparisons of respondents with one versus neither disorder showed that both disorders had statistically significant independent associations with impairment that were roughly equal in magnitude. These associations could not be explained by the other comorbid DSM-III-R disorders or by sociodemographic variables.

CONCLUSIONS

These results show that a substantial amount of generalized anxiety disorder occurs independently of major depression and that the role impairment of generalized anxiety disorder is comparable to that of major depression.

Creation of a synthetically useful lipase with higher than wild-type enantioselectivity and maintained catalytic activity

[reaction: see text] We have found that two Geotrichum candidum lipase isozymes have remarkably different abilities to differentiate between enantiomers of ethyl 2-methyldecanoate. By rational recombination of selected portions of the two isozymes, we have created a novel lipase with an enantioselectivity superior to that of the best wild-type parent isozyme. Site-directed mutagenesis identified two key amino acid residues responsible for the improved enantioselectivity without compromised total activity of the reengineered enzyme.

An anti-HIV strategy combining chemotherapy and therapeutic vaccination

Combination chemotherapy using potent anti-retroviral agents has led to significant advances in the clinical management of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease. However, the emergence of multiple drug-resistant mutants, the high need for compliance to adhere to demanding drug-dosing schemes, and the remaining toxic side-effects of drugs make the perspective of life-long treatment unattractive and possibly unrealistic. Therefore, means must be sought to shorten the time span during which treatment is necessary. Such means could be to stimulate an efficient immune response during the period of low virus load and restored CD4 + cell levels, which might be capable of keeping the virus under long-lasting control after treatment is stopped. Here we tested this concept of combined chemotherapy/ therapeutic vaccination in a non-human primate model. Rhesus macaques chronically infected with the chimeric simian/human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV) containing the HIV type 1 (HIV-1) HXBc2 gene for reverse transcriptase (RT) in the genomic background of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)(mac239) (RT-SHIV) were treated with (R)-9-(2-phosphonylmethoxypropyl)adenine (PMPA), a potent anti-HIV drug. When virus load had decreased significantly, we immunized with SIV genes env, gag/pol, rev, tat, and nef inserted in two different expression vector systems. Four weeks after the second immunization, drug treatment was stopped. Animals were monitored to determine if virus load stayed low or if it increased again to the original levels and if CD4+ T-cell levels remained stable. Humoral and cellular immune responses were also measured. This combined chemotherapy/ therapeutic vaccination regimen induced a significant reduction in the steady-state level of viremia in one out of two chronically infected rhesus macaques. Chemotherapeutic treatment alone did not achieve reduction of viremia in two chronically infected animals. The nature of the immune responses assumed to have been induced by vaccination in one out of the two monkeys remains to be elucidated.

Immunization with recombinant Semliki Forest virus induces protection against influenza challenge in mice

The replicon of Semliki Forest virus (SFV) offers the possibility to direct high-level, transient expression of heterologous proteins in vivo. We initiated studies to determine the possibility of employing the SFV expression system for recombinant vaccine purposes. Mice immunized with recombinant SFV encoding Influenza A nucleoprotein (NP) or E. coli LacZ developed long-lasting antigen-specific IgG levels and induction of cytotoxic T-cell (CTL) memory that persisted for over one year. Predominantly type 1 T-helper cells were induced as shown by IgG subclass ELISA. Humoral and cell-mediated immune responses could be induced upon delivery by several administration routes and mucosal immunizations induced secretory IgA in the respiratory tract. Development of immune responses against the vector itself did not inhibit boost responses by subsequent immunizations with recombinant SFV. Immunization of mice with vectors encoding the Influenza A virus antigens nucleoprotein (NP) and hemagglutinin (HA) resulted in immune responses that were protective against challenge infection with Influenza virus.

Enhancing immune responses using suicidal DNA vaccines

We describe a DNA vaccine strategy that allows antigens to be produced in vivo in the context of an alphaviral replicon. Mice immunized with such vectors developed humoral and cellular immune responses at higher levels than mice that received a conventional DNA vaccine vector. Immunized animals acquired protective immunity to lethal influenza challenge. Compared with traditional DNA vaccine strategies in which vectors are persistent and the expression constitutive, the expression mediated by the alphaviral vector was transient and lytic. As a result, biosafety risks such as chromosomal integration, and the induction of immunological tolerance, could be circumvented.

