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Stasse A, Lee BY, Brown B. Haplosporidium nelsoni and Perkinsus marinus occurrence in waters of Great Bay Estuary, New Hampshire. Dis Aquat Organ 2024; 158:75-80. [PMID: 38661139 DOI: 10.3354/dao03787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
In Great Bay Estuary, New Hampshire, USA, Haplosporidium nelsoni and Perkinsus marinus are 2 active pathogens of the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin), that cause MSX (multinucleated sphere with unknown affinity 'X') and dermo mortalities, respectively. Whereas studies have quantified infection intensities in oyster populations and determined whether these parasites exist in certain planktonic organisms, no studies thus far have examined both infectious agents simultaneously in water associated with areas that do and do not have oyster populations. As in other estuaries, both organisms are present in estuarine waters throughout the Bay, especially during June through November, when oysters are most active. Waters associated with oyster habitats had higher, more variable DNA concentrations from these pathogenic organisms than waters at a non-oyster site. This finding allows for enhanced understanding of disease-causing organisms in New England estuaries, where oyster restoration is a priority.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa Stasse
- Ecological Genetics Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, University of New Hampshire, 38 Academic Way, Durham, NH 03824, USA
| | - Bo-Young Lee
- Ecological Genetics Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, University of New Hampshire, 38 Academic Way, Durham, NH 03824, USA
| | - Bonnie Brown
- Ecological Genetics Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, University of New Hampshire, 38 Academic Way, Durham, NH 03824, USA
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2
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Piesz JL, Scro AK, Corbett R, Lundgren KM, Smolowitz R, Gomez-Chiarri M. Development of a multiplex qPCR for the quantification of three protozoan parasites of the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. Dis Aquat Organ 2022; 151:111-121. [PMID: 36300764 DOI: 10.3354/dao03694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
A multiplex quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay for the simultaneous detection of 3 eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica parasites, Perkinsus marinus, Haplosporidium nelsoni, and H. costale, was developed using 3 different fluorescently labeled hydrolysis probes. The primers and probe from a previously validated singleplex qPCR for P. marinus detection were combined with newly designed primers and probes specific for H. nelsoni and H. costale. The functionality of the multiplex assay was demonstrated on 2 different platforms by the linear relationship of the standard curves and similar cycle threshold (CT) values between parasites. Efficiency of the multiplex qPCR assay on the Roche and BioRad platforms ranged between 93 and 101%. The sensitivity of detection ranged between 10 and 100 copies of plasmid DNA for P. marinus and Haplosporidium spp., respectively. The concordance between the Roche and BioRad platforms in the identification of the parasites P. marinus, H. nelsoni, and H. costale was 91, 97, and 97%, respectively, with a 10-fold increase in the sensitivity of detection of Haplosporidium spp. on the BioRad thermocycler. The concordance between multiplex qPCR and histology for P. marinus, H. nelsoni, and H. costale was 54, 57, and 87%, respectively. Discordances between detection methods were largely related to localized or low levels of infections in oyster tissues, and qPCR was the more sensitive diagnostic. The multiplex qPCR developed here is a sensitive diagnostic tool for the quantification and surveillance of single and mixed infections in the eastern oyster.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Piesz
- Department of Fisheries, Animal, and Veterinary Science, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, USA
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3
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Witkop EM, Wikfors GH, Proestou DA, Lundgren KM, Sullivan M, Gomez-Chiarri M. Perkinsus marinus suppresses in vitro eastern oyster apoptosis via IAP-dependent and caspase-independent pathways involving TNFR, NF-kB, and oxidative pathway crosstalk. Dev Comp Immunol 2022; 129:104339. [PMID: 34998862 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2022.104339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 12/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The protozoan parasite Perkinsus marinus causes Dermo disease in eastern oysters, Crassostrea virginica, and can suppress apoptosis of infected hemocytes using incompletely understood mechanisms. This study challenged hemocytes in vitro with P. marinus for 1 h in the presence or absence of caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK or Inhibitor of Apoptosis protein (IAP) inhibitor GDC-0152. Hemocytes exposure to P. marinus significantly reduced granulocyte apoptosis, and pre-incubation with Z-VAD-FMK did not affect P. marinus-induced apoptosis suppression. Hemocyte pre-incubation with GDC-0152 prior to P. marinus challenge further reduced apoptosis of granulocytes with engulfed parasite, but not mitochondrial permeabilization. This suggests P. marinus-induced apoptosis suppression may be caspase-independent, affect an IAP-involved pathway, and occur downstream of mitochondrial permeabilization. P. marinus challenge stimulated hemocyte differential expression of oxidation-reduction, TNFR, and NF-kB pathways. WGCNA analysis of P. marinus expression in response to hemocyte exposure revealed correlated protease, kinase, and hydrolase expression that could contribute to P. marinus-induced apoptosis suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin M Witkop
- University of Rhode Island, Department of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science, 120 Flagg Rd, Kingston, RI, USA
| | - Gary H Wikfors
- NOAA Northeast Fisheries Science Center Milford Laboratory, 212 Rogers Ave, Milford, CT, USA
| | - Dina A Proestou
- USDA ARS NEA NCWMAC Shellfish Genetics Program, 120 Flagg Rd, Kingston, RI, USA
| | | | - Mary Sullivan
- USDA ARS NEA NCWMAC Shellfish Genetics Program, 120 Flagg Rd, Kingston, RI, USA
| | - Marta Gomez-Chiarri
- University of Rhode Island, Department of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science, 120 Flagg Rd, Kingston, RI, USA.
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Gignoux-Wolfsohn SA, Newcomb MSR, Ruiz GM, Pagenkopp Lohan KM. Environmental factors drive the release of Perkinsus marinus from infected oysters. Parasitology 2021; 148:532-538. [PMID: 33353569 PMCID: PMC10950379 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182020002383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Since the discovery of Perkinsus marinus as the cause of dermo disease in Crassostrea virginica, salinity and temperature have been identified as the main environmental drivers of parasite prevalence. However, little is known about how these variables affect the movement of the parasite from host to water column. In order to elucidate how environmental factors can influence the abundance of this parasite in the water column, we conducted a series of experiments testing the effects of time of day, temperature and salinity on the release of P. marinus cells from infected oysters. We found that P. marinus cells were released on a diurnal cycle, with most cells released during the hottest and brightest period of the day (12:00-18:00). Temperature also had a strong and immediate effect on the number of cells released, but salinity did not, only influencing the intensity of infection over the course of several months. Taken together, our results demonstrate that (1) the number of parasites in the water column fluctuates according to a diurnal cycle, (2) temperature and salinity act on different timescales to influence parasite abundance, and (3) live infected oysters may substantially contribute to the abundance of transmissive parasites in the water column under particular environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A. Gignoux-Wolfsohn
- Marine Disease Ecology Laboratory, Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, MD21037, USA
- Marine Invasions Research Laboratory, Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, MD21037, USA
| | - Matilda S. R. Newcomb
- Marine Disease Ecology Laboratory, Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, MD21037, USA
| | - Gregory M. Ruiz
- Marine Invasions Research Laboratory, Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, MD21037, USA
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Abstract
The host:parasite interactions of the 3 serious haplosporidian pathogens of oysters, on which most information exists, are reviewed. They are Bonamia ostreae in Ostrea spp. and Crassostrea gigas; Bonamia exitiosa in Ostrea spp.; and Haplosporidium nelsoni in Crassostrea spp. Understanding the haemocytic response to pathogens is constrained by lack of information on haematopoiesis, haemocyte identity and development. Basal haplospridians in spot prawns are probably facultative parasites. H. nelsoni and a species infecting Haliotis iris in New Zealand (NZAP), which have large extracellular plasmodia that eject haplosporosomes or their contents, lyse surrounding cells and are essentially extracellular parasites. Bonamia spp. have small plasmodia that are phagocytosed, haplosporosomes are not ejected and they are intracellular obligate parasites. Phagocytosis by haemocytes is followed by formation of a parasitophorous vacuole, blocking of haemocyte lysosomal enzymes and the endolysosomal pathway. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are blocked by antioxidants, and host cell apoptosis may occur. Unlike susceptible O. edulis, the destruction of B. ostreae by C. gigas may be due to higher haemolymph proteins, higher rates of granulocyte binding and phagocytosis, production of ROS, the presence of plasma β-glucosidase, antimicrobial peptides and higher levels of haemolymph and haemocyte enzymes. In B.exitiosa infection of Ostrea chilensis, cytoplasmic lipid bodies (LBs) containing lysosomal enzymes accumulate in host granulocytes and in B. exitiosa following phagocytosis. Their genesis and role in innate immunity and inflammation appears to be the same as in vertebrate granulocytes and macrophages, and other invertebrates. If so, they are probably the site of eicosanoid synthesis from arachidonic acid, and elevated numbers of LBs are probably indicative of haemocyte activation. It is probable that the molecular interaction, and role of LBs in the synthesis and storage of eicosanoids from arachidonic acid, is conserved in innate immunity in vertebrates and invertebrates. However, it seems likely that haplosporidians are more diverse than realized, and that there are many variations in host parasite interactions and life cycles.
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Affiliation(s)
- P M Hine
- 73, rue de la Fée au Bois, 17450, Fouras, France.
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Wang W, Lv X, Liu Z, Song X, Yi Q, Wang L, Song L. The sensing pattern and antitoxic response of Crassostrea gigas against extracellular products of Vibrio splendidus. Dev Comp Immunol 2020; 102:103467. [PMID: 31425720 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2019.103467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Serious juvenile oyster disease induced by pathogenic Vibrio splendidus has resulted in tremendous economic loss, but the molecular mechanisms underlying this killing mechanism remain unclear. The resistance of adult oyster to V. splendidus or its virulence factors might provide a possible access to cognize the interaction between pathogen and host. In the present study, the extracellular products (ECP) from less virulent V. splendidus JZ6 were injected into adult Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas, and the cellular and humoral immune response induced by ECP were investigated. The phagocytosis rate of hemocytes was significantly up-regulated (30.57%) at 6 h after ECP injection compared with that (21%) of control groups. And significantly high level of ROS production was also observed from 3 h to 12 h in ECP-injected oysters, concomitant with increased apoptosis rate of hemocytes (16.4% in ECP-injected group, p < 0.01) compared with control group (6.7%). By RT-PCR analysis, the expression level of antioxidant CgSOD in hemocytes significantly increased to 6.41-fold of that in control groups (p < 0.01) at 12 h post ECP injection. The expression levels of anti-toxic metalloprotease inhibitors CgTIMP629 and CgTIMP628 were also significantly up-regulated at the early (3-6 h) and late (6-24 h) stage of immune response, respectively. Moreover, after the ECP were incubated with serum proteins isolated from the ECP-injected oysters in vitro, the metalloprotease activity of ECP significantly declined by 21.39%, and less degraded serum proteins were detected by SDS-PAGE. When the primarily cultured hemocytes were stimulated with heat-inactivated ECP or fragments derived from ECP-degraded serum proteins, the expressions of CgTIMP629 (13.64 and 7.03-fold of that in saline group, respectively, p < 0.01) and CgTIMP628 (5.07 and 6.08-fold of that in saline group, respectively, p < 0.01) in hemocytes were all significantly induced. All the results indicated that the adult oysters could launch phagocytosis, antioxidant and anti-toxic response to resist the virulence of ECP, possibly by sensing heterologous ECP and ECP-induced endogenous alarm signals. These results provided a possible clue for the resistance mechanism of adult oysters towards the ECP of less virulent V. splendidus, which might be valuable for exploring strategies for the control of oyster disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weilin Wang
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Functional Laboratory of Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Process, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266200, China; Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology and Disease Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Xiaojing Lv
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology and Disease Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Zhaoqun Liu
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology and Disease Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Xiaorui Song
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology and Disease Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Qilin Yi
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Dalian Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Diseases Prevention and Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Lingling Wang
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Functional Laboratory of Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Process, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266200, China; Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology and Disease Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Dalian Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Diseases Prevention and Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China.
