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Shingai T, Chiba Y, Kondo M, Yotsu-Yamashita M. Temporal variation in the concentrations and profiles of paralytic shellfish toxins and tetrodotoxin in scallop (Mizuhopecten yessoensis) and bloody clam (Anadara broughtonii) collected from the coast of Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. Toxicon 2024; 243:107710. [PMID: 38579982 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2024.107710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/07/2024]
Abstract
For food safety, the concentrations and profiles of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) and tetrodotoxin were examined in economically important scallops and bloody clams collected from the coast of the Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. PSTs were the major toxins in both species. The tetrodotoxin concentration in scallops increased in summer, although the highest value (18.7 μg/kg) was lower than the European Food Safety Authority guideline threshold (44 μg/kg). This confirmed the safety for tetrodotoxin in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsunari Shingai
- Miyagi Prefectural Institute of Public Health and Environment Center, 4-7-2 Saiwai-cho, Miyagino-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 983-0836, Japan.
| | - Yoshiko Chiba
- Miyagi Prefectural Institute of Public Health and Environment Center, 4-7-2 Saiwai-cho, Miyagino-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 983-0836, Japan
| | - Mitsue Kondo
- Miyagi Prefectural Institute of Public Health and Environment Center, 4-7-2 Saiwai-cho, Miyagino-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 983-0836, Japan
| | - Mari Yotsu-Yamashita
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 468-1 Aramaki-Aza-Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-8572, Japan
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Blanco J, Lamas JP, Arévalo F, Correa J, Rodríguez-Cabo T, Moroño Á. Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Mollusks from Galicia Analyzed by a Fast Refined AOAC 2005.06 Method: Toxicity, Toxin Profile, and Inter-Specific, Spatial, and Seasonal Variations. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:230. [PMID: 38787082 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16050230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2024] [Revised: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish poisoning is an important concern for mollusk fisheries, aquaculture, and public health. In Galicia, NW Iberian Peninsula, such toxicity has been monitored for a long time using mouse bioassay. Therefore, little information exists about the precise toxin analogues and their possible transformations in diverse mollusk species and environments. After the change in the European PSP reference method, a refinement of the Lawrence method was developed, achieving a 75% reduction in chromatogram run time. Since the beginning of 2021, when this refinement Lawrence method was accredited under the norm UNE-EN ISO/IEC 17025, it has been used in the area to determine the toxin profiles and to estimate PSP toxicity in more than 4500 samples. In this study, we have summarized three years of monitoring results, including interspecific, seasonal, and geographical variability of PSP toxicity and toxin profile. PSP was detected in more than half of the samples analyzed (55%), but only 4.4% of the determinations were above the EU regulatory limit. GTX1,4 was the pair of STX analogs that produced the highest toxicities, but GTX2,3 was found in most samples, mainly due to the reduction of GTX1,4 but also by the higher sensitivity of the method for this pair of analogs. STX seems to be mainly a product of biotransformation from GTX2,3. The studied species (twelve bivalves and one gastropod) accumulated and transformed PSP toxins to a different extent, with most of them showing similar profiles except for Spisula solida and Haliotis tuberculata. Two seasonal peaks of toxicity were found: one in spring-early summer and another in autumn, with slightly different toxin profiles during outbreaks in relation to the toxicity during valleys. In general, both the total toxicity and toxin profiles of the southernmost locations were different from those in the northern part of the Atlantic coast and the Cantabrian Sea, but this general pattern is modified by the PSP history of some specific locations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Blanco
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Xunta de Galicia, Vilanova de Arousa, 36620 Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Juan Pablo Lamas
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control do Medio Mariño de Galicia (Intecmar), Vilagarcía de Arousa, 36611 Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Fabiola Arévalo
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control do Medio Mariño de Galicia (Intecmar), Vilagarcía de Arousa, 36611 Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Jorge Correa
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control do Medio Mariño de Galicia (Intecmar), Vilagarcía de Arousa, 36611 Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Tamara Rodríguez-Cabo
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control do Medio Mariño de Galicia (Intecmar), Vilagarcía de Arousa, 36611 Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Ángeles Moroño
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control do Medio Mariño de Galicia (Intecmar), Vilagarcía de Arousa, 36611 Pontevedra, Spain
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Dirks C, Cappelli P, Blomqvist M, Ekroth S, Johansson M, Persson M, Drakare S, Pekar H, Zuberovic Muratovic A. Cyanotoxin Occurrence and Diversity in 98 Cyanobacterial Blooms from Swedish Lakes and the Baltic Sea. Mar Drugs 2024; 22:199. [PMID: 38786590 DOI: 10.3390/md22050199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2024] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The Drinking Water Directive (EU) 2020/2184 includes the parameter microcystin LR, a cyanotoxin, which drinking water producers need to analyze if the water source has potential for cyanobacterial blooms. In light of the increasing occurrences of cyanobacterial blooms worldwide and given that more than 50 percent of the drinking water in Sweden is produced from surface water, both fresh and brackish, the need for improved knowledge about cyanotoxin occurrence and cyanobacterial diversity has increased. In this study, a total of 98 cyanobacterial blooms were sampled in 2016-2017 and identified based on their toxin production and taxonomical compositions. The surface water samples from freshwater lakes throughout Sweden including brackish water from eight east coast locations along the Baltic Sea were analyzed for their toxin content with LC-MS/MS and taxonomic composition with 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. Both the extracellular and the total toxin content were analyzed. Microcystin's prevalence was highest with presence in 82% of blooms, of which as a free toxin in 39% of blooms. Saxitoxins were found in 36% of blooms in which the congener decarbamoylsaxitoxin (dcSTX) was detected for the first time in Swedish surface waters at four sampling sites. Anatoxins were most rarely detected, followed by cylindrospermopsin, which were found in 6% and 10% of samples, respectively. As expected, nodularin was detected in samples collected from the Baltic Sea only. The cyanobacterial operational taxonomic units (OTUs) with the highest abundance and prevalence could be annotated to Aphanizomenon NIES-81 and the second most profuse cyanobacterial taxon to Microcystis PCC 7914. In addition, two correlations were found, one between Aphanizomenon NIES-81 and saxitoxins and another between Microcystis PCC 7914 and microcystins. This study is of value to drinking water management and scientists involved in recognizing and controlling toxic cyanobacteria blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Dirks