Social phobia subtypes in the National Comorbidity Survey

OBJECTIVE

This article presents epidemiologic data on the distinction between social phobia characterized by pure speaking fears and that characterized by other social fears.

METHOD

The data come from the National Comorbidity Survey (N = 8,098). Social phobia was assessed with a revised version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview.

RESULTS

Latent class analysis showed that the brief set of social fears assessed in the survey can be disaggregated into a class characterized largely by speaking fears and a second class characterized by a broader range of social fears. One-third of the people with lifetime social phobia exclusively reported speaking fears, while the other two-thirds also had at least one of the other social fears assessed. The vast majority of the latter had multiple social fears including, in most cases, both performance and interactional fears. The two subtypes were similar in age at onset distribution, family history, and certain sociodemographic correlates. However, the social phobia characterized by pure speaking fears was less persistent, less impairing, and less highly comorbid with other DSM-III-R disorders than was social phobia characterized by other social fears.

CONCLUSIONS

Further general population research assessing more performance and interaction fears is needed to determine whether social phobia subtypes can be refined and whether the subtypes are better conceptualized as distinct disorders. In the meantime, people who have social phobia with multiple fears, some of which are nonspeaking fears, appear to have the most impairment and should be the main focus of prevention and intervention efforts.

Site-directed mutagenesis combined with chemical modification as a strategy for altering the specificity of the S1 and S1' pockets of subtilisin Bacillus lentus

By combining site-directed mutagenesis with chemical modification, we have altered the S1 and S1' pocket specificity of subtilisin Bacillus lentus (SBL) through the incorporation of unnatural amino acid moieties, in the following manner: WT --> Cysmutant + H3CSO2SR --> Cys-SR, where R may be infinitely variable. A paradigm between extent of activity changes and surface exposure of the modified residue has emerged. Modification of M222C, a buried residue in the S1' pocket of SBL, caused dramatic changes in kcat/KM, of an up to 122-fold decrease, while modification of S166C, which is located at the bottom of the S1 pocket and is partially surface exposed, effected more modest activity changes. Introduction of a positive charge at S166C does not alter kcat/KM, whereas the introduction of a negative charge results in lowered activity, possibly due to electrostatic interference with oxyanion stabilization. Activity is virtually unaltered upon modification of S156C, which is located toward the bottom of the S1 pocket and surface exposed and whose side chain is solvated. An unexpected structure-activity relationship was revealed for S166C-SR enzymes in that the pattern of activity changes observed with increasing steric size of R was not monotonic. Molecular modeling analysis was used to analyze this unprecedented structure-activity relationship and revealed that the position of the beta-carbon of Cys166 modulates binding of the P1 residue of the AAPF product inhibitor.

Outcome of immunization of cynomolgus monkeys with recombinant Semliki Forest virus encoding human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope protein and challenge with a high dose of SHIV-4 virus

Infection of macaques with chimeric simian-human immunodeficiency viruses (SHIVs) allows evaluation of HIV-1 envelope vaccines. SHIV-4 is based on SIVmac239 but carries the env, tat, and rev genes of HIV-1IIIB. In this study we used Semliki Forest virus (SFV) RNA vectors to express the envelope protein gp160 of HIV-1IIIB in cynomolgus macaques. Monkeys were immunized four times with recombinant suicide SFV. Whereas two of four monkeys showed T cell-proliferative responses, only one monkey had demonstrable levels of antibodies to HIV-1 gp41 and gp120 as shown by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Western blot. The vaccinated monkeys and four control animals were challenged with 10,000 MID100 (100% minimum infectious doses) of cell-free monkey cell-grown SHIV-4 virus. As demonstrated by virus isolation, all macaques became infected after challenge. All vaccinated monkeys showed an HIV-1-specific anamnestic T cell-proliferative response. Three of four vaccines had developed HIV-1-Env-specific antibodies 2 weeks after challenge whereas none of the four controls showed any detectable immune response at this time point. Furthermore, three of four vaccinated monkeys had no demonstrable viral antigenemia and low viral load as opposed to one of the four naive control animals.