| | - Linsheng Song
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Functional Laboratory of Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Process, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266200, China; Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology and Disease Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Dalian Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Diseases Prevention and Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China
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7
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Proestou DA, Sullivan ME. Variation in global transcriptomic response to Perkinsus marinus infection among eastern oyster families highlights potential mechanisms of disease resistance. Fish Shellfish Immunol 2020; 96:141-151. [PMID: 31809834 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2019.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/01/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Dermo disease, caused by the protozoan parasite Perkinsus marinus, negatively impacts wild and cultured Eastern oyster populations, yet our knowledge of the mechanistic bases for parasite pathogenicity and the Eastern oyster's response to it is limited. To better understand host responses to the parasite and identify molecular mechanisms underlying disease-resistance phenotypes, we experimentally challenged two families exhibiting divergent Dermo-resistance phenotypes with the parasite, generated global expression profiles using RNAseq and identified differentially expressed transcripts between control and challenged oysters from each family at multiple time points post-parasite injection. The susceptible and resistant families exhibited strikingly different transcriptomic responses to the parasite over a 28-day time period. The resistant family exhibited a strong, focused, early response to P. marinus infection, where many significantly upregulated transcripts were associated with the biological processes "regulation of proteolysis" and "oxidation-reduction process." P. marinus virulence factors are mainly comprised of proteases that facilitate parasite invasion and weaken host humoral defenses, thus host upregulation of transcripts associated with negative regulation of proteolysis is consistent with a Dermo-resistant phenotype. In contrast, the susceptible family mounted a very weak, disorganized, initial response to the parasite. Few transcripts were differentially expressed between control and injected oysters, and no functional enrichment was detected among them. At the final 28 d time point 2450 differentially expressed transcripts were identified and were associated with either "G-protein coupled receptor activity" (upregulated) or "microtubule-based process" (downregulated). A handful of protease inhibitors were differentially expressed between control and injected susceptible oysters, but this function was not enriched in the susceptible data set. The differential expression patterns observed in this study provide valuable insight into the functional basis of Dermo resistance and suggest that the timing of expression is just as important as the transcripts being expressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dina A Proestou
- USDA Agricultural Research Service, National Cold Water Marine Aquaculture Center, 469 CBLS, 120 Flagg Road, Kingston, RI, 02881, USA.
| | - Mary E Sullivan
- USDA Agricultural Research Service, National Cold Water Marine Aquaculture Center, 469 CBLS, 120 Flagg Road, Kingston, RI, 02881, USA; University of Rhode Island, Department of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science, 460 CBLS, 120 Flagg Road, Kingston, RI, 02881, USA.
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8
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Wu L, Ye L, Wang Z, Cui Y, Wang J. Utilization of recombinase polymerase amplification combined with a lateral flow strip for detection of Perkinsus beihaiensis in the oyster Crassostrea hongkongensis. Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:360. [PMID: 31340841 PMCID: PMC6657052 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3624-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Perkinsosis, a disease caused by the protist Perkinsus, is responsible for mass mortalities of many molluscan species worldwide. The rapid, early and accurate detection of Perkinsus infection is necessary to react to outbreaks, and manage disease transmission. Current methods for diagnosis of Perkinsus spp. are time-consuming or require professional equipment and experienced personnel, rendering them unsuitable for field application. Recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) assay is a highly sensitive and selective isothermal amplification technique that operates at temperatures of 37-42 °C, requires minimal sample preparation, and is capable of amplifying as low as 1-10 target DNA copies in less than 20 minutes. METHODS We report a novel RPA assay that amplifies the internal transcriber spacer (ITS) region of P. beihaiensis, which, followed by rapid detection of amplicons using a lateral flow (LF) strip, enables easy visualization of results by the naked eye. RESULTS The LF-RPA assay successfully amplified P. beihaiensis DNA using a set of primers of 20-25 bp in length. After incubation at 37 °C for 25 min, results were read within 5 min by the naked eye on a lateral flow strip. Our LF-RPA assay was comparably sensitive to qPCR assay, and capable of detecting as few as 26 copies of P. beihaiensis DNA. Cross-amplification occurred with other two Perkinsus species, P. olseni and P. chesapeaki, but not with other potential pathogen taxa in culture environments. We compared the performance of LF-RPA, conventional PCR and qPCR assays on 60 oyster samples. While LF-RPA assay results were 86.2% as sensitive, 77.4% as specific, and generally in agreement with those of conventional PCR results, they were more (93.3%) sensitive, (86.7%) specific, and agreed better with qPCR assay results. Future research should focus on developing simple DNA extraction methods that do not require professional laboratories and complicated extraction procedures, to facilitate application of this LF-RPA assay in the field. CONCLUSIONS Our LF-RPA assay provides a rapid and efficient method for detecting species of Perkinsus. This novel assay has potential to be used in field applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Wu
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing; Key Laboratory of South China Sea Fishery Resources Exploitation & Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs; South China Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, 510300 China
- Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306 China
| | - Lingtong Ye
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing; Key Laboratory of South China Sea Fishery Resources Exploitation & Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs; South China Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, 510300 China
| | - Zhaorui Wang
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing; Key Laboratory of South China Sea Fishery Resources Exploitation & Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs; South China Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, 510300 China
- College of Fisheries, Tianjin Agricultural University, Tianjin, 300384 China
| | - Yingyi Cui
- Zhongshan Center for Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Zhongshan, 528455 Guangdong China
| | - Jiangyong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing; Key Laboratory of South China Sea Fishery Resources Exploitation & Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs; South China Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, 510300 China
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9
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Luz Cunha AC, Pontinha VDA, de Castro MAM, Sühnel S, Medeiros SC, Moura da Luz ÂM, Harakava R, Tachibana L, Mello DF, Danielli NM, Dafre AL, Magalhães ARM, P Mouriño JL. Two epizootic Perkinsus spp. events in commercial oyster farms at Santa Catarina, Brazil. J Fish Dis 2019; 42:455-463. [PMID: 30659615 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.12958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Revised: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Perkinsus spp. have been detected in various bivalve species from north-east Brazil. Santa Catarina is a South Brasil state with the highest national oyster production. Considering the pathogenicity of some Perkinsus spp., a study was carried out to survey perkinsosis in two oyster species cultured in this State, the mangrove oyster Crassostrea gasar and the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. Sampling involved eight sites along the state coast, and oyster sampling was collected during the period between January 2013 and December 2014. For the detection of Perkinsus, Ray's fluid thioglycollate medium (RFTM) and histology were used, and for the identification of the species, PCR and DNA sequencing were used. Perkinsus spp. was found by RFTM in C. gigas and C. gasar from São Francisco do Sul. This pathology was also detected in C. gasar from Balneário Barra do Sul both, by RFTM and histology. Perkinsus marinus was identified in C. gigas and C. gasar from São Francisco do Sul and Perkinsus beihaiensis in C. gasar from Balneário Barra do Sul. This is the first report of P. marinus in C. gigas from South America. Results of this preliminary study suggest that both oyster species tolerate the species of Perkinsus identified, without suffering heavy lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana C Luz Cunha
- Department of Aquaculture, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Vitor de A Pontinha
- Department of Aquaculture, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | | | - Simone Sühnel
- Department of Aquaculture, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Sthefanie C Medeiros
- Department of Aquaculture, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Ângela M Moura da Luz
- Department of Aquaculture, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Harakava
- Biological Institute, Paulista Agency of Technology Agribusiness, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Tachibana
- Fishing Institute, Paulista Agency of Technology Agribusiness, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Danielle F Mello
- Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Naissa M Danielli
- Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Alcir L Dafre
- Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Aimê R M Magalhães
- Department of Aquaculture, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - José Luiz P Mouriño
- Department of Aquaculture, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
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10
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King WL, Jenkins C, Seymour JR, Labbate M. Oyster disease in a changing environment: Decrypting the link between pathogen, microbiome and environment. Mar Environ Res 2019; 143:124-140. [PMID: 30482397 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2018.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Revised: 10/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Shifting environmental conditions are known to be important triggers of oyster diseases. The mechanism(s) behind these synergistic effects (interplay between host, environment and pathogen/s) are often not clear, although there is evidence that shifts in environmental conditions can affect oyster immunity, and pathogen growth and virulence. However, the impact of shifting environmental parameters on the oyster microbiome and how this affects oyster health and susceptibility to infectious pathogens remains understudied. In this review, we summarise the major diseases afflicting oysters with a focus on the role of environmental factors that can catalyse or amplify disease outbreaks. We also consider the potential role of the oyster microbiome in buffering or augmenting oyster disease outbreaks and suggest that a deeper understanding of the oyster microbiome, its links to the environment and its effect on oyster health and disease susceptibility, is required to develop new frameworks for the prevention and management of oyster diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- William L King
- The School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia; Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Cheryl Jenkins
- Elizabeth Macarthur Institute, New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Menangle, NSW, Australia
| | - Justin R Seymour
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Maurizio Labbate
- The School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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11
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Lau YT, Santos B, Barbosa M, Pales Espinosa E, Allam B. Regulation of apoptosis-related genes during interactions between oyster hemocytes and the alveolate parasite Perkinsus marinus. Fish Shellfish Immunol 2018; 83:180-189. [PMID: 30195907 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2018.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Revised: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 09/05/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The alveolate Perkinsus marinus is the most devastating parasite of the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. The parasite is readily phagocytosed by oyster hemocytes, but instead of intracellular killing and digestion, P. marinus can survive phagocytosis and divide in host cells. This intracellular parasitism is accompanied by a regulation of host cell apoptosis. This study was designed to gain a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms of apoptosis regulation in oyster hemocytes following exposure to P. marinus. Regulation of apoptosis-related genes in C. virginica, and apoptosis-regulatory genes in P. marinus, were investigated via qPCR to assess the possible pathways involved during these interactions. In vitro experiments were also carried out to evaluate the effect of chemical inhibitors of P. marinus antioxidant processes on hemocyte apoptosis. Results indicate the involvement of the mitochondrial pathway (Bcl-2, anamorsin) of apoptosis in C. virginica exposed to P. marinus. In parallel, the antioxidants peroxiredoxin and superoxide dismutase were regulated in P. marinus exposed to C. virginica hemocytes suggesting that apoptosis regulation in infected oysters may be mediated by anti-oxidative processes. Chemical inhibition of P. marinus superoxide dismutase resulted in a marked increase of reactive oxygen species production and apoptosis in infected hemocytes. The implication of oxygen-dependent apoptosis during P. marinus infection and disease development in C. virginica is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuk-Ting Lau
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States
| | - Bianca Santos
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States
| | - Michelle Barbosa
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States
| | - Emmanuelle Pales Espinosa
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States
| | - Bassem Allam
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States.