- Swedish Food Agency, P.O. Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700AE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Paolo Cappelli
- Swedish Food Agency, P.O. Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Maria Blomqvist
- Swedish Food Agency, P.O. Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Susanne Ekroth
- Swedish Food Agency, P.O. Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Malin Johansson
- Swedish Food Agency, P.O. Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Max Persson
- Swedish Food Agency, P.O. Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Stina Drakare
- Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7050, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Heidi Pekar
- Swedish Food Agency, P.O. Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
- Stockholm Vatten och Avfall, Bryggerivägen 10, SE-106 36 Stockholm, Sweden
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Jeon Y, Struewing I, McIntosh K, Tidd M, Webb L, Ryu H, Mash H, Lu J. Spatial and Temporal Variability of Saxitoxin-Producing Cyanobacteria in U.S. Urban Lakes. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:70. [PMID: 38393148 PMCID: PMC10892283 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16020070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Harmful cyanobacterial blooms (HCBs) are of growing global concern due to their production of toxic compounds, which threaten ecosystems and human health. Saxitoxins (STXs), commonly known as paralytic shellfish poison, are a neurotoxic alkaloid produced by some cyanobacteria. Although many field studies indicate a widespread distribution of STX, it is understudied relative to other cyanotoxins such as microcystins (MCs). In this study, we assessed eleven U.S. urban lakes using qPCR, sxtA gene-targeting sequencing, and 16S rRNA gene sequencing to understand the spatio-temporal variations in cyanobacteria and their potential role in STX production. During the blooms, qPCR analysis confirmed the presence of the STX-encoding gene sxtA at all lakes. In particular, the abundance of the sxtA gene had a strong positive correlation with STX concentrations in Big 11 Lake in Kansas City, which was also the site with the highest quantified STX concentration. Sequencing analysis revealed that potential STX producers, such as Aphanizomenon, Dolichospermum, and Raphidiopsis, were present. Further analysis targeting amplicons of the sxtA gene identified that Aphanizomenon and/or Dolichospermum are the primary STX producer, showing a significant correlation with sxtA gene abundances and STX concentrations. In addition, Aphanizomenon was associated with environmental factors, such as conductivity, sulfate, and orthophosphate, whereas Dolichospermum was correlated with temperature and pH. Overall, the results herein enhance our understanding of the STX-producing cyanobacteria and aid in developing strategies to control HCBs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youchul Jeon
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
| | - Ian Struewing
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
| | - Kyle McIntosh
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
| | - Marcie Tidd
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region 8, Lakewood, CO 80225, USA
| | - Laura Webb
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region 7, Kansas City, KS 66101, USA
| | - Hodon Ryu
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
| | - Heath Mash
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
| | - Jingrang Lu
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
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Weng Q, Zhang R, Wu P, Chen J, Pan X, Zhao D, Wang J, Zhang H, Qi X, Wu X, Han J, Zhou B. An Occurrence and Exposure Assessment of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins from Shellfish in Zhejiang Province, China. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:624. [PMID: 37999487 PMCID: PMC10675454 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15110624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The intake of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) may adversely affect human health. Therefore, this study aimed to show the prevalence of PSTs from commercially available shellfish in Zhejiang Province, China, during the period of frequent red tides, investigate the factors affecting the distribution of PSTs, and assess the risk of PST intake following the consumption of bivalve shellfish among the Zhejiang population. A total of 546 shellfish samples were collected, 7.0% of which had detectable PSTs at concentrations below the regulatory limit. Temporal, spatial, and interspecific variations in the occurrence of PSTs were observed in some cases. The dietary exposure to PSTs among the general population of consumers only was low. However, young children in the extreme scenario (the 95th percentile of daily shellfish consumption combined with the maximum PST concentration), defined as 89-194% of the recommended acute reference doses, were possibly at risk of exposure. Notably, Arcidae and mussels were the major sources of exposure to toxins. From the public health perspective, PSTs from commercially available shellfish do not pose a serious health risk; however, more attention should be paid to acute health risks, especially for young children, during periods of frequent red tides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Weng
- School of Public Health, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310013, China;
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China; (R.Z.); (P.W.); (J.C.); (X.P.); (D.Z.); (J.W.); (H.Z.); (X.Q.); (X.W.)
| | - Ronghua Zhang
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China; (R.Z.); (P.W.); (J.C.); (X.P.); (D.Z.); (J.W.); (H.Z.); (X.Q.); (X.W.)
| | - Pinggu Wu
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China; (R.Z.); (P.W.); (J.C.); (X.P.); (D.Z.); (J.W.); (H.Z.); (X.Q.); (X.W.)
| | - Jiang Chen
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China; (R.Z.); (P.W.); (J.C.); (X.P.); (D.Z.); (J.W.); (H.Z.); (X.Q.); (X.W.)
| | - Xiaodong Pan
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China; (R.Z.); (P.W.); (J.C.); (X.P.); (D.Z.); (J.W.); (H.Z.); (X.Q.); (X.W.)
| | - Dong Zhao
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China; (R.Z.); (P.W.); (J.C.); (X.P.); (D.Z.); (J.W.); (H.Z.); (X.Q.); (X.W.)
| | - Jikai Wang
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China; (R.Z.); (P.W.); (J.C.); (X.P.); (D.Z.); (J.W.); (H.Z.); (X.Q.); (X.W.)
| | - Hexiang Zhang
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China; (R.Z.); (P.W.); (J.C.); (X.P.); (D.Z.); (J.W.); (H.Z.); (X.Q.); (X.W.)
| | - Xiaojuan Qi
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China; (R.Z.); (P.W.); (J.C.); (X.P.); (D.Z.); (J.W.); (H.Z.); (X.Q.); (X.W.)
| | - Xiaoli Wu
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China; (R.Z.); (P.W.); (J.C.); (X.P.); (D.Z.); (J.W.); (H.Z.); (X.Q.); (X.W.)
| | - Junde Han
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China;
| | - Biao Zhou
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China; (R.Z.); (P.W.); (J.C.); (X.P.); (D.Z.); (J.W.); (H.Z.); (X.Q.); (X.W.)