Alphavirus expression vectors and their use as recombinant vaccines: a minireview

Alphavirus vectors have become widely used in basic research to study the structure and function of proteins and for protein production purposes. Development of a variety of vectors has made it possible to deliver foreign sequences as naked RNA or DNA, or as suicide virus particles produced using helper vector strategies. Preliminary reports also suggest that these vectors may be useful for in vivo applications where transient, high-level protein expression is desired, such as recombinant vaccines. The initial studies have already shown that alphavirus vaccines can induce strong humoral and cellular immune responses with good immunological memory and protective effects.

Cloning of human IL-12 p40 and p35 DNA into the Semliki Forest virus vector: expression of IL-12 in human tumor cells

IL-12 can enhance the development of effective immune responses against tumors as well as against certain infectious agents. It is therefore a potential candidate for therapeutic use in cancer therapy and in the design of vaccines against several infectious diseases. Several studies have demonstrated that IL-12 could efficiently induce tumor regression in animal models. To investigate the antitumor effect of direct gene transfer of human IL-12 into tumors, human IL-12 p35 and p40 cDNAs were cloned into the Semliki Forest virus (SFV) vector pSFV1. In order to express the two subunits from the same vector, the p35 and the p40 cDNAs were cloned into pSFV1, each under the control of a subgenomic SFV promoter. Recombinant RNA produced by in vitro transcription of SFV-IL-12 construct, was packaged into SFV viral particles with the use of a non-packageable helper RNA. We show that human tumor cell lines infected in vitro in vivo with recombinant SFV-IL-12 viral particles secrete high levels of biologically active heterodimeric p35/p40 IL-12, as demonstrated using ELISA and biological assays.

The construction of a yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) contig in the vicinity of the Usher syndrome type IIa (USH2A) gene in 1q41

The gene for Usher syndrome type II (USH2A), an autosomal recessive syndromic deafness, has been mapped to a region of 1q41 flanked proximally by D1S217 and distally by D1S439. Using sequence-tagged sites (STSs) within the region, a total of 21 yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) clones were isolated and ordered into a single contig that spans approximately 11.0 Mb. The order of microsatellite and STS markers in this region was established as D1S505-D1S425-DXS217-D1S556-D1S237-D1S4 74-EB1-EB2-KB6-AFM144XF2-KB1-K B4-D1S229-D1S490-D1S227-TGFbeta2-D1S439. Analysis of newly positioned polymorphic markers in recombinant individuals in two Usher syndrome type IIa families has enabled us to identify DXS474 and AFM144XF2 as two flanking markers for the Usher type IIa locus. The physical distance between the two markers is 1.0 Mb. This region is covered by eight YACs from the CEPH library: 945f7, 867g9, 762a6, 919h3, 794b8, 785h4, 848b9, and 841g2. A long-range physical map of the Usher type IIa critical region, using MluI, BssHII, NotI, EagI, and SacII, has been developed.

Alphaviruses as vectors for gene delivery

Alphavirus vectors have become an important complement to the systems available for transient expression of cloned sequences in cell culture and in vivo. They express foreign sequences from cytoplasmically self-replicating RNA, which can be delivered into the cell either as RNA or DNA. This article outlines some of the properties of alphavirus expression systems, and discusses the pros and cons underlying their present use in basic research and for in vivo applications.