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12
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Lau YT, Gambino L, Santos B, Pales Espinosa E, Allam B. Regulation of oyster (Crassostrea virginica) hemocyte motility by the intracellular parasite Perkinsus marinus: A possible mechanism for host infection. Fish Shellfish Immunol 2018; 78:18-25. [PMID: 29635064 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2018.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/06/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Hemocytes associated with the mucus lining of pallial (mantle, gill) surfaces of the oyster Crassostrea virginica have been recently suggested to facilitate infection by the Alveolate parasite Perkinsus marinus by mediating the uptake and dispersion of parasite cells. These "pallial hemocytes", which are directly exposed to microbes present in surrounding seawater, are able to migrate bi-directionally between mucosal surfaces and the circulatory system, potentially playing a sentinel role. Interestingly, P. marinus was shown to increase trans-epithelial migration of hemocytes suggesting it may regulate cell motility to favor infection establishment. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of P. marinus on hemocyte motility and identify specific molecular mechanisms potentially used by the parasite to regulate hemocyte migration. In a first series of experiments, various components of P. marinus (live P. marinus cells, extracellular products, fragments of P. marinus cell membrane, membrane-modified live P. marinus cells, heat-killed P. marinus) along with components of the opportunistic bacterial pathogen Vibrio alginolyticus (bacterial cells and extracellular products) were investigated for their effects on hemocyte motility. In a second series of experiments, inhibitors of specific molecular pathways involved in motility regulation (Y-27632: inhibitor of Rho-associated protein kinase, RGDS: integrin inhibitor, CK-666: Arp2/3 inhibitor) were used in conjunction with qPCR gene expression experiments to identify pathways regulated by P. marinus exposure. Results showed a specific increase in hemocyte motility following exposure to live P. marinus cells. The increase in motility induced by P. marinus was suppressed by RGDS and CK-666 implicating the involvement of integrins and Arp2/3 in cell activation. Gene expression data suggest that Arp2/3 is possibly regulated directly by an effector produced by P. marinus. The implications of increased hemocyte motility prompted by P. marinus during the early stage of the infection process are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuk-Ting Lau
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States
| | - Laura Gambino
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States
| | - Bianca Santos
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States
| | - Emmanuelle Pales Espinosa
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States
| | - Bassem Allam
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States.
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13
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Clements JC, Bourque D, McLaughlin J, Stephenson M, Comeau LA. Extreme ocean acidification reduces the susceptibility of eastern oyster shells to a polydorid parasite. J Fish Dis 2017; 40:1573-1585. [PMID: 28429861 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.12626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Revised: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/03/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Ocean acidification poses a threat to marine organisms. While the physiological and behavioural effects of ocean acidification have received much attention, the effects of acidification on the susceptibility of farmed shellfish to parasitic infections are poorly understood. Here we describe the effects of moderate (pH 7.5) and extreme (pH 7.0) ocean acidification on the susceptibility of Crassostrea virginica shells to infection by a parasitic polydorid, Polydora websteri. Under laboratory conditions, shells were exposed to three pH treatments (7.0, 7.5 and 8.0) for 3- and 5-week periods. Treated shells were subsequently transferred to an oyster aquaculture site (which had recently reported an outbreak of P. websteri) for 50 days to test for effects of pH and exposure time on P. websteri recruitment to oyster shells. Results indicated that pH and exposure time did not affect the length, width or weight of the shells. Interestingly, P. websteri counts were significantly lower under extreme (pH 7.0; ~50% reduction), but not moderate (pH 7.5; ~20% reduction) acidification levels; exposure time had no effect. This study suggests that extreme levels - but not current and projected near-future levels - of acidification (∆pH ~1 unit) can reduce the susceptibility of eastern oyster shells to P. websteri infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Clements
- Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PEI, Canada
| | - D Bourque
- Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Gulf Fisheries Centre, Science Branch, Moncton, NB, Canada
| | - J McLaughlin
- Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Gulf Fisheries Centre, Science Branch, Moncton, NB, Canada
| | - M Stephenson
- Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Gulf Fisheries Centre, Science Branch, Moncton, NB, Canada
| | - L A Comeau
- Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Gulf Fisheries Centre, Science Branch, Moncton, NB, Canada
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14
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Polinski MP, Meyer GR, Lowe GJ, Abbott CL. Seawater detection and biological assessments regarding transmission of the oyster parasite Mikrocytos mackini using qPCR. Dis Aquat Organ 2017; 126:143-153. [PMID: 29044044 DOI: 10.3354/dao03167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Mikrocytos mackini is an intracellular parasite of oysters and causative agent of Denman Island disease in Pacific oysters Crassostrea gigas. Although M. mackini has been investigated for decades, its natural mode of transmission, mechanism for host entry, and environmental stability are largely unknown. We explored these biological characteristics of M. mackini using a recently described quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay. We detected M. mackini in the flow-through tank water of experimentally infected oysters and during disease remission in host tissues following 6 wk of elevated water temperature. Waterborne exposure of oysters to M. mackini further confirmed the potential for extracellular seawater transmission of this parasite and also identified host gill to have the highest early and continued prevalence for M. mackini DNA compared to stomach, mantle, labial palps, or adductor muscle samples. However, infections following waterborne challenge were slow to develop despite a substantial exposure (>106 M. mackini l-1 for 24 h), and further investigation demonstrated that M. mackini occurrence and infectivity severely declined following extracellular seawater incubation of more than 24 h. This study demonstrates a potential for using qPCR to monitor M. mackini in wild or farmed oyster populations during periods of disease remission or from environmental seawater samples. This work also suggests that gill tissues may provide a primary site for waterborne entry and possibly shedding of M. mackini in oysters. Further, although extracellular seawater transmission of M. mackini was possible, poor environmental stability and infection efficiency likely restricts the geographic transmission of M. mackini between oysters in natural environs and may help to explain localized areas of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark P Polinski
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Pacific Biological Station, 3190 Hammond Bay Road, Nanaimo, BC V9T 6N7, Canada
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15
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Queiroga FR, Marques-Santos LF, Hégaret H, Sassi R, Farias ND, Santana LN, da Silva PM. Effects of cyanobacteria Synechocystis spp. in the host-parasite model Crassostrea gasar-Perkinsus marinus. Aquat Toxicol 2017; 187:100-107. [PMID: 28407513 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2017.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2016] [Revised: 03/18/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Perkinsosis is a disease caused by protozoan parasites from the Perkinsus genus. In Brazil, two species, P. beihaiensis and P. marinus, are frequently found infecting native oysters (Crassostrea gasar and C. rhizophorae) from cultured and wild populations in several states of the Northeast region. The impacts of this disease in bivalves from Brazil, as well as the interactions with environmental factors, are poorly studied. In the present work, we evaluated the in vitro effects of the cyanobacteria Synechocystis spp. on trophozoites of P. marinus and haemocytes of C. gasar. Four cyanobacteria strains isolated from the Northeast Brazilian coast were used as whole cultures (WCs) and extracellular products (ECPs). Trophozoites of P. marinus were exposed for short (4h) and long (48h and 7days, the latter only for ECPs) periods, while haemocytes were exposed for a short period (4h). Cellular and immune parameters, i.e. cell viability, cell count, reactive oxygen species production (ROS) and phagocytosis of inert (latex beads) and biological particles (zymosan and trophozoites of P. marinus) were measured by flow cytometry. The viability of P. marinus trophozoites was improved in response to WCs of Synechocystis spp., which could be a beneficial effect of the cyanobacteria providing nutrients and reducing reactive oxygen species. Long-term exposure of trophozoites to ECPs of cyanobacteria did not modify in vitro cell proliferation nor viability. In contrast, C. gasar haemocytes showed a reduction in cell viability when exposed to WCs, but not to ECPs. However, ROS production was not altered. Haemocyte ability to engulf latex particles was reduced when exposed mainly to ECPs of cyanobacteria; while neither the WCs nor the ECPs modified phagocytosis of the biological particles, zymosan and P. marinus. Our results suggest a negative effect of cyanobacteria from the Synechocystis genus on host immune cells, in contrast to a more beneficial effect on the parasite cell, which could together disrupt the balance of the host-parasite interaction and make oysters more susceptible to P. marinus as well as opportunistic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Ramos Queiroga
- Laboratório de Imunologia e Patologia de Invertebrados (LABIPI), Departamento de Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, 58051-900, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Luis Fernando Marques-Santos
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e do Desenvolvimento (LABID), Departamento de Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, 58051-900, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Hélène Hégaret
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (LEMAR), UMR 6539 CNRS UBO IRD IFREMER, Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280, Plouzané, France
| | - Roberto Sassi
- Laboratório de Ambientes Recifais e Biotecnologia de Microalgas (LARBIM), Departamento de Sistemática e Ecologia, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, 58051-900, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Natanael Dantas Farias
- Laboratório de Imunologia e Patologia de Invertebrados (LABIPI), Departamento de Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, 58051-900, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Lucas Nunes Santana
- Laboratório de Imunologia e Patologia de Invertebrados (LABIPI), Departamento de Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, 58051-900, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Patricia Mirella da Silva
- Laboratório de Imunologia e Patologia de Invertebrados (LABIPI), Departamento de Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, 58051-900, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil.