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Zheng R, Yang Y, Zhang W, Hua Y. Contamination status of paralytic shellfish toxins in shellfish from Southeastern China in 2017-2021. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2023; 30:34728-34740. [PMID: 36520283 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-24732-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms is a widespread problem in aquatic ecosystems, in particular dinoflagellates that produce PSTs which are harmful to animal and human health. To explore the contamination status of PSTs in shellfish in the Southeastern China, a total of 2355 shellfish samples were analyzed by ultra high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) to study the toxin profiles of the 10 PSTs collected from the southeast coast of China from 2017 to 2021. From 2355 shellfish samples, 257 were detected (10.91%), with the highest value in samples of Perna viridis. Among the six source areas in China, the samples from Fujian recorded the highest detected rate (15.28%). PSTs were found in Fuzhou, Ningde, Quanzhou, Putian, Zhangzhou, and Xiamen, with Quanzhou and Fuzhou having the highest and lowest detection rates of 15.28% and 4.23%, respectively. Saxitoxin (STX), neosaxitoxin (neoSTX), gonyautoxin (GTX1, GTX2, GTX3, GTX4), N-sulfocarbamoyl toxin (GTX5), and decarbamoyl toxin (dcSTX, dcGTX2, dcGTX3) were detected, and GTX5 and dcGTX2 were dominant. In addition, the samples containing PSTs were mostly concentrated in May to August. The study confirms the risks of PSTs to shellfish consumers in the region. It will offer a great foundation for future monitoring of marine toxins and protecting the health of seafood consumers in China. This is the first detailed evaluation of PSTs occurrences and their profiles in shellfish from the Southeastern China over a period of multiple years. HIGHLIGHTS: 2355 mussels from China were analyzed by UPLC-MS/MS for PSTs in 2017-2021. The predominant PSTs were GTX5, neoSTX and dcGTX2. Arca granosa and Crassostyea gigas exhibited higher levels than other shellfish. Shellfish containing PSTs were mostly concentrated in May to August. Maximum detected level in shellfish was 2137.10 ug STXeq/kg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renjin Zheng
- Physical and Chemical Analysis Department, Fujian Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Fuzhou, 350011, Fujian, China
- School of Pharmacy, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, 350122, Fujian, China
| | - Yafang Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, 350122, Fujian, China
| | - Wenting Zhang
- Physical and Chemical Analysis Department, Fujian Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Fuzhou, 350011, Fujian, China
| | - Yongyou Hua
- Physical and Chemical Analysis Department, Fujian Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Fuzhou, 350011, Fujian, China.
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Cho Y, Tsuchiya S, Omura T, Koike K, Konoki K, Oshima Y, Yotsu-Yamashita M. Metabolic inhibitor induces dynamic changes in saxitoxin biosynthesis and metabolism in the dinoflagellate Alexandrium pacificum (Group IV) under in vivo labeling condition. Harmful Algae 2023; 122:102372. [PMID: 36754461 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2022.102372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
In paralytic shellfish toxin-producing dinoflagellates, intracellular levels of saxitoxin and its analogues (STXs) are controlled by a balance between degradation and biosynthesis in response to marine environmental fluctuations and stresses. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the utility of statistical analysis of in vivo labeling data for the dynamic analysis of variations in toxin production under stress. A toxic strain of the dinoflagellate Alexandrium pacificum (Group IV) was cultured in colchicine-containing 15N-labeled sodium nitrate-medium and metabolite levels were analyzed over time by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Quantitative values of all isotopomers of precursor amino acids, biosynthetic intermediates, and major STXs were subjected to statistical analysis. The decrease of the nitrogen incorporation rates for all compounds suggested that colchicine decreased nitrate assimilation upstream of glutamate biosynthesis. In colchicine-treated cultures, the per-cell content of total STX analogues did not change significantly over time; however, the production rate of each pathway varied greatly. De novo STX biosynthesis was decreased by colchicine until Day 3, while the salvage pathway was not. Subsequently, biosynthesis by both pathways was enhanced. This analysis of dynamic metabolism provides new insights into the complex mechanisms regulating STX metabolism in dinoflagellates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuko Cho
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 468-1 Aramaki-Aza-Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8572, Japan.