Protection against lethal simian immunodeficiency virus SIVsmmPBj14 disease by a recombinant Semliki Forest virus gp160 vaccine and by a gp120 subunit vaccine

Infection of pigtail macaques with SIVsmmPBj14, biological clone 3 (SIV-PBj14-bc13), produces an acute and usually fatal shock-like syndrome 7 to 14 days after infection. We used this simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) model as a rapid and rigorous challenge to evaluate the efficacy of two SIV Env vaccine strategies. Groups of four pigtail macaques were immunized four times over a 25-week span with either a recombinant Semliki Forest virus expressing the SIV-PBj14 Env gp160 (SFV-SIVgp160) or purified recombinant SIV-PBj14 gp120 (rgp120) in SBN-1 adjuvant. Antibody titers to SIV Env developed in all immunized animals (mean peak titers prior to challenge, 1:1,700 for SFV-SIV gp 160 and 1:10,500 for rgp120), but neither neutralizing antibodies nor SIV-specific T-cell proliferative responses were detectable in any of the vaccinees. All macaques were challenged with a 100% infectious, 75% fatal dose of SIV-PBj14-bc13 at week 26. Three of four control animals died of acute SIV-PBj14 syndrome on days 12 and 13. By contrast, all four SFV-SIVgp160-immunized animals and three of the four rgp120-immunized animals were protected from lethal disease. While all virus-challenged animals became infected, symptoms of the SIV-PBj14 syndrome were more severe in controls than in vaccinees. Mean virus titers in plasma at 13 days postchallenge were approximately 10-fold lower in vaccinated than control animals. However, there was no apparent correlation between survival and levels of peripheral blood mononuclear cell-associated culturable virus, provirus load, or any antiviral immunologic parameter examined. The results indicate that while immunization with SFV-SIVgp160 and rgp120 did not protect against virus infection, these Env vaccines did lower the virus load in plasma and protect against the lethal SIV-PBj14 challenge.

Construction and characterization of a NotI linking library from human chromosome region 1q25-qter

Chromosome 1q25-qter-specific NotI linking clones have been isolated from a NotI linking library that was constructed using DNA from MCH206.1 somatic cell hybrid cells. These cells contain chromosome 1q25-qter translocated to human chromosome Xp22 as the only human genetic material in mouse background. Sixty-eight NotI linking clones have been mapped by a combination of fluorescence in situ hybridization and R-banding to cytogenetic bands on the long arm of chromosome 1. The relative order of 11 NotI clones and their relation to known chromosome 1 markers have also been determined in 1q32 and 1q41, where the genes of Van der Woude and Usher syndrome type IIa have been previously mapped: cen-chr1.14-chr1.79-chr1.56-chr1.11-chr1.9 5- chr1.58 (chr1.74)-D1S70-chr1.15-chr1.82 (chr1.143)-chr1.62-D1S81-tel. The 1q32- and 1q41-specific NotI linking clones were sequenced in the vicinity of the NotI site. They were analyzed in terms of nucleotide composition, G+C content, frequency of CpG dinucleotides, and protein coding potentials. Most of the 1q32-q41-specific NotI linking clones were derived from CpG islands. Sequences of three NotI linking clones proved to be identical with known genes. Six of the remaining eight had a high potential for coding regions and shared short homologous regions with sequences in the GenBank database. The NotI linking clones and the identified CpG islands will provide valuable resources for constructing a long-range restriction map of chromosome 1q25-q44 and for the eventual isolation of disease genes of Van der Woude syndrome (1q32-q41) and Usher syndrome type IIa (1q41).

Generation of cytotoxic and humoral immune responses by nonreplicative recombinant Semliki Forest virus

The Semliki Forest virus (SFV) expression system can be used to package recombinant RNA into infectious suicide particles. Such RNA encodes only the SFV replicase and the heterologous protein but no structural proteins of SFV, and it is thus deficient in productive replication. We demonstrate here that infection of C57BL/6 (H-2b) and BALB/c (H-2d) mice with recombinant SFV expressing the nucleoprotein (NP) of influenza virus (SFV-NP) resulted in efficient priming of influenza virus-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T-cell (CTL) responses. The generated CTLs lysed both homologous (A/PR/8/34) and heterologous (A/HK/68) influenza virus-infected, or peptide-coated, target cells to a similar degree as CTLs induced by wild-type influenza virus in a major histocompatibility complex class I-restricted fashion. As few as 100 infectious units of virus induced a strong CTL response. Induction of CTL by SFV-NP could also be achieved in CD4 gene-targeted mice, demonstrating the independence of the primary CTL response of CD4+ helper T cells. One immunization generated a CTL response that peaked after 1 week, and an additional booster injection generated a CTL memory, which was still detectable after 40 days. SFV-NP immunizations also generated high-titered IgG humoral responses that remained significant after several months. These results demonstrate that the recombinant SFV suicide system is highly efficient in antigen presentation and suggest that it may have a potential as a recombinant vaccine.