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QUEIROGA FERNANDORAMOS, MARQUES-SANTOS LUISFERNANDO, DE MEDEIROS ISACALMEIDA, DA SILVA PATRÍCIAMIRELLA. Effects of salinity and temperature on in vitro cell cycle and proliferation of Perkinsus marinus from Brazil. Parasitology 2016; 143:475-87. [PMID: 26888407 PMCID: PMC4800715 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182015001602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Revised: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Field and in vitro studies have shown that high salinities and temperatures promote the proliferation and dissemination of Perkinsus marinus in several environments. In Brazil, the parasite infects native oysters Crassostrea gasar and Crassostrea rhizophorae in the Northeast (NE), where the temperature is high throughout the year. Despite the high prevalence of Perkinsus spp. infection in oysters from the NE of Brazil, no mortality events were reported by oyster farmers to date. The present study evaluated the effects of salinity (5, 20 and 35 psu) and temperature (15, 25 and 35 °C) on in vitro proliferation of P. marinus isolated from a host (C. rhizophorae) in Brazil, for a period of up to 15 days and after the return to the control conditions (22 days; recovery). Different cellular parameters (changes of cell phase's composition, cell density, viability and production of reactive oxygen species) were analysed using flow cytometry. The results indicate that the P. marinus isolate was sensitive to the extreme salinities and temperatures analysed. Only the highest temperature caused lasting cell damage under prolonged exposure, impairing P. marinus recovery, which is likely to be associated with oxidative stress. These findings will contribute to the understanding of the dynamics of perkinsiosis in tropical regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- FERNANDO RAMOS QUEIROGA
- Laboratório de Imunologia e Patologia de Invertebrados, Departamento de Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Natureza, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Campus I, CEP 58051-900, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
| | - LUIS FERNANDO MARQUES-SANTOS
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e do Desenvolvimento, Departamento de Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Natureza, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Campus I, CEP 58051–900, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
| | - ISAC ALMEIDA DE MEDEIROS
- Laboratório de Farmacologia Cardiovascular, Departamento de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, CEP 58051–900, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
| | - PATRÍCIA MIRELLA DA SILVA
- Laboratório de Imunologia e Patologia de Invertebrados, Departamento de Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Natureza, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Campus I, CEP 58051-900, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
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17
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Malek JC, Breitburg DL. Effects of air-exposure gradients on spatial infection patterns of Perkinsus marinus in the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. Dis Aquat Organ 2016; 118:139-151. [PMID: 26912044 DOI: 10.3354/dao02964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Spatial distributions of species can be shaped by factors such as parasites, mortality, and reproduction, all of which may be influenced by differences in physical factors along environmental gradients. In nearshore tidal waters, an elevational gradient in aerial exposure during low tide can shape the spatial distributions of benthic marine organisms. The eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica is an ecologically and economically important species that can dominate both subtidal and intertidal habitats along the east coast of the USA. Our goal was to determine whether prevalence and intensity of Perkinsus marinus (the causative agent of Dermo disease) infections vary along intertidal to subtidal gradients during summer. We used (1) field experiments conducted at 4 sites in the Chesapeake Bay and a Virginia coastal bay, (2) a controlled air-exposure experiment, and (3) field surveys from 7 sites ranging from Maine to North Carolina to test for effects of tidal exposure on infection. Results from our field surveys suggested that high intertidal oysters tend to have higher infection prevalence than subtidal oysters, but there was no effect on infection intensity. Field experiments rarely yielded significant effects of tidal exposure on infection prevalence and intensity. Overall, our study shows that exposure to air may not be a strong driver of infection patterns in this host-parasite system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennafer C Malek
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, PO Box 28, 647 Contees Wharf Road, Edgewater, MD 21037, USA
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18
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Breitburg DL, Hondorp D, Audemard C, Carnegie RB, Burrell RB, Trice M, Clark V. Landscape-level variation in disease susceptibility related to shallow-water hypoxia. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0116223. [PMID: 25671595 PMCID: PMC4324988 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0116223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 12/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Diel-cycling hypoxia is widespread in shallow portions of estuaries and lagoons, especially in systems with high nutrient loads resulting from human activities. Far less is known about the effects of this form of hypoxia than deeper-water seasonal or persistent low dissolved oxygen. We examined field patterns of diel-cycling hypoxia and used field and laboratory experiments to test its effects on acquisition and progression of Perkinsus marinus infections in the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, as well as on oyster growth and filtration. P. marinus infections cause the disease known as Dermo, have been responsible for declines in oyster populations, and have limited success of oyster restoration efforts. The severity of diel-cycling hypoxia varied among shallow monitored sites in Chesapeake Bay, and average daily minimum dissolved oxygen was positively correlated with average daily minimum pH. In both field and laboratory experiments, diel-cycling hypoxia increased acquisition and progression of infections, with stronger results found for younger (1-year-old) than older (2-3-year-old) oysters, and more pronounced effects on both infections and growth found in the field than in the laboratory. Filtration by oysters was reduced during brief periods of exposure to severe hypoxia. This should have reduced exposure to waterborne P. marinus, and contributed to the negative relationship found between hypoxia frequency and oyster growth. Negative effects of hypoxia on the host immune response is, therefore, the likely mechanism leading to elevated infections in oysters exposed to hypoxia relative to control treatments. Because there is considerable spatial variation in the frequency and severity of hypoxia, diel-cycling hypoxia may contribute to landscape-level spatial variation in disease dynamics within and among estuarine systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise L. Breitburg
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, PO Box 28, Edgewater, MD, 21037, United States of America
| | - Darryl Hondorp
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, PO Box 28, Edgewater, MD, 21037, United States of America
- USGS Great Lakes Science Center, 1451 Green Road, Ann Arbor, MI, 48105, United States of America
| | - Corinne Audemard
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, PO Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, United States of America
| | - Ryan B. Carnegie
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, PO Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, United States of America
| | - Rebecca B. Burrell
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, PO Box 28, Edgewater, MD, 21037, United States of America
| | - Mark Trice
- Maryland Department of Natural Resources, 580 Taylor Avenue, Annapolis, MD, 21401, United States of America
| | - Virginia Clark
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, PO Box 28, Edgewater, MD, 21037, United States of America
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Gutiérrez-Rivera JN, Arcos-Ortega GF, Luna-González A, Rodríguez-Jaramillo MC, Arechiga-Carvajal ET, Vázquez-Juárez R. Differential expression of serine protease inhibitors 1 and 2 in Crassostrea corteziensis and C. virginica infected with Perkinsus marinus. Dis Aquat Organ 2015; 112:185-197. [PMID: 25590769 DOI: 10.3354/dao02808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Proliferation of Perkinsus marinus (Dermo) in vitro is inhibited by the action of 2 serine protease inhibitors belonging to the I-84 family. We compared the levels of expression of serine protease inhibitors 1 and 2 (SPI-1 and SPI-2) in 2 oyster species (Crassostrea virginica and C. corteziensis) inoculated with the parasite P. marinus. C. virginica is well known to be susceptible to this parasite, whereas C. corteziensis is apparently more tolerant. Oysters were inoculated with trophozoites (1 × 106 trophozoites oyster-1) of P. marinus while control oysters were injected with saline solution. Oysters were maintained in a closed water system for 2 wk. The oysters were then sacrificed and parasite burden, histological damage, and gene expression were evaluated. The results showed that the challenged oysters presented a significant increase in parasite burden, which generated histological damage in digestive gland and gills. Quantitative PCR detected significant differences in SPI-1 and SPI-2 expression levels in the 2 oyster species, with C. corteziensis showing higher expression levels than C. virginica as a response to P. marinus inoculation. Our results provide valuable information for the understanding of the defense response in C. corteziensis and a possible explanation for its tolerance to the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- J N Gutiérrez-Rivera
- Unidad de Micología y Fitopatología, Departamento de Microbiología e Inmunología, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León UANL, San Nicolás de los Garza, NL, Mexico
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20
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Nikapitiya C, McDowell IC, Villamil L, Muñoz P, Sohn S, Gomez-Chiarri M. Identification of potential general markers of disease resistance in American oysters, Crassostrea virginica through gene expression studies. Fish Shellfish Immunol 2014; 41:27-36. [PMID: 24973516 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2014.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2014] [Revised: 06/13/2014] [Accepted: 06/16/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Several diseases have a significant impact on American oyster populations in the Atlantic coasts of North America. Knowledge about the responses of oysters to pathogenic challenge could help in identifying potential markers of disease resistance and biomarkers of the health status of an oyster population. A previous analysis of the transcriptome of resistant and susceptible American oysters in response to challenge with the bacterial pathogen Roseovarius crassostreae, as well as sequencing of suppression subtractive hybridization libraries from oysters challenged with the protozoan parasite Perkinsus marinus, provided a list of genes potentially involved in disease resistance or susceptibility. We investigated the patterns of inducible gene expression of several of these genes in response to experimental challenge with the oyster pathogens R. crassostreae, Vibrio tubiashii, and P. marinus. Oysters showing differential susceptibility to R. crassostreae demonstrated differential patterns of expression of genes coding for immune (serine protease inhibitor-1, SPI1) and stress-related (heat shock protein 70, HSP70; arginine kinase) proteins 30 days after challenge with this bacterial pathogen. Differential patterns of expression of immune (spi1, galectin and a matrix metalloproteinase) and stress-related (hsp70, histone H4, and arginine kinase) genes was observed in hemocytes from adult oysters challenged with P. marinus, but not with V. tubiashii. While levels of spi1 expression in hemocytes collected 8 and 21 days after P. marinus challenge were negatively correlated with parasite load in oysters tissues at the end of the challenge (62 days), levels of expression of hsp70 in hemocytes collected 1-day after challenge were positively correlated with oyster parasite load at 62 days. Our results confirm previous research on the role of serine protease inhibitor-1 in immunity and disease resistance in oysters. They also suggest that HSP70 and histone H4 could be used as a markers of health status or disease susceptibility in oysters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chamilani Nikapitiya
- Department of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science, University of Rhode Island, CBLS169, Kingston, RI 02881, USA
| | - Ian C McDowell
- Department of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science, University of Rhode Island, CBLS169, Kingston, RI 02881, USA
| | - Luisa Villamil
- Department of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science, University of Rhode Island, CBLS169, Kingston, RI 02881, USA
| | - Pilar Muñoz
- Department of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science, University of Rhode Island, CBLS169, Kingston, RI 02881, USA
| | - SaeBom Sohn
- Department of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science, University of Rhode Island, CBLS169, Kingston, RI 02881, USA
| | - Marta Gomez-Chiarri
- Department of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science, University of Rhode Island, CBLS169, Kingston, RI 02881, USA.