| | - Shigeki Tsuchiya
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 468-1 Aramaki-Aza-Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8572, Japan
| | - Takuo Omura
- Laboratory of Aquatic Science Consultant Co., LTD. 2-30-17, Higashikamata, Ota-ku, Tokyo 144-0031, Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Koike
- Graduate School of Integrated Sciences for Life, Hiroshima University, 1-4-4 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8528, Japan
| | - Keiichi Konoki
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 468-1 Aramaki-Aza-Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8572, Japan
| | - Yasukatsu Oshima
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8577, Japan
| | - Mari Yotsu-Yamashita
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 468-1 Aramaki-Aza-Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8572, Japan
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Bowers EK, Stimmelmayr R, Hendrix A, Lefebvre KA. Stability of Saxitoxin in 50% Methanol Fecal Extracts and Raw Feces from Bowhead Whales (Balaena mysticetus). Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20090547. [PMID: 36135736 PMCID: PMC9505082 DOI: 10.3390/md20090547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent decades, harmful algal blooms (HABs) producing paralytic shellfish toxins (including saxitoxin, STX) have become increasingly frequent in the marine waters of Alaska, USA, subjecting Pacific Arctic and subarctic communities and wildlife to increased toxin exposure risks. Research on the risks of HAB toxin exposures to marine mammal health commonly relies on the sampling of marine mammal gastrointestinal (GI) contents to quantify HAB toxins, yet no studies have been published testing the stability of STX in marine mammal GI matrices. An understanding of STX stability in test matrices under storage and handling conditions is imperative to the integrity of toxin quantifications and conclusions drawn thereby. Here, STX stability is characterized in field-collected bowhead whale feces (stored raw in several treatments) and in fecal extracts (50% methanol, MeOH) over multiple time points. Toxin stability, as the percent of initial concentration (T0), was reported for each storage treatment and time point. STX was stable (mean 99% T0) in 50% MeOH extracts over the 8-week study period, and there was no significant difference in STX concentrations quantified in split fecal samples extracted in 80% ethanol (EtOH) and 50% MeOH. STX was also relatively stable in raw fecal material stored in the freezer (mean 94% T0) and the refrigerator (mean 93% T0) up to 8 weeks. STX degraded over time in the room-temperature dark, room-temperature light, and warm treatments to means of 48 ± 1.9, 38 ± 2.8, and 20 ± 0.7% T0, respectively, after 8 weeks (mean ± standard error; SE). Additional opportunistically analyzed samples frozen for ≤4.5 years also showed STX to be relatively stable (mean 97% T0). Mean percent of T0 was measured slightly above 100% in some extracts following some treatments, and (most notably) at some long-term frozen time points, likely due to evaporation from samples causing STX to concentrate, or variability between ELISA plates. Overall, these results suggest that long-term frozen storage of raw fecal samples and the analysis of extracts within 8 weeks of extraction in 50% MeOH is sufficient for obtaining accurate STX quantifications in marine mammal fecal material without concerns about significant degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily K. Bowers
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center, Environmental and Fisheries Sciences Division, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 2725 Montlake Blvd E, Seattle, WA 98112, USA
| | - Raphaela Stimmelmayr
- The North Slope Borough Department of Wildlife Management, P.O. Box 69, Utqiagvik, AK 99723, USA
| | - Alicia Hendrix
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Box 351618, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Kathi A. Lefebvre
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center, Environmental and Fisheries Sciences Division, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 2725 Montlake Blvd E, Seattle, WA 98112, USA
- Correspondence:
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Leal JF, Cristiano MLS. Revisiting the HPLC-FLD Method to Quantify Paralytic Shellfish Toxins: C3,4 Quantification and the First Steps towards Validation. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14030179. [PMID: 35324676 PMCID: PMC8949501 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14030179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) are a large group of biotoxins that cause paralytic shellfish poisoning. Their appearance in natural waters and their ingestion by aquatic species have a huge socio-economic impact, whereby their monitoring is of the upmost relevance to minimize the consequences. For earlier detection and faster response/action by stakeholders, validation of adjusted analytical methods, particularly for lower concentration levels, is important. This work proposes a derived High-Performance Liquid Chromatography method, with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD). The main differences from the official method are the size of the HPLC column and the gradient elution conditions. It covers the current eleven certified reference materials (CRM) available on the market, including the most recent—C3,4. This first calibration report for C3,4 suggests limits of detection (LOD) and limits of quantification (LOQ) of 6 nM and 19 nM (~5 µg STX.2HCl eqv./kg and 17 µg STX.2HCl eqv./kg), respectively. For the remaining CRM, LODs ranged between 3 and 28 nM (~0.9 and 127 µg STX.2HCl eqv./kg), while LOQs varied between 11 and 94 nM (~3 and 409 µg STX.2HCl eqv./kg, considering toxicity equivalency factors (TEFs) reported by EFSA).
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana F. Leal
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve (UAlg), Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal;
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Faculty of Science and Technology (FCT), University of Algarve (UAlg), Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Maria L. S. Cristiano
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve (UAlg), Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal;
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Faculty of Science and Technology (FCT), University of Algarve (UAlg), Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
- Correspondence:
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10
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Hyung JH, Hwang J, Moon SJ, Kim EJ, Kim DW, Park J. Development of a Method for Detecting Alexandrium pacificum Based on the Quantification of sxtA4 by Chip-Based Digital PCR. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14020111. [PMID: 35202138 PMCID: PMC8877084 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14020111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Alexandrium pacificum, which produces the paralytic shellfish toxin (PST) saxitoxin (STX), is one of the causative species of paralytic shellfish poisoning outbreaks in coastal areas of Korea. In this study, we developed a chip-based digital PCR (dPCR) method for A. pacificum detection and tested it for monitoring in Jinhae-Masan Bay. Using the sequence of an A. pacificum strain isolated in 2017, species-specific primers targeting sxtA4 (a STX biosynthesis-related gene) were designed and used in a dPCR, detecting 2.0 ± 0.24 gene copies per cell of A. pacificum. Cell abundance in field samples, estimated by a chip-based dPCR, was compared with the PST content, and measured using a mouse bioassay. A comparison with shellfish PST concentrations indicated that cell concentrations above 500 cells L−1, as measured using the dPCR assay, may cause shellfish PST concentrations to exceed the allowed limits for PSTs. Concordance rates between dPCR and PST results were 62.5% overall in 2018–2021, reaching a maximum of 91.7% in 2018–2019. The sensitivity of the dPCR assay was higher than that of microscopy and sxtA4-based qPCRs. Absolute quantification by chip-based dPCRs targeting sxtA4 in A. pacificum exhibits potential as a complementary approach to mouse bioassay PST monitoring for the prevention of toxic blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Ho Hyung
- Environment and Resource Convergence Center, Advanced Institute of Convergence Technology, Suwon 16229, Korea; (J.-H.H.); (S.-J.M.); (E.-J.K.)
| | - Jinik Hwang
- West Sea Fisheries Research Institute, National Institute of Fisheries Science, Incheon 22383, Korea;
| | - Seung-Joo Moon
- Environment and Resource Convergence Center, Advanced Institute of Convergence Technology, Suwon 16229, Korea; (J.-H.H.); (S.-J.M.); (E.-J.K.)
| | - Eun-Joo Kim
- Environment and Resource Convergence Center, Advanced Institute of Convergence Technology, Suwon 16229, Korea; (J.-H.H.); (S.-J.M.); (E.-J.K.)