Self-replicating Semliki Forest virus RNA as recombinant vaccine

Recombinant RNA based on the Semliki Forest virus (SFV) replicon was used to express the nucleoprotein of influenza virus in mice. Two strategies were employed to deliver the RNA. In the first, recombinant RNA was packaged into infectious suicide SFV particles which were used directly for immunization. The second approach involved injection of in vitro-synthesized RNA directly into the quadriceps muscle. Both approaches resulted in the generation of humoral responses with high antibody titres. Immunization with suicide particles showed that a strong, class I-restricted cytotoxic T-cell response can be obtained using only 100 infectious units. We conclude that the self-replicative recombinant SFV RNA may be quite useful as a nucleic acid vaccine.

Somatic cell hybrid panel and NotI linking clones for physical mapping of human chromosome 3

To identify by positional cloning the putative tumor-suppressor genes on the short arm of human chromosome 3 that are involved in the initiation or progression of several human malignancies, we have developed human mouse somatic cell hybrids and NotI linking libraries. The somatic cell hybrids contain either the intact human chromosome 3 or its derivatives as the only human genetic material in rodent background. The somatic cell hybrid panel defines five chromosomal regions on the short arm and two chromosomal regions on the long arm of chromosome 3. Two hundred sixty-one NotI linking probes from three independently constructed linking libraries were assigned to the seven chromosomal regions. The somatic cell hybrid panel and the regionally localized NotI linking probes should facilitate the construction of genetic linkage and physical maps to identify various tumor-suppressor and disease-related genes not only on the chromosome 3p, but on the entire chromosome.

Lipases from Rhizomucor miehei and Humicola lanuginosa: modification of the lid covering the active site alters enantioselectivity

The homologous lipases from Rhizomucor miehei and Humicola lanuginosa showed approximately the same enantioselectivity when 2-methyldecanoic acid esters were used as substrates. Both lipases preferentially hydrolyzed the S-enantiomer of 1-heptyl 2-methyldecanoate (R. miehei: ES = 8.5; H. lanuginosa: ES = 10.5), but the R-enantiomer of phenyl 2-methyldecanoate (ER = 2.9). Chemical arginine specific modification of the R. miehei lipase with 1,2-cyclohexanedione resulted in a decreased enantioselectivity (ER = 2.0), only when the phenyl ester was used as a substrate. In contrast, treatment with phenylglyoxal showed a decreased enantioselectivity (ES = 2.5) only when the heptyl ester was used as a substrate. The presence of guanidine, an arginine side chain analog, decreased the enantioselectivity with the heptyl ester (ES = 1.9) and increased the enantioselectivity with the aromatic ester (ER = 4.4) as substrates. The mutation, Glu 87 Ala, in the lid of the H. lanuginosa lipase, which might decrease the electrostatic stabilization of the open-lid conformation of the lipase, resulted in 47% activity compared to the native lipase, in a tributyrin assay. The Glu 87 Ala mutant showed an increased enantioselectivity with the heptyl ester (ES = 17.4) and a decreased enantioselectivity with the phenyl ester (ER = 2.5) as substrates, compared to native lipase. The enantioselectivities of both lipases in the esterification of 2-methyldecanoic acid with 1-heptanol were unaffected by the lid modifications.