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Audemard C, Carnegie RB, Hill KM, Peterson CH, Burreson EM. Bonamia exitiosa transmission among, and incidence in, Asian oyster Crassostrea ariakensis under warm euhaline conditions. Dis Aquat Organ 2014; 110:143-150. [PMID: 25060506 DOI: 10.3354/dao02648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Previously reported in Australia, New Zealand, and more recently in Europe, the protistan parasite Bonamia exitiosa was also reported in the mid-Atlantic region of the USA after causing serious mortalities there in the Asian oyster Crassostrea ariakensis. At the time, this oyster was being considered for introduction, and the potential consequences of introducing this species were being assessed using field and laboratory studies. B. exitiosa emerged as the most serious disease threat for this oyster species, especially under warm euhaline conditions and for oysters <50 mm in size. To better evaluate how quickly this parasite may be able to spread among C. ariakensis, we investigated B. exitiosa transmission and incidence in C. ariakensis. During a first trial, potential direct transmission of B. exitiosa was evaluated by cohabitating infected C. ariakensis with uninfected C. ariakensis under in vivo quarantine conditions. In a second experiment, B. exitiosa incidence was estimated in situ by determining its prevalence in C. ariakensis deployed in an enzootic area after 4, 7, 14, 21 and 28 d of exposure. Results suggest that under warm euhaline conditions B. exitiosa can be transmitted among C. ariakensis without requiring any other parasite source and that parasite incidence may be at least as high as 40% after only 4 d exposure to an enzootic area. These results underscored the severity of the bonamiasis disease threat to C. ariakensis and provided further evidence that efforts to build an aquaculture industry based on C. ariakensis in the eastern USA might have been thwarted by parasitic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Audemard
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William & Mary, PO Box 1346, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062, USA
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Sühnel S, Ivachuk CDS, Schaefer ALC, Pontinha VA, Martins ML, Figueras A, Meyer GR, Jones SRM, Stewart JC, Gurney-Smith HJ, Magalhães ARM, Bower SM. Detection of a parasitic amoeba (Order Dactylopodida) in the female gonads of oysters in Brazil. Dis Aquat Organ 2014; 109:241-250. [PMID: 24991850 DOI: 10.3354/dao02748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The impacts of oocyte parasites on the reproductive success of molluscs are largely unknown. In this study, we evaluated the presence of gonad parasites in 6 species of marine bivalve molluscs native to southern Brazil. Cultured bivalves included the mangrove oyster Crassostrea gasar (sometimes called C. brasiliana), the brown mussel Perna perna, the lion's paw scallop Nodipecten nodosus and the wing pearl oyster Pteria hirundo. Another species of mangrove oyster, C. rhizophorae, and the carib pointed venus clam Anomalocardia brasiliana (syn. A. flexuosa) were collected from the wild. Molluscs were collected in winter 2009 and summer 2010 for histopathological and molecular evaluation. An unknown ovarian parasite (UOP) was observed in histopathological sections of female gonads of C. gasar and C. rhizophorae. The UOP possessed features suggestive of amoebae, including an irregular outer membrane, frothy cytoplasm, a nucleus with a prominent central nucleolus and a closely associated basophilic parasome. PCR analysis was negative for Marteilioides chungmuensis, Perkinsus spp. and Paramoeba perurans. However, real-time PCR successfully amplified DNA from oyster gonads when using universal Paramoeba spp. primers. Also, conventional PCR amplified DNA using primers specific for Perkinsela amoebae-like organisms (syn. Perkinsiella), which are considered as endosymbionts of Parameoba spp., previously thought to be the parasome. Our results suggest that this UOP is a species of amoeba belonging to 1 of the 2 families of the order Dactylopodida, possibly related to Paramoeba spp. This study represents the first report of this type of organism in oysters. We found that C. gasar and C. rhizophorae were the most susceptible molluscs to these UOPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Sühnel
- Nucleus for Aquatic Pathology Studies, Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC), Rodovia Admar Gonzaga, 1346, 88040-900, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina (SC), Brazil
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de Jesús Romero-Geraldo R, García-Lagunas N, Hernández-Saavedra NY. Effects of in vitro exposure to diarrheic toxin producer Prorocentrum lima on gene expressions related to cell cycle regulation and immune response in Crassostrea gigas. PLoS One 2014; 9:e97181. [PMID: 24825133 PMCID: PMC4019545 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0097181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Crassostrea gigas accumulates diarrheic shellfish toxins (DSP) associated to Prorocentrum lima of which Okadaic acid (OA) causes specific inhibitions of serine and threonine phosphatases 1 and 2A. Its toxic effects have been extensively reported in bivalve mollusks at cellular and physiological levels, but genomic approaches have been scarcely studied. Methodology/Principal Findings Acute and sub-chronic exposure effects of P. lima were investigated on farmed juvenile C. gigas (3–5 mm). The Pacific oysters were fed with three dinoflagellate concentrations: 0.3, 3, and 30×103 cells mL−1 along with a nontoxic control diet of Isochrysis galbana. The effects of P. lima on C. gigas were followed by analyzing expression levels of a total of four genes, three involved in cell cycle regulation and one in immune response by polymerase chain reaction and real time quantitative PCR, where changes in time and cell concentration were found. The highest expression levels were found in oysters fed 3×103 cells mL−1 at 168 h for the cycle regulator p21 protein (9 fold), chromatin assembly factor 1 p55 subunit (8 fold), elongation factor 2 (2 fold), and lipopolysaccharide/β-1, 3 glucan binding protein (13 fold above base line). Additionally, the transcript level of all the genes decreased in oysters fed wich the mixed diet 30×103 cells mL−1 of dinoflagellate after 72 h and was lowest in the chromatin assembly factor 1 p55 subunit (0.9 fold below baseline). Conclusions On C. gigas the whole cell ingestion of P lima caused a clear mRNA modulation expression of the genes involved in cell cycle regulation and immune system. Over-expression could be related to DNA damage, disturbances in cell cycle continuity, probably a genotoxic effect, as well as an activation of its innate immune system as first line of defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reyna de Jesús Romero-Geraldo
- Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, S.C. La Paz, Baja California Sur, México
- Department of Engineering, Instituto Tecnológico de La Paz, Baja California Sur, México
| | - Norma García-Lagunas
- Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, S.C. La Paz, Baja California Sur, México
| | - Norma Yolanda Hernández-Saavedra
- Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, S.C. La Paz, Baja California Sur, México
- * E-mail:
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Pales Espinosa E, Winnicki S, Allam B. Early host-pathogen interactions in a marine bivalve: Crassostrea virginica pallial mucus modulates Perkinsus marinus growth and virulence. Dis Aquat Organ 2013; 104:237-247. [PMID: 23759561 DOI: 10.3354/dao02599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Perkinsus marinus is an important protistan parasite of the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. Recent findings showed that oyster pallial organs (mantle, gills) are a major portal of entry for the parasite. Therefore, mucus covering these organs represents the first host effectors encountered by P. marinus. This study consisted of several experiments designed to investigate the effect of oyster pallial mucus on the growth, protease production and infectivity of P. marinus. In each experiment, P. marinus performance in cultures supplemented with pallial mucus (mantle, gill, or both) was compared to that of parasite cells grown in unsupplemented media or in cultures supplemented with oyster plasma or digestive extracts. P. marinus grown in media supplemented with C. virginica mantle mucus showed a significantly higher growth rate than cultures enriched with the other supplemental extracts, while cultures grown in gill mucus promoted higher protease production. Conversely, P. marinus grown in cultures supplemented with pallial mucus of the non-compatible host Crassostrea gigas (Pacific oyster) were dramatically inhibited. Challenge experiments showed a significant increase in P. marinus virulence in cultures supplemented with C. virginica pallial mucus as compared to unsupplemented cultures or to those supplemented with digestive extract or plasma. These results suggest that C. virginica mucus plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of P. marinus by enhancing the proliferation and the infectivity of this devastating parasite. The contrasting results obtained with both oyster species indicate that P. marinus host specificity may begin in the mucus.
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Wilbur AE, Ford SE, Gauthier JD, Gomez-Chiarri M. Quantitative PCR assay to determine prevalence and intensity of MSX (Haplosporidium nelsoni) in North Carolina and Rhode Island oysters Crassostrea virginica. Dis Aquat Organ 2012; 102:107-118. [PMID: 23269385 DOI: 10.3354/dao02540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The continuing challenges to the management of both wild and cultured eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica populations resulting from protozoan parasites has stimulated interest in the development of molecular assays for their detection and quantification. For Haplosporidium nelsoni, the causative agent of multinucleated sphere unknown (MSX) disease, diagnostic evaluations depend extensively on traditional but laborious histological approaches and more recently on rapid and sensitive (but not quantitative) end-point polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays. Here, we describe the development and application of a quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay for H. nelsoni using an Applied Biosystems TaqMan® assay designed with minor groove binder (MGB) probes. The assay was highly sensitive, detecting as few as 20 copies of cloned target DNA. Histologically evaluated parasite density was significantly correlated with the quantification cycle (Cq), regardless of whether quantification was categorical (r2 = 0.696, p < 0.0001) or quantitative (r2 = 0.797, p < 0.0001). Application in field studies conducted in North Carolina, USA (7 locations), revealed widespread occurrence of the parasite with moderate to high intensities noted in some locations. In Rhode Island, USA, application of the assay on oysters from 2 locations resulted in no positives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ami E Wilbur
- Department of Biology and Marine Biology, Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, North Carolina 28409, USA.
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26
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Dungan CF, Carnegie RB, Hill KM, McCollough CB, Laramore SE, Kelly CJ, Stokes NA, Scarpa J. Diseases of oysters Crassostrea ariakensis and C. virginica reared in ambient waters from the Choptank River, Maryland and the Indian River Lagoon, Florida. Dis Aquat Organ 2012; 101:173-183. [PMID: 23324414 DOI: 10.3354/dao02531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
To assess potential benefits and liabilities from a proposed introduction of Asian Suminoe oysters, susceptibilities of exotic Crassostrea ariakensis and native C. virginica oysters were compared during exposures to pathogens endemic in temperate, mesohaline waters of Chesapeake Bay and sub-tropical, polyhaline Atlantic waters of southern Florida, USA. Cohorts of diploid, sibling oysters of both species were periodically tested for diseases while reared in mesocosms receiving ambient waters from the Choptank River, Maryland (>3 yr) or the Indian River Lagoon, Florida (10 to 11 mo). Haplosporidium sp. infections (e.g. MSX disease) were not detected in oysters from either site. Perkinsus sp. infections (dermo disease) occurred among members of both oyster species at both sites, but infections were generally of low or moderate intensities. A Bonamia sp. was detected by PCR of DNAs from tissues of both oyster species following exposure to Florida waters, with maximum PCR prevalences of 44 and 15% among C. ariakensis and C. virginica oysters respectively during June 2007. Among C. ariakensis oysters sampled during April to July 2007, a Bonamia sp. was detected in 31% of oysters by PCR (range 11 to 35%) and confirmed histologically in 10% (range 0 to 15%). Among simultaneously sampled C. virginica oysters, a Bonamia sp. was detected in 7% by PCR (range 0 to 15%), but histological lesions were absent. Although this is the first report of a Bonamia sp. from Florida waters, sequences of small subunit (SSU) rDNA and in situ hybridization (ISH) assays both identified the Florida pathogen as Bonamia exitiosa, which also infects oysters in the proximate waters of North Carolina, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher F Dungan
- Cooperative Oxford Laboratory, Maryland Department of Natural Resources, Oxford, Maryland 21654, USA.