| | - Dong-Wook Kim
- Food Safety and Processing Research Division, National Institute of Fisheries Science, Busan 46083, Korea;
| | - Jaeyeon Park
- Environment and Resource Convergence Center, Advanced Institute of Convergence Technology, Suwon 16229, Korea; (J.-H.H.); (S.-J.M.); (E.-J.K.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-31-888-9042; Fax: +82-31-888-9040
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Zhou Y, Li S, Zhang J, Zhang J, Wang Z, Pan L, Huang B, Huang K, Chen X, Zhao Q, Jiang T, Liu J. Dietary exposure assessment of paralytic shellfish toxins through shellfish consumption in Shenzhen population, China. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2022; 29:10222-10234. [PMID: 34514541 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-16249-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) produced by certain marine dinoflagellates accumulate in filter-feeding marine bivalves. We used LC-MS/MS to detect and quantify 13 PSTs in 188 shellfish samples of 14 species collected from Shenzhen city's Buji seafood wholesale market from March 2019 to February 2020. Twenty-six of 188 shellfish samples (13.8%) were PSTs detectable. Within 14 species, 10 out of 34 noble clam Chlamys nobilis samples contain detectable PSTs with the highest detection rate 29.4%. Seven out of 17 samples from Nan'ao island contained detectable PSTs with the highest detection rate 41.2% among 11 origins. Samples containing PSTs were concentrated in spring and winter, with the highest levels in March>December>January. Among PSTs detected, C1 was dominant. Acute dietary exposure assessment for Shenzhen residents were based on mean adult body weight, 99th percentile daily shellfish consumption of Shenzhen food consumption survey 2008 and maximum PSTs concentration for each shellfish species. The outcome for Chlamys nobilis was 2.4~3.7-fold higher than recommended ARfDs. Mean PSTs concentration, P99, and mean shellfish consumption were used to assess chronic dietary exposure. The results were lower than recommended ARfDs. In conclusion, residents in Shenzhen are at risk for acute PSTs poisoning, while relatively safe from chronic PSTs exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhou
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Modern Toxicology, Shenzhen Medical Key Discipline of Health Toxicology (2020-2024), Shenzhen Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 8 Longyuan Road, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, People's Republic of China
| | - Shenpan Li
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Modern Toxicology, Shenzhen Medical Key Discipline of Health Toxicology (2020-2024), Shenzhen Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 8 Longyuan Road, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianying Zhang
- Food Inspection & Quarantine Center, Shenzhen Custom, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518045, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinzhou Zhang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Modern Toxicology, Shenzhen Medical Key Discipline of Health Toxicology (2020-2024), Shenzhen Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 8 Longyuan Road, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhou Wang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Modern Toxicology, Shenzhen Medical Key Discipline of Health Toxicology (2020-2024), Shenzhen Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 8 Longyuan Road, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, People's Republic of China
| | - Liubo Pan
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Modern Toxicology, Shenzhen Medical Key Discipline of Health Toxicology (2020-2024), Shenzhen Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 8 Longyuan Road, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, People's Republic of China
| | - Baiqiang Huang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Modern Toxicology, Shenzhen Medical Key Discipline of Health Toxicology (2020-2024), Shenzhen Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 8 Longyuan Road, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, People's Republic of China
- Research Center of Harmful Algae & Marine Biology, Jinan University, No. 601 Shipai Street, Tianhe District, Guangzhou, 510632, People's Republic of China
| | - Ke Huang
- Food Inspection & Quarantine Center, Shenzhen Custom, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518045, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao Chen
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Modern Toxicology, Shenzhen Medical Key Discipline of Health Toxicology (2020-2024), Shenzhen Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 8 Longyuan Road, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, People's Republic of China
| | - Qionghui Zhao
- Food Inspection & Quarantine Center, Shenzhen Custom, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518045, People's Republic of China
| | - Tianjiu Jiang
- Research Center of Harmful Algae & Marine Biology, Jinan University, No. 601 Shipai Street, Tianhe District, Guangzhou, 510632, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jianjun Liu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Modern Toxicology, Shenzhen Medical Key Discipline of Health Toxicology (2020-2024), Shenzhen Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 8 Longyuan Road, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, People's Republic of China.
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12
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Dean KJ, Alexander RP, Hatfield RG, Lewis AM, Coates LN, Collin T, Teixeira Alves M, Lee V, Daumich C, Hicks R, White P, Thomas KM, Ellis JR, Turner AD. The Common Sunstar Crossaster papposus-A Neurotoxic Starfish. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:695. [PMID: 34940694 PMCID: PMC8704474 DOI: 10.3390/md19120695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Saxitoxins (STXs) are a family of potent neurotoxins produced naturally by certain species of phytoplankton and cyanobacteria which are extremely toxic to mammalian nervous systems. The accumulation of STXs in bivalve molluscs can significantly impact animal and human health. Recent work conducted in the North Sea highlighted the widespread presence of various saxitoxins in a range of benthic organisms, with the common sunstar (Crossaster papposus) demonstrating high concentrations of saxitoxins. In this study, an extensive sampling program was undertaken across multiple seas surrounding the UK, with 146 starfish and 5 brittlestars of multiple species analysed for STXs. All the common sunstars analysed (n > 70) contained quantifiable levels of STXs, with the total concentrations ranging from 99 to 11,245 µg STX eq/kg. The common sunstars were statistically different in terms of toxin loading to all the other starfish species tested. Two distinct toxic profiles were observed in sunstars, a decarbomylsaxitoxin (dcSTX)-dominant profile which encompassed samples from most of the UK coast and an STX and gonyautoxin2 (GTX2) profile from the North Yorkshire coast of England. Compartmentalisation studies demonstrated that the female gonads exhibited the highest toxin concentrations of all the individual organs tested, with concentrations >40,000 µg STX eq/kg in one sample. All the sunstars, male or female, exhibited the presence of STXs in the skin, digestive glands and gonads. This study highlights that the common sunstar ubiquitously contains STXs, independent of the geographical location around the UK and often at concentrations many times higher than the current regulatory limits for STXs in molluscs; therefore, the common sunstar should be considered toxic hereafter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl J. Dean