Semliki Forest virus expression system: production of conditionally infectious recombinant particles

In the recently developed Semliki Forest virus (SFV) DNA expression system, recombinant RNA encoding the viral replicase, and helper RNA molecules encoding the structural proteins needed for virus assembly are cotransfected into cells. Since the helper RNA lacks the sequence needed for its packaging into nucleocapsids, only recombinant RNAs should be packaged. We have found, however, that small amounts of replication-proficient SFV particles can still be produced. Here we describe the construction of a helper variant with a mutation in the gene encoding the viral spike protein such that its product cannot undergo normal proteolytic processing to activate viral entry functions. Hence, the recombinant stock is noninfectious, but may be activated by cleavage with chymotrypsin. When recombinant virus produced with the new helper was examined in a variety of assays, including sensitive animal tests, we were unable to detect any replication-competent SFV particles. We therefore conclude that this conditional expression system meets extremely stringent biosafety requirements.

Alu-PCR approach to isolating NotI-linking clones from the 3p14-p21 region frequently deleted in renal cell carcinoma

In the mammalian genome CpG islands are associated with functional genes and cloning of these islands could be an alternative approach for cloning functional genes. Recently we have developed a new approach for cloning CpG islands and constructing NotI linking libraries. We have initiated the construction of a NotI restriction map for chromosome 3, especially focusing on the rearrangements in the 3p14-p21 region, which are associated with different malignancies. CpG islands from this region are useful for isolation of candidate tumor suppressor genes that map to this region and for isolating NotI-linking clones from 3p14-p21 for mapping purposes. Here we suggest a modification of Alu-PCR as an approach to isolating NotI sites (e.g., CpG islands) from defined regions of the chromosome. Instead of using whole chromosomal DNA for Alu-PCR, we have used representative NotI-linking libraries from hybrid cell lines containing either whole or deleted human chromosome 3 (MCH903.1 and MCH924.4, respectively). This decreases the complexity of the Alu-PCR products 10-100 times compared to the whole human genome. Using this modification, we can isolate NotI-linking clones, which are natural markers on the chromosome, rather than random genomic fragments. Among eight clones selected by this method, seven were from the region deleted in MCH924.4. The results clearly demonstrate the feasibility of Alu-PCR for isolating CpG islands from defined regions of the genome.

Early diagnosis of enteroviral meningitis by a solid-phase reverse immunosorbent test and virus isolation

45 cases of aseptic meningitis/meningoencephalitis were studied with regard to enteroviral etiology by virus isolation and solid-phase reverse immunosorbent test (SPRIST), a cross-reacting test for enterovirus IgM. An etiological diagnosis was reached in 37/45 (82%) patients. Etiological diagnoses other than enteroviruses were found in 8 patients: Borrelia burgdorferi in 4, varicella-zoster virus in 2, herpes simplex virus in 1 and mumps virus in 1 patient. Enteroviruses (echovirus 6, 21 and 30) were isolated from cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in 26/37 (70%) and from stool samples of 20/21 (95%) of patients with no other etiology. Altogether enteroviruses were isolated from CSF and/or faecal samples in 29 patients. Echovirus 30 dominated as etiologic agent. In 34/40 (85%) of the samples with an enterovirus, a cytopathogenic effect was observed in cell culture within 4 days. In patients with an enterovirus isolate a SPRIST IgM response to echovirus 3, 5, 7 and/or coxsackievirus B3 was detected in 6/13 (46%) sera sampled 3-4 days after the onset of meningeal symptoms and in altogether 17/25 patients (68%). In 4 out of these virus isolation positive and SPRIST negative patients a single serum for SPRIST was available less than 4 days after onset of meningeal symptoms. Antigen from echovirus 5 gave the highest diagnostic yield. The SPRIST IgM test was positive in 2 cases where virus isolation, complement fixation and neutralization tests were negative. Epidemiological data however supported an enteroviral diagnosis in both of them. In conclusion, both SPRIST and virus isolation seem to be valuable for the early diagnosis of enteroviral meningitis.

Simple setup for rapid testing of third-order nonlinear optical materials

A relatively inexpensive and versatile degenerate four-wave mixing setup is described utilizing a nitrogen laser pumped dye laser. Samples can be screened rapidly, which is demonstrated with the example of a semiconductor doped glass having a nonlinear susceptibility x((3)) ~ 10(-11)-10(-10) esu.