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27
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He Y, Yu H, Bao Z, Zhang Q, Guo X. Mutation in promoter region of a serine protease inhibitor confers Perkinsus marinus resistance in the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica). Fish Shellfish Immunol 2012; 33:411-417. [PMID: 22683517 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2012.05.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2012] [Revised: 05/22/2012] [Accepted: 05/22/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Protease inhibitors from the host may inhibit proteases from invading pathogens and confer resistance. We have previously shown that a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP198C) in a serine protease inhibitor gene (cvSI-1) is associated with Perkinsus marinus resistance in the eastern oyster. As SNP198 is synonymous, we studied whether its linkage to polymorphism at the promoter region could explain the resistance. A 631 bp fragment of the promoter region was cloned by genome-walking and resequenced, revealing 22 SNPs and 3 insertion/deletions (indels). A 25 bp indel at position -404 was genotyped along with SNP198 for association analysis using before- and after-mortality samples. After mortalities that were primarily caused by P. marinus, the frequency of deletion allele at -404indel increased by 15.6% (p = 0.0437), while that of SNP198C increased by only 3.4% (p = 0.5756). The resistance alleles at the two loci were coupled in 79.6% of the oysters. Oysters with the deletion allele at -404indel showed significant (p = 0.0189) up-regulation of cvSI-1 expression under P. marinus challenge. Our results suggest that mutation at the promoter region causes increased transcription of cvSI-1, which in turn confers P. marinus resistance in the eastern oyster likely through inhibiting pathogenic proteases from the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan He
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
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Choi HJ, Hwang JY, Choi DL, Huh MD, Park MA. A study of diagnostic methods for Marteilioides chungmuensis infections in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. J Invertebr Pathol 2012; 111:27-32. [PMID: 22634519 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2012.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2011] [Revised: 05/07/2012] [Accepted: 05/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The eggs of the Pacific oyster, Crassostraea gigas, become infertile when infected by the parasite Marteilioides chungmuensis. Histologically, M. chungmuensis infects the oyster oocyte cytoplasm, and the ovaries take on a "lumpy" appearance once infected, which lowers commercial value of the oyster. This has a negative economic impact on oyster farms in South Korea and Japan. In this study, we compared traditional diagnostic methods (histology) with two molecular-based methods (polymerase chain reaction [PCR] amplification and in situ hybridization [ISH]) to identify M. chungmuensis-infected oysters. The efficacy of PCR and ISH to identify M. chungmuensis-infected oysters was compared to that of routine histology in 100 oysters. Thirty infections were identified using PCR and 16 using histology, whereas 31 infections were identified using ISH. The ISH and PCR assays were more sensitive compared to using histology with standard epidemiological methods. We strongly recommend that early parasitic invasion should be monitored with PCR/ISH methodologies as a basis for developing effective diagnostic techniques to identify M. chungmuensis-infected oysters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hee Jung Choi
- Fish Pathology Division, National Fisheries Research and Development Institute (NFRDI), 408-1 Silang, Gijang, Busan, Republic of Korea
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29
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Sanil NK, Suja G, Lijo J, Vijayan KK. First report of Perkinsus beihaiensis in Crassostrea madrasensis from the Indian subcontinent. Dis Aquat Organ 2012; 98:209-220. [PMID: 22535871 DOI: 10.3354/dao02440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Protozoan parasites of the genus Perkinsus are considered important pathogens responsible for mass mortalities in many wild and farmed bivalve populations. The present study was initiated to screen populations of the Indian edible oyster Crassostrea madrasensis, a promising candidate for aquaculture along the Indian coasts, for the presence of Perkinsus spp. The study reports the presence of P. beihaiensis for the first time in C. madrasensis populations from the Indian subcontinent and south Asia. Samples collected from the east and west coasts of India were subjected to Ray's fluid thioglycollate medium (RFTM) culture and histology which indicated the presence of Perkinsus spp. PCR screening of the tissues using specific primers amplified the product specific to the genus Perkinsus. The taxonomic affinities of the parasites were determined by sequencing both internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and actin genes followed by basic local alignment search tool (BLAST) analysis. Analysis based on the ITS sequences showed 98 to 100% identity to Perkinsus spp. (P. beihaiensis and Brazilian Perkinsus sp.). The pairwise genetic distance values and phylogenetic analysis confirmed that 2 of the present samples belonged to the P. beihaiensis clade while the other 4 showed close affinities with the Brazilian Perkinsus sp. clade. The genetic divergence data, close affinity with the Brazilian Perkinsus sp., and co-existence with P. beihaiensis in the same host species in the same habitat show that the remaining 4 samples exhibit some degree of variation from P. beihaiensis. As expected, the sequencing of actin genes did not show any divergence among the samples studied. They probably could be intraspecific variants of P. beihaiensis having a separate lineage in the process of evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- N K Sanil
- Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kerala, India.
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Foster B, Grewal S, Graves O, Hughes FM, Sokolova IM. Copper exposure affects hemocyte apoptosis and Perkinsus marinus infection in eastern oysters Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin). Fish Shellfish Immunol 2011; 31:341-349. [PMID: 21658453 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2011.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2011] [Revised: 05/23/2011] [Accepted: 05/24/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Dermo disease in the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) is caused by an intracellular protistan parasite Perkinsus marinus. The progression and outcome of this disease is determined by a complex interplay between the host's immunity and parasite's escape mechanisms, both of which can be influenced by environmental pollutants including heavy metals such as copper (Cu). The goal of the present study was to determine the effects of Cu on the levels of apoptosis (which can serve as an important host defense mechanism) in oyster immune cells (hemocytes) in vitro and in vivo as well as on the establishment of P. marinus infections in vivo. Surprisingly, Cu exerted opposing effects on apoptosis levels of hemocytes in vitro and in vivo, stimulating apoptosis in isolated hemocytes but suppressing it during Cu exposure of whole oysters. The mechanisms of this effect are presently unknown and may be related to the different bioavailability of the metal in vitro and in vivo. As expected, Cu accumulated in oyster soft tissues during in vitro exposure. Unexpectedly, this metal also strongly accumulated in hemolymph plasma which is classically considered isoionic with the surrounding seawater, likely reflecting the presence of soluble Cu-binding proteins in oyster plasma. Cu reduced growth of P. marinus in vitro and greatly reduced infection levels of hemocytes in vivo, presumably by direct toxic effects on the parasite. As a possible parasitic counterbalance, Cu accumulation in the hemocytes was reduced by P. marinus infection, although this reduction was not sufficient to prevent the parasiticidal effects of the heavy metal in vivo. This effect of Cu may be useful as a potential therapeutic against Dermo disease in aquaculture conditions. Overall, this study provides important new insights into the potential role of environmental metals in host-parasite relationships and disease dynamics in C. virginica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brent Foster
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 9210 University City Blvd., Charlotte, NC 28223, USA
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31
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Yu H, He Y, Wang X, Zhang Q, Bao Z, Guo X. Polymorphism in a serine protease inhibitor gene and its association with disease resistance in the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica Gmelin). Fish Shellfish Immunol 2011; 30:757-762. [PMID: 21215804 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2010.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2010] [Accepted: 12/20/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Serine protease inhibitors (SPIs) are a superfamily of structurally related but functionally diverse proteins found in almost all organisms ranging from viruses to humans. Some of them play important roles in host defense. A recently identified SPI from the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica), cvSI-1, has been shown to inhibit the proliferation of the Dermo pathogen Perkinsus marinus in vitro, although direct evidence linking it to disease resistance is lacking. In this study, we identified polymorphism in the cvSI-1 gene and studied its association with improved survival after disease-caused mortalities and in disease-resistant eastern oyster strains. Full-cDNA sequence of cvSI-1 was sequenced in a diverse panel of oysters, revealing 12 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the 273 bp coding region: five were synonymous and seven non-synonymous. The Dn/Ds ratio, 1.4, suggests that cvSI-1 is under positive selection. Selected SNPs were genotyped in families before and after disease-caused mortalities as well as in disease-resistant and susceptible strains. At SNP198, the C allele consistently increased in frequency after mortalities that are caused primarily by Dermo and possibly also by MSX. Its frequency in the disease-resistant strain is significantly higher than that in the susceptible strains and the base population from which the selected strains were derived. These results indicate that polymorphism at cvSI-1 is associated with Dermo (possibly also MSX) resistance in the eastern oyster. SNP198 is a synonymous mutation, and its association with disease resistance may be due to its close linkage to a functional polymorphism nearby.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiyang Yu
- College of Marine Life, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
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Wang S, Peatman E, Liu H, Bushek D, Ford SE, Kucuktas H, Quilang J, Li P, Wallace R, Wang Y, Guo X, Liu Z. Microarray analysis of gene expression in eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) reveals a novel combination of antimicrobial and oxidative stress host responses after dermo (Perkinsus marinus) challenge. Fish Shellfish Immunol 2010; 29:921-929. [PMID: 20708691 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2010.07.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2010] [Revised: 07/15/2010] [Accepted: 07/26/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Dermo disease, caused by Perkinsus marinus, is one of the most severe diseases of eastern oysters, Crassostrea virginica. It causes serious mortalities in both wild and aquacultured oysters. Using existing expressed sequence tag (EST) resources, we developed a 12K in situ oligonucleotide microarray and used it for the analysis of gene expression profiles of oysters during the interactions between P. marinus and its oyster host. Significant gene expression regulation was found at day 30 post-challenge in the eastern oyster. Putative identities of the differentially expressed genes revealed a set of genes involved in several processes including putative antimicrobial defenses, pathogen recognition and uptake, anti-oxidation and apoptosis. Consistent with results obtained from previous, smaller-scale experiments, expression profiles revealed a large set of genes likely involved in an active mitigating response to oxidative stress and apoptosis induced by P. marinus. Additionally, a unique galectin from C. virginica, CvGal, which serves as a preferential receptor for P. marinus trophozoites, was found to be significantly down-regulated in gill tissue of oysters with both light and heavy infection, suggesting an attempt to control parasite uptake and proliferation in the later stages of infection. Potential histone-derived antimicrobial responses to P. marinus were also revealed in the gene expression profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaolin Wang
- Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
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Cáceres-Martínez J, Vasquez-Yeomans R, Padilla-Lardizábal G. Parasites of the pleasure oyster Crassostrea corteziensis cultured in Nayarit, Mexico. J Aquat Anim Health 2010; 22:141-151. [PMID: 21192543 DOI: 10.1577/h09-052.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The pleasure oyster Crassostrea corteziensis is collected and cultured in Nayarit on the Pacific coast of Mexico, and the improvement and promotion of its culture are seen as a possible source for the economic development of coastal populations. However, information about the parasite fauna of the pleasure oyster is almost completely lacking. A histopathological survey carried out in two estuaries, Boca del Camichín and Pozo Chino, revealed the presence of hypertrophied gametes, rickettsiales-like prokaryotes (RLPs), the protozoan Perkinsus marinus, a protozoan Nematopsis sp., Ancistrocoma-like ciliates (ALCs), Sphenophrya-like ciliates, a turbellarian Urastoma sp., and encysted crustaceans. In general, prevalence and intensity of parasites were similar in both localities except that ALCs and encysted crustaceans were more prevalent in Pozo Chino than in Boca del Camichín. Perkinsus marinus and RLPs seem to represent a more significant risk for the health of pleasure oysters than do the other parasites, and surveillance and control of these parasites are needed for the development of pleasure oyster culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Cáceres-Martínez
- Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Carretera Ensenada-Tijuana Number 3918, Zona Playitas, Ensenada, Baja California 22860, México.