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Ryan P. Alexander
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Robert G. Hatfield
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Adam M. Lewis
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Lewis N. Coates
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Tom Collin
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
- Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Mickael Teixeira Alves
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Vanessa Lee
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
- Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Caroline Daumich
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Ruth Hicks
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Peter White
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Krista M. Thomas
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS B3Z 3H1, Canada;
| | - Jim R. Ellis
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Pakefield Road, Lowestoft NR33 0HT, UK;
| | - Andrew D. Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
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13
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Dusek RJ, Smith MM, Van Hemert C, Shearn-Bochsler VI, Hall S, Ridge CD, Hardison DR, Kaler RSA, Bodenstein BL, Hofmeister EK, Hall JS. Acute oral toxicity and tissue residues of saxitoxin in the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). Harmful Algae 2021; 109:102109. [PMID: 34815022 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2021.102109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Since 2014, widespread, annual mortality events involving multiple species of seabirds have occurred in the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea, and Chukchi Sea. Among these die-offs, emaciation was a common finding with starvation often identified as the cause of death. However, saxitoxin (STX) was detected in many carcasses, indicating exposure of these seabirds to STX in the marine environment. Few data are available that describe the effects of STX in birds, thus presenting challenges for determining its contributions to specific mortality events. To address these knowledge gaps, we conducted an acute oral toxicity trial in mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), a common laboratory avian model, using an up-and-down method to estimate the median lethal dose (LD50) for STX. Using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), we tested select tissues from all birds and feces from those individuals that survived initial dosing. Samples with an ELISA result that exceeded approximately 10 µg 100 g-1 STX and randomly selected ELISA negative samples were further tested by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Tissues collected from mallards were also examined grossly at necropsy and then later by microscopy to identify lesions attributable to STX. The estimated LD50 was 167 µg kg-1 (95% CI = 69-275 µg kg-1). Saxitoxin was detected in fecal samples of all mallards tested for up to 48 h after dosing and at the end of the sampling period (7 d) in three birds. In those individuals that died or were euthanized <2 h after dosing, STX was readily detected throughout the gastrointestinal tract but only infrequently in heart, kidney, liver, lung, and breast muscle. No gross or microscopic lesions were observed that could be attributable to STX exposure. Given its acute toxicity, limited detectability, and frequent occurrence in the Alaska marine environment, additional research on STX in seabirds is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Dusek
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI 53711, United States.
| | - Matthew M Smith
- U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, 4210 University Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508, United States.
| | - Caroline Van Hemert
- U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, 4210 University Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508, United States.
| | - Valerie I Shearn-Bochsler
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI 53711, United States.
| | - Sherwood Hall
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, 5001 Campus Drive, College Park, MD 20740, United States.
| | - Clark D Ridge
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, 5001 Campus Drive, College Park, MD 20740, United States.
| | - D Ransom Hardison
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, 101 Pivers Island Road, Beaufort, NC 28516, United States.
| | - Robb S A Kaler
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Migratory Bird Management, 1011 East Tudor Road, Anchorage, AK 99503, United States.
| | - Barbara L Bodenstein
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI 53711, United States.
| | - Erik K Hofmeister
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI 53711, United States.
| | - Jeffrey S Hall
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI 53711, United States.
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Christensen VG, Stelzer EA, Eikenberry BC, Olds HT, LeDuc JF, Maki RP, Saley AM, Norland J, Khan E. Cyanotoxin mixture models: Relating environmental variables and toxin co-occurrence to human exposure risk. J Hazard Mater 2021; 415:125560. [PMID: 33773250 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Toxic cyanobacterial blooms, often containing multiple toxins, are a serious public health issue. However, there are no known models that predict a cyanotoxin mixture (anatoxin-a, microcystin, saxitoxin). This paper presents two cyanotoxin mixture models (MIX) and compares them to two microcystin (MC) models from data collected in 2016-2017 from three recurring cyanobacterial bloom locations in Kabetogama Lake, Voyageurs National Park (Minnesota, USA). Models include those using near-real-time environmental variables (readily available) and those using additional comprehensive variables (based on laboratory analyses). Comprehensive models (R2 = 0.87 MC; R2 = 0.86 MIX) explained more variability than the environmental models (R2 = 0.58 MC; R2 = 0.57 MIX). Although neither MIX model was a better fit than the MC models, the MIX models produced no false negatives in the calibration dataset, indicating that all observations above regulatory guidelines were simulated by the MIX models. This is the first known use of Virtual Beach software for a cyanotoxin mixture model, and the methods used in this paper may be applicable to other lakes or beaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria G Christensen
- US Geological Survey, Upper Midwest Water Science Center, 2280 Woodale Drive, Mounds View, MN 55112, USA; North Dakota State University, Environmental and Conservation Sciences Program, Fargo, ND 58102, USA.
| | - Erin A Stelzer
- US Geological Survey Ohio Water Microbiology Laboratory, 6460 Busch Blvd STE 100, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Barbara C Eikenberry
- US Geological Survey, Upper Midwest Water Science Center, 8505 Research Way, Middleton, WI 53562, USA
| | - Hayley T Olds
- US Geological Survey, Upper Midwest Water Science Center, 8505 Research Way, Middleton, WI 53562, USA
| | - Jaime F LeDuc
- Voyageurs National Park, 360 Highway 11 East, International Falls, MN 56649, USA
| | - Ryan P Maki
- Voyageurs National Park, 360 Highway 11 East, International Falls, MN 56649, USA
| | - Alisha M Saley
- Bodega Marine Laboratory, University of California-Davis, 2099 Westshore Road, Bodega Bay, CA 94923, USA
| | - Jack Norland
- North Dakota State University, Environmental and Conservation Sciences Program, Fargo, ND 58102, USA
| | - Eakalak Khan
- University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Construction, 4505 S Maryland Pkwy, Las Vegas, NV 89154, USA
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15
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Danil K, Berman M, Frame E, Preti A, Fire SE, Leighfield T, Carretta J, Carter ML, Lefebvre K. Marine algal toxins and their vectors in southern California cetaceans. Harmful Algae 2021; 103:102000. [PMID: 33980440 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2021.102000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Published baseline data on biotoxin exposure in cetaceans is sparse but critical for interpreting mortality events as harmful algal blooms increase in frequency and duration. We present the first synthesis of domoic acid (DA), saxitoxin (STX), okadaic acid (OA), and microcystin detections in the feces and urine of stranded and bycaught southern California cetaceans, over an 18 year period (2001-2018), along with corresponding stomach content data. DA was detected in 13 out of 19 cetacean species, most often in harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) (81.8%, n = 22) and long-beaked common dolphins (Delphinus delphis bairdii) (74%, n = 231). Maximum DA concentrations of 324,000 ng/g in feces and 271, 967 ng/ml in urine were observed in D. d. bairdii. DA was detected more frequently and at higher concentrations in male vs. female D. d. bairdii. Higher fecal DA concentrations in D. d. bairdii were associated with a greater proportion of northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax) in the diet, indicating it may be a primary vector of DA. Fecal DA concentrations for D. d. bairdii off Point Conception were greater than those from animals sampled off Los Angeles and San Diego counties, reflecting greater primary productivity and higher Pseudo-nitzschia spp. abundance in that region and a greater abundance of E. mordax in the diet. STX was detected at low levels (fecal max = 7.5 ng/g, urine max = 17 ng/ml) in 3.6% (n = 165) of individuals from 3 out of 11 species. The occurrence of E. mordax in 100% of the 3 examined stomachs suggests this species could be a primary vector of the detected STX. OA was detected in 2.4% of tested individuals (n = 85) at a maximum fecal concentration of 422.8 ng/g. Microcystin was detected in 14.3% (n = 7) of tested individuals with a maximum liver concentration of 96.8 ppb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerri Danil
- NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, La Jolla, CA, United States.
| | - Michelle Berman
- Channel Islands Cetacean Research Unit, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
| | - Elizabeth Frame
- King County Environmental Laboratory, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Antonella Preti
- NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, La Jolla, CA, United States; Institute of Marine Studies, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, United States
| | - Spencer E Fire
- Department of Ocean Engineering and Marine Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, United States
| | - Tod Leighfield
- NOAA, National Ocean Service, National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, Charleston, SC, United States
| | - Jim Carretta
- NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Melissa L Carter
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Kathi Lefebvre
- NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, Seattle, WA, United States
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16
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Fire SE, Bogomolni A, DiGiovanni RA, Early G, Leighfield TA, Matassa K, Miller GA, Moore KMT, Moore M, Niemeyer M, Pugliares K, Wang Z, Wenzel FW. An assessment of temporal, spatial and taxonomic trends in harmful algal toxin exposure in stranded marine mammals from the U.S. New England coast. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0243570. [PMID: 33406141 PMCID: PMC7787384 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0243570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite a long-documented history of severe harmful algal blooms (HABs) in New England coastal waters, corresponding HAB-associated marine mammal mortality events in this region are far less frequent or severe relative to other regions where HABs are common. This long-term survey of the HAB toxins saxitoxin (STX) and domoic acid (DA) demonstrates significant and widespread exposure of these toxins in New England marine mammals, across multiple geographic, temporal and taxonomic groups. Overall, 19% of the 458 animals tested positive for one or more toxins, with 15% and 7% testing positive for STX and DA, respectively. 74% of the 23 different species analyzed demonstrated evidence of toxin exposure. STX was most prevalent in Maine coastal waters, most frequently detected in common dolphins (Delphinus delphis), and most often detected during July and October. DA was most prevalent in animals sampled in offshore locations and in bycaught animals, and most frequently detected in mysticetes, with humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) testing positive at the highest rates. Feces and urine appeared to be the sample matrices most useful for determining the presence of toxins in an exposed animal, with feces samples having the highest concentrations of STX or DA. No relationship was found between the bloom season of toxin-producing phytoplankton and toxin detection rates, however STX was more likely to be present in July and October. No relationship between marine mammal dietary preference and frequency of toxin detection was observed. These findings are an important part of a framework for assessing future marine mammal morbidity and mortality events, as well as monitoring ecosystem health using marine mammals as sentinel organisms for predicting coastal ocean changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spencer E. Fire
- Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Andrea Bogomolni
- Massachusetts Maritime Academy, Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Robert A. DiGiovanni
- Atlantic Marine Conservation Society, Hampton Bays, New York, United States of America
| | - Greg Early
- Integrated Statistics, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Tod A. Leighfield
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, Charleston, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Keith Matassa
- Ocean Animal Response and Research Alliance, Laguna Niguel, California, United States of America
| | - Glenn A. Miller
- Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, United States of America
| | - Kathleen M. T. Moore
- International Fund for Animal Welfare, Yarmouth Port, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Michael Moore
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Misty Niemeyer
- International Fund for Animal Welfare, Yarmouth Port, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Katie Pugliares
- New England Aquarium, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Zhihong Wang
- CSS Corporation, Fairfax, VA, United States of America
- Under Contract to National Ocean Service, Charleston, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Frederick W. Wenzel
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, United States of America
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17
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Dean KJ, Hatfield RG, Lee V, Alexander RP, Lewis AM, Maskrey BH, Teixeira Alves M, Hatton B, Coates LN, Capuzzo E, Ellis JR, Turner AD. Multiple New Paralytic Shellfish Toxin Vectors in Offshore North Sea Benthos, a Deep Secret Exposed. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:E400. [PMID: 32751216 PMCID: PMC7460140 DOI: 10.3390/md18080400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In early 2018, a large easterly storm hit the East Anglian coast of the UK, colloquially known as the 'Beast from the East', which also resulted in mass strandings of benthic organisms. There were subsequent instances of dogs consuming such organisms, leading to illness and, in some cases, fatalities. Epidemiological investigations identified paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) as the cause, with toxins present in a range of species and concentrations exceeding 14,000 µg STX eq./kg in the sunstar Crossaster papposus. This study sought to better elucidate the geographic spread of any toxicity and identify any key organisms of concern. During the summers of 2018 and 2019, various species of benthic invertebrates were collected from demersal trawl surveys conducted across a variety of locations in the North Sea. An analysis of the benthic epifauna using two independent PST testing methods identified a 'hot spot' of toxic organisms in the Southern Bight, with a mean toxicity of 449 µg STX eq./kg. PSTs were quantified in sea chervil (Alcyonidium diaphanum), the first known detection in the phylum bryozoan, as well as eleven other new vectors (>50 µg STX eq./kg), namely the opisthobranch Scaphander lignarius, the starfish Anseropoda placenta, Asterias rubens, Luidia ciliaris, Astropecten irregularis and Stichastrella rosea, the brittlestar Ophiura ophiura, the crustaceans Atelecyclus rotundatus and Munida rugosa, the sea mouse Aphrodita aculeata, and the sea urchin Psammechinus miliaris. The two species that showed consistently high PST concentrations were C. papposus and A. diaphanum. Two toxic profiles were identified, with one dominated by dcSTX (decarbamoylsaxitoxin) associated with the majority of samples across the whole sampling region. The second profile occurred only in North-Eastern England and consisted of mostly STX (Saxitoxin) and GTX2 (gonyautoxin 2). Consequently, this study highlights widespread and variable levels of PSTs in the marine benthos, together with the first evidence for toxicity in a large number of new species. These findings highlight impacts to 'One Health', with the unexpected sources of toxins potentially creating risks to animal, human and environmental health, with further work required to assess the severity and geographical/temporal extent of these impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl J. Dean
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Robert G. Hatfield
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Vanessa Lee
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
- Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Ryan P. Alexander
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Adam M. Lewis
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Benjamin H. Maskrey
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Mickael Teixeira Alves
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Benjamin Hatton
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Pakefield Road, Lowestoft, Suffolk NR33 0HT, UK; (B.H.); (J.R.E.)