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Hughes FM, Foster B, Grewal S, Sokolova IM. Apoptosis as a host defense mechanism in Crassostrea virginica and its modulation by Perkinsus marinus. Fish Shellfish Immunol 2010; 29:247-257. [PMID: 20371290 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2010.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2009] [Revised: 03/02/2010] [Accepted: 03/26/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Dermo disease caused by the obligatory intracellular protozoan Perkinsus marinus causes extensive oyster mortalities leading to tremendous losses in the oyster industry and damage to estuarine ecosystems. To better understand the mechanisms of the parasite's evasion of the host immune defense system, we have investigated the molecular mechanisms of P.marinus-induced inhibition of apoptosis in oyster cells as a potential parasite's survival strategy. We found that P. marinus modulates apoptosis of oyster immune cells (hemocytes) in a way that may help the parasite to establish infection. We found an increase in apoptosis in the initial stages of infection in vitro and in vivo, consistent with a host response to this intracellular parasite. During infection with highly virulent strains of P. marinus, this was followed by suppression and a return of apoptosis to basal levels 8-24 h post-infection, strongly indicating the parasite-induced inhibition of the immune response. In contrast, during infections with intermediate or low virulence strains of P. marinus, a transient suppression of apoptosis 4-8 h post-infection was followed by sustained elevation of hemocyte apoptosis at later stages, indicating that hemocytes were able to overcome the parasite-induced suppression and successfully combat the infection. Studies of the mechanisms of P. marinus-induced apoptosis indicated that the early post-infection stimulation of apoptosis is caspase-independent. However, this process can be driven (although to a lesser degree) by the killed parasite, suggesting that oyster hemocytes respond to cell surface molecules of P. marinus. Overall, this study provides novel insights into pathogen-induced modulation of apoptosis and its role in parasite virulence and establishment of infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francis M Hughes
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, South Carolina College of Pharmacy, Medical University of South Carolina Campus, 280 Calhoun Street, P. O. Box 250140, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
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Wang Z, Lu X, Liang Y, Wang C. Haplosporidium nelsoni and H. costale in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas from China's coasts. Dis Aquat Organ 2010; 89:223-228. [PMID: 20481089 DOI: 10.3354/dao02196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
We examined 220 Pacific oysters Crassostrea gigas obtained from 11 locations along China's coasts for the presence of the 2 protistan parasites Haplosporidium nelsoni (MSX; multinucleated sphere X) and H. costale (SSO; seaside organism). Haplosporidium-like plasmodia were histologically observed in 9 oysters (4.09%) from 7 locations. Five oysters had mixed infections, and 4 oysters were infected only with H. nelsoni as determined by in situ hybridization (ISH) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This is the first report of H. nelsoni and H. costale infection in bivalves in Chinese waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongwei Wang
- Environmental Science and Engineering College, Dalian Maritime University, Linghai Road No. 1, Dalian 116026, PR China
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Enríquez-Espinoza TL, Grijalva-Chon JM, Castro-Longoria R, Ramos-Paredes J. Perkinsus marinus in Crassostrea gigas in the Gulf of California. Dis Aquat Organ 2010; 89:269-273. [PMID: 20481094 DOI: 10.3354/dao02199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
To determine the agent responsible for the massive mortalities of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas in northwest Mexico, 30 oysters were sampled after a severe mortality event in 2006 along the Sonoran coast. Histological analyses revealed the presence of a protozoan and Ray's fluid thioglycollate medium (RFTM) assays showed the presence of Perkinsus sp., identified as P. marinus from the DNA sequence of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of the ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene complex. PCR analyses for Marteilia refringens, M. sydneyi, and Haplosporidium costale were negative. P. marinus presence in the Pacific oyster may be responsible for massive mortalities of the oyster, along with other environmental factors in the Gulf of California.
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Affiliation(s)
- T L Enríquez-Espinoza
- Departamento de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas, Universidad de Sonora, Colosio entre Reforma y Sahuaripa s/n, Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
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La Peyre JF, Xue QG, Itoh N, Li Y, Cooper RK. Serine protease inhibitor cvSI-1 potential role in the eastern oyster host defense against the protozoan parasite Perkinsus marinus. Dev Comp Immunol 2010; 34:84-92. [PMID: 19720077 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2009.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2009] [Revised: 08/21/2009] [Accepted: 08/22/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The serine protease inhibitor cvSI-1, purified from plasma of eastern oysters, inhibited the proliferation of the protozoan parasite Perkinsus marinus in vitro. In situ hybridization located cvSI-1 gene expression in basophil cells of the digestive tubules and cvSI-1 expression measured by real-time quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction was several hundred folds greater in digestive glands than in other organs examined or circulating hemocytes. cvSI-1 gene expression was also significantly greater in winter than in summer. Finally, cvSI-1 gene expression and plasma protease inhibitory activity in oysters selected for increased resistance to P. marinus were significantly greater than in unselected oysters. These findings support the hypothesis that cvSI-1 plays a role in eastern oyster host defense against P. marinus possibly through inhibition of parasite proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerome F La Peyre
- Department of Veterinary Science, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA.
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Stokstad E. Oysters booming on new reefs, but can they survive disease? Science 2009; 325:525. [PMID: 19644081 DOI: 10.1126/science.325_525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
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Volety AK. Effects of salinity, heavy metals and pesticides on health and physiology of oysters in the Caloosahatchee Estuary, Florida. Ecotoxicology 2008; 17:579-590. [PMID: 18686029 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-008-0242-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2008] [Accepted: 06/16/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The Caloosahatchee Estuary has been exhibiting signs of impaired ecological health due to the extensive hydrological alteration, agricultural land use, and increasing watershed development. This project investigated the responses of the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica at five locations in the Caloosahatchee River in relation to salinity changes, levels of heavy metals, pesticides, and PCBs in the water as well as in the oyster tissue. Individual heavy metal and organochlorine pesticide concentrations in oysters varied significantly between sampling locations and sampling months. PCB concentrations in oyster tissues were below detection limits as were the metal, pesticide and PCB concentrations in water at all the sampling locations. Both heavy metal and pesticide concentrations decreased with increasing distance downstream indicating upstream source of contaminants. The highly pathogenic oyster parasite Perkinsus marinus infection intensity (level) and prevalence (% infected oysters), condition index, spat recruitment, and gonadal index showed a seasonal trend varying with spawning activity and increased downstream. However, juvenile oyster growth was higher at upstream estuarine locations. Oyster responses varied more with seasonal programming (salinity), rather than due to contaminant levels. While significant correlations were noted between some oyster responses and metal concentrations in oyster tissues, overall metal concentrations were low compared to national averages. It appears that oyster health in the Caloosahatchee River is influenced more by freshwater inflow and resulting salinity fluctuations, rather than due to the measured contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aswani K Volety
- Florida Gulf Coast University, 10501 FGCU Blvd South, Fort Myers, FL 33965, USA.
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Audemard C, Carnegie RB, Burreson EM. Shellfish tissues evaluated for Perkinsus spp. using the Ray's fluid thioglycollate medium culture assay can be used for downstream molecular assays. Dis Aquat Organ 2008; 80:235-239. [PMID: 18814549 DOI: 10.3354/dao01944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Ray's fluid thioglycollate medium (RFTM) culture assay is the standard, recommended method for surveillance of Perkinsus spp. infections in marine molluscs. In this assay, shellfish tissues are incubated in RFTM, stained with Lugol's iodine solution to render Perkinsus spp. cells blue-black, and evaluated microscopically to rate infection intensities. A limitation of this assay, however, is the lack of pathogen species specificity. Generally, identification of Perkinsus spp. requires DNA sequence analysis of parallel or additional samples since the exposure to iodine is believed to hamper DNA amplification from samples processed by the RFTM assay. However, we show that P. marinus DNA can be successfully amplified by PCR from Crassostrea virginica tissues cultured in RFTM and stained with Lugol's iodine. The beneficial consequence is that, where necessary, DNA sequence data may be obtained from RFTM-cultured tissues, allowing the identification of the Perkinsus sp. responsible for an observed infection. This would obviate further sampling, representing gain of time and reduction in cost, where a Perkinsus sp. is unexpectedly observed in new host(s) or location(s) but where parallel samples are not available for molecular diagnostics. Laboratories without molecular diagnostic tools for Perkinsus spp. may fix presumptive Perkinsus sp.-positive culture material in 95% ethanol for transport to, and subsequent analysis by, a laboratory that does have this capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Audemard
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Route 1208, Greate Road, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062, USA.
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Tun KL, Shimizu Y, Yamanoi H, Yoshinaga T, Ogawa K. Seasonality in the infection and invasion of Marteilioides chungmuensis in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. Dis Aquat Organ 2008; 80:157-165. [PMID: 18717068 DOI: 10.3354/dao01924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The protozoan parasite Marteilioides chungmuensis causes irregular enlargement of the ovary in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. The parasite invades the oyster through the epithelial tissue of the labial palp, replicates in the connective tissue, and then moves to the gonad, producing spores inside the oocytes. In this study the seasonality and invasion period of the parasite into the host was investigated over a 1 yr cycle. Uninfected 1 and 0 yr old (spat) oysters were placed in an epizootic area every month from July 2004 to July 2005 and September 2005 to March 2006, respectively, and left for 1 mo. Labial palps and gonad were sampled monthly and examined for infection by nested PCR and histological observations. Prevalence of infection detected by PCR was 70% or higher from August to October, but declined sharply in November and reached 7% or lower from February to April. To explain the low detection rate in winter, 1 yr old uninfected oysters were placed in an epizootic area in winter (water temperature: 8 to 10 degrees C) for 2 wk and then transferred to M. chungmuensis-free seawater at 24 degrees C. Although prevalence of infection was ca. 7% before transfer to heated seawater, levels of 87% were detected after 1 wk. After a 3 wk exposure to heated seawater, parasites were found in host oocytes by histological observation. It was concluded that the low prevalence in winter was due to insufficient replication of M. chungmuensis at low seawater temperatures, resulting in levels not detectable by nested PCR, and not to the absence of invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kay Lwin Tun
- Laboratory of Fish Diseases, Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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Gagné N, Cochennec N, Stephenson M, McGladdery S, Meyer GR, Bower SM. First report of a Mikrocytos-like parasite in European oysters Ostrea edulis from Canada after transport and quarantine in France. Dis Aquat Organ 2008; 80:27-35. [PMID: 18714681 DOI: 10.3354/dao01922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
As part of a disease resistance experiment, 112 apparently healthy European flat oysters Ostrea edulis L. were exported from Canada (Nova Scotia) into France to test their susceptibility to Bonamia ostreae infection. Twelve oysters died in transit and 17 others died within 2 wk of laboratory quarantine acclimation. All oysters were examined histologically, and the 17 that died during quarantine were assayed for microcells (Bonamia sp. and Mikrocytos mackini) using molecular techniques. A microcell parasite was detected in the connective tissue of 5 of the 112 oysters. Morphological appearance, tissue affinity and molecular characterization through PCR, in situ hybridization (ISH), fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and sequencing revealed a protist related to M. mackini. This is the first report of a parasite of the genus Mikrocytos in a species belonging to the genus Ostrea from the Atlantic Ocean.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Gagné
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Gulf Fisheries Center, PO Box 5030, Moncton, New Brunswick E1C 9B6, Canada.
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Gullian-Klanian M, Herrera-Silveira JA, Rodríguez-Canul R, Aguirre-Macedo L. Factors associated with the prevalence of Perkinsus marinus in Crassostrea virginica from the southern Gulf of Mexico. Dis Aquat Organ 2008; 79:237-247. [PMID: 18590000 DOI: 10.3354/dao01910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The protozoan Perkinsus marinus is considered the most important pathogen of the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica, causing high mortality in natural and farmed oysters on the Atlantic coast of the US. In Mexico, no serious P. marinus epizootic has been reported. This study describes the current state of P. marinus prevalence in Terminos Lagoon (Mexico) associated with environmental factors including salinity, temperature, ammonium, nitrate, nitrite, silica, and phosphorus. In addition, the association of physiological (hemocyte density, protein concentration) and immunological (lysozyme, agglutination) parameters with the infection were studied. The prevalence was significantly different among seasons with mean values of 70, 23, and 7% in the dry (February to May), rainy (June to September) and north-wind (October to January) seasons, respectively. Only light infection intensity (Mackin scale value < 1) was observed. Prevalence of P. marinus was associated with seasonal salinity, phosphorus, and silica variations. Comparisons of oyster health demonstrates that the rainy and north-wind seasons are stressful periods. Redundancy analysis showed that only 34% of the variation in seasonal P. marinus prevalence was explained by protein concentration (21%), lysozyme (12%), and agglutination (1%). Overall, the data suggest that freshwater input associated with high nutrient concentrations during the rainy and north-wind seasons has a strong negative effect on P. marinus prevalence and also influences the oysters' physiology. It is probable that this seasonal stress was responsible for the absence of an epizootic event in Terminos Lagoon.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Gullian-Klanian
- Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN) Unidad Mérida, Carretera Antigua a Progreso Km 6, CP 97310 Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico.
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Aguirre-Macedo ML, Simá-Alvarez RA, Román-Magaña MK, Güemez-Ricalde JI. Parasite survey of the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica in coastal lagoons of the southern Gulf of Mexico. J Aquat Anim Health 2007; 19:270-279. [PMID: 18333483 DOI: 10.1577/h06-050.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
A parasitological study of the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica from 11 coastal lagoons in the southern Gulf of Mexico in dry and rainy seasons between late 1999 and early 2001 revealed the presence of 36 bacterial, 2 protozoan (Nematopsis prytherchi and Perkinsus marinus), and 4 helminth species (Urastoma cyprinae, Proctoeces maculatus, a Bucephalus sp., and a Tylocephalum sp.). The prevalence and mean abundances for the protozoa and helminths varied widely between locations but were generally below 50%. Nematopsis prytherchi and the Tylocephalum sp. were the most prevalent species (values were above 60% in most locations). Perkinsus marinus was present in oysters of eight of the coastal lagoons and had low prevalence (<30%) in almost all samples. All identified protozoa and helminths are widely distributed in the Gulf of Mexico and are common oyster parasites. Only P. marinus and the Bucephalus sp. were associated with damage to host tissues. In addition to these parasites, Rickettsia-like bacteria were found in the digestive gland and gills and viral gametocytic hypertrophy inclusions in the gonads by histological examination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ma Leopoldina Aguirre-Macedo
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados Unidad Mérida, Carretera Antigua a Progreso Km. 6, C.P. 97310 Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico.
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45
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Tun KL, Itoh N, Ueki N, Yoshinaga T, Ogawa K. Relationship between Marteilioides chungmuensis infection and reproduction in the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas. J Invertebr Pathol 2007; 96:205-12. [PMID: 17643446 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2007.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2006] [Revised: 05/26/2007] [Accepted: 06/05/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Marteilioides chungmuensis, a protozoan paramyxean parasite, infects the oocytes of the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas. The effects of infection on the reproductive cycle of C. gigas were investigated over two consecutive years at Okayama Prefecture, Japan. In male oysters, gonadal development began during February/March, maturity was achieved in June and spawning activity extended from July to September. In November and December, male oysters were not seen, probably because their gonads regressed to connective tissue and they transformed into undifferentiated oysters. By contrast, female oysters, in which parasite spore formation occurred, were still carrying oocytes until the following March and the spawning process of female oysters took 5 months longer than that of males in epizootic areas. The prevalence of M. chungmuensis infection increased from July to September, when most female oysters had their spawning period, and declined from October to the following April when oysters were at the spent stage. The prevalence of infection increased again in May of the following year and high prevalence was observed in the following July. When prevalence was compared between oysters of different age classes, higher prevalence was detected in older than in younger oysters. Histological examination showed that infected oysters produced oocytes continuously and spawned repeatedly from October to March, during which period healthy oysters were reproductively inactive. Parasites can infect the oocytes of infected oysters throughout the longer spawning period. These observations suggest that M. chungmuensis extends the reproductive period of infected oysters for its own reproductive benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kay Lwin Tun
- Laboratory of Fish Diseases, Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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Moss JA, Burreson EM, Cordes JF, Dungan CF, Brown GD, Wang A, Wu X, Reece KS. Pathogens in Crassostrea ariakensis and other Asian oyster species: implications for non-native oyster introduction to Chesapeake Bay. Dis Aquat Organ 2007; 77:207-223. [PMID: 18062472 DOI: 10.3354/dao01829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
With the drastic decline of eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica populations in the Chesapeake Bay due to over-fishing, diseases and habitat destruction, there is interest in Maryland and Virginia in utilizing the non-native oyster species Crassostrea ariakensis for aquaculture, fishery resource enhancement, and ecological restoration. The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) recommends that non-native species be examined for ecological, genetic and disease relationships in the native range prior to a deliberate introduction to a new region. Therefore, a pathogen survey of C. ariakensis and other sympatric oyster species was conducted on samples collected in the PR China, Japan and Korea using molecular diagnostics and histopathology. Molecular assays focused on 2 types of pathogens: protistan parasites in the genus Perkinsus and herpesviruses, both with known impacts on commercially important molluscan species around the world, including Asia. PCR amplification and DNA sequence data from the internal transcribed spacer region of the rRNA gene complex revealed the presence of 2 Perkinsus species not currently found in USA waters: P. olseni and an undescribed species. In addition, 3 genetic strains of molluscan herpesviruses were detected in oysters from several potential C. ariakensis broodstock acquisition sites in Asia. Viral gametocytic hypertrophy, Chlamydia-like organisms, a Steinhausia-like microsporidian, Perkinsus sp., Nematopsis sp., ciliates, and cestodes were also detected by histopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Moss
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, The College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062, USA
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Bushek D, Heidenreich M, Porter D. The effects of several common anthropogenic contaminants on proliferation of the parasitic oyster pathogen Perkinsus marinus. Mar Environ Res 2007; 64:535-40. [PMID: 17493678 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2007.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2006] [Revised: 02/06/2007] [Accepted: 03/11/2007] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Estuarine contaminants have varying effects on estuarine inhabitants and host-parasite interactions. Some field collected contaminant mixtures have been shown to increase oyster susceptibility to parasitism by Perkinsus marinus, but little is known about contaminant effects on the parasite itself. This study examined the effects of ammonium, nitrate, phosphate, fluoranthene, phenanthrene and a common herbicide mixture (Weed-B-Gone) on in vitro proliferation of P. marinus. Only the herbicide had a significant effect, but not at or below the manufacture's recommended application rate (7.81 microl ml(-1)). The herbicide's active ingredients (3.1% 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 10.6% mecoprop and 1.3% dicamba) mimic growth hormones of broadleaf plants; over stimulation of growth results in death. The mode of action of these compounds on P. marinus warrants further investigation which may provide insight towards the identification of biocides to control P. marinus.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Bushek
- Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 6959 Miller Avenue, Port Norris, NJ 08349, USA.
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Downey AS, Graczyk TK. Maximizing recovery and detection of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts from spiked eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) tissue samples. Appl Environ Microbiol 2007; 73:6910-5. [PMID: 17827306 PMCID: PMC2074939 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01027-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous studies have documented the presence of Cryptosporidium parvum, an anthropozoonotic enteric parasite, in molluscan shellfish harvested for commercial purposes. Getting accurate estimates of Cryptosporidium contamination levels in molluscan shellfish is difficult because recovery efficiencies are dependent on the isolation method used. Such estimates are important for determining the human health risks posed by consumption of contaminated shellfish. In the present study, oocyst recovery was compared for multiple methods used to isolate Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts from oysters (Crassostrea virginica) after exposure to contaminated water for 24 h. The immunomagnetic separation (IMS) and immunofluorescent antibody procedures from Environmental Protection Agency method 1623 were adapted for these purposes. Recovery efficiencies for the different methods were also determined using oyster tissue homogenate and hemolymph spiked with oocysts. There were significant differences in recovery efficiency among the different treatment groups (P < 0.05). We observed the highest recovery efficiency (i.e., 51%) from spiked samples when hemolymph was kept separate during the homogenization of the whole oyster meat but was then added to the pellet following diethyl ether extraction of the homogenate, prior to IMS. Using this processing method, as few as 10 oocysts could be detected in a spiked homogenate sample by nested PCR. In the absence of water quality indicators that correlate with Cryptosporidium contamination levels, assessment of shellfish safety may rely on accurate quantification of oocyst loads, necessitating the use of processing methods that maximize oocyst recovery. The results from this study have important implications for regulatory agencies charged with determining the safety of molluscan shellfish for human consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Autumn S Downey
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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Tasumi S, Vasta GR. A Galectin of Unique Domain Organization from Hemocytes of the Eastern Oyster (Crassostrea virginica) Is a Receptor for the Protistan Parasite Perkinsus marinus. J Immunol 2007; 179:3086-98. [PMID: 17709523 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.5.3086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Invertebrates display effective innate immune responses for defense against microbial infection. However, the protozoan parasite Perkinsus marinus causes Dermo disease in the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica and is responsible for catastrophic damage to shellfisheries and the estuarine environment in North America. The infection mechanisms remain unclear, but it is likely that, while filter feeding, the healthy oysters ingest P. marinus trophozoites released to the water column by the infected neighboring individuals. Inside oyster hemocytes, trophozoites resist oxidative killing, proliferate, and spread throughout the host. However, the mechanism(s) for parasite entry into the hemocyte are unknown. In this study, we show that oyster hemocytes recognize P. marinus via a novel galectin (C. virginica galectin (CvGal)) of unique structure. The biological roles of galectins have only been partly elucidated, mostly encompassing embryogenesis and indirect roles in innate and adaptive immunity mediated by the binding to endogenous ligands. CvGal recognized a variety of potential microbial pathogens and unicellular algae, and preferentially, Perkinsus spp. trophozoites. Attachment and spreading of hemocytes to foreign surfaces induced localization of CvGal to the cell periphery, its secretion and binding to the plasma membrane. Exposure of hemocytes to Perkinsus spp. trophozoites enhanced this process further, and their phagocytosis could be partially inhibited by pretreatment of the hemocytes with anti-CvGal Abs. The evidence presented indicates that CvGal facilitates recognition of selected microbes and algae, thereby promoting phagocytosis of both potential infectious challenges and phytoplankton components, and that P. marinus subverts the host's immune/feeding recognition mechanism to passively gain entry into the hemocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Tasumi
- Center of Marine Biotechnology, University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute, 701 East Pratt Street, Baltimore, MD 21202, USA
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Tun KL, Itoh N, Shimizu Y, Yamanoi H, Yoshinaga T, Ogawa K. Pathogenicity of the protozoan parasite Marteilioides chungmuensis in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. Int J Parasitol 2007; 38:211-7. [PMID: 17697680 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2007.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2007] [Revised: 07/02/2007] [Accepted: 07/04/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Marteilioides chungmuensis is an ovarian parasite that causes nodule-like structures to appear on the gonads of female Pacific oysters, Crassostrea gigas. It is known that the prevalence of infection increases in summer and decreases from autumn to spring. To investigate the decrease in prevalence of infection and pathogenicity of the parasite, a biopsy method was developed to detect infected oysters, which were then monitored to calculate the mortality rate. Mortality of infected oysters was recorded monthly and changes in reproductive development observed histologically. Compared with control groups, a significant difference in mortality was observed in infected oysters in September and October. Histological observations showed that infected oysters produced oocytes continuously, even in autumn when healthy oysters were reproductively inactive. This prolonged spawning activity of infected oysters resulted in nutritional wasting and mortality. From December onwards, however, almost all infected oysters survived, though the infection persisted. Infection intensity decreased gradually from December. Histological observations revealed that, in winter, infected oysters released infected and uninfected oocytes through the genital canal. The gonad subsequently degenerated and was replaced with connective tissue, as in normal, healthy spent oysters. The results revealed that prevalence of infection decreased from September to May. It is hypothesised that the decline in prevalence within the epizootic area in autumn occurred because infected oysters died and that the winter decrease was due to recovery from infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kay Lwin Tun
- Laboratory of Fish Diseases, Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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