| | - Lewis N. Coates
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Elisa Capuzzo
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Jim R. Ellis
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Pakefield Road, Lowestoft, Suffolk NR33 0HT, UK; (B.H.); (J.R.E.)
| | - Andrew D. Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
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18
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Viallon J, Chinain M, Darius HT. Revisiting the Neuroblastoma Cell-Based Assay (CBA-N2a) for the Improved Detection of Marine Toxins Active on Voltage Gated Sodium Channels (VGSCs). Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E281. [PMID: 32349302 PMCID: PMC7290318 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12050281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The neuroblastoma cell-based assay (CBA-N2a) is widely used for the detection of marine biotoxins in seafood products, yet a consensus protocol is still lacking. In this study, six key parameters of CBA-N2a were revisited: cell seeding densities, cell layer viability after 26 h growth, MTT incubation time, Ouabain and Veratridine treatment and solvent and matrix effects. A step-by-step protocol was defined identifying five viability controls for the validation of CBA-N2a results. Specific detection of two voltage gated sodium channel activators, pacific ciguatoxin (P-CTX3C) and brevetoxin (PbTx3) and two inhibitors, saxitoxin (STX) and decarbamoylsaxitoxin (dc-STX) was achieved, with EC50 values of 1.7 ± 0.35 pg/mL, 5.8 ± 0.9 ng/mL, 3 ± 0.5 ng/mL and 15.8 ± 3 ng/mL, respectively. When applied to the detection of ciguatoxin (CTX)-like toxicity in fish samples, limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) values were 0.031 ± 0.008 and 0.064 ± 0.016 ng P-CTX3C eq/g of flesh, respectively. Intra and inter-assays comparisons of viability controls, LOD, LOQ and toxicity in fish samples gave coefficients of variation (CVs) ranging from 3% to 29%. This improved test adaptable to either high throughput screening or composite toxicity estimation is a useful starting point for a standardization of the CBA-N2a in the field of marine toxin detection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Hélène Taiana Darius
- Institut Louis Malardé (ILM), Laboratory of Marine Biotoxins-UMR 241-EIO, 98713 Papeete-Tahiti, French Polynesia; (J.V.); (M.C.)
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19
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Pedrosa CDSG, Souza LRQ, Gomes TA, de Lima CVF, Ledur PF, Karmirian K, Barbeito-Andres J, Costa MDN, Higa LM, Rossi ÁD, Bellio M, Tanuri A, Prata-Barbosa A, Tovar-Moll F, Garcez PP, Lara FA, Molica RJR, Rehen SK. The cyanobacterial saxitoxin exacerbates neural cell death and brain malformations induced by Zika virus. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008060. [PMID: 32163415 PMCID: PMC7067372 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The northeast (NE) region of Brazil commonly goes through drought periods, which favor cyanobacterial blooms, capable of producing neurotoxins with implications for human and animal health. The most severe dry spell in the history of Brazil occurred between 2012 and 2016. Coincidently, the highest incidence of microcephaly associated with the Zika virus (ZIKV) outbreak took place in the NE region of Brazil during the same years. In this work, we tested the hypothesis that saxitoxin (STX), a neurotoxin produced in South America by the freshwater cyanobacteria Raphidiopsis raciborskii, could have contributed to the most severe Congenital Zika Syndrome (CZS) profile described worldwide. Quality surveillance showed higher cyanobacteria amounts and STX occurrence in human drinking water supplies of NE compared to other regions of Brazil. Experimentally, we described that STX doubled the quantity of ZIKV-induced neural cell death in progenitor areas of human brain organoids, while the chronic ingestion of water contaminated with STX before and during gestation caused brain abnormalities in offspring of ZIKV-infected immunocompetent C57BL/6J mice. Our data indicate that saxitoxin-producing cyanobacteria is overspread in water reservoirs of the NE and might have acted as a co-insult to ZIKV infection in Brazil. These results raise a public health concern regarding the consequences of arbovirus outbreaks happening in areas with droughts and/or frequent freshwater cyanobacterial blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Leticia R. Q. Souza
- D’Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Tiago A. Gomes
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Laboratory of Cellular Microbiology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Caroline V. F. de Lima
- D’Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Pitia F. Ledur
- D’Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Karina Karmirian
- D’Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Jimena Barbeito-Andres
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Marcelo do N. Costa
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Luiza M. Higa
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Átila D. Rossi
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Maria Bellio
- Institute of Microbiology Paulo de Goes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Amilcar Tanuri
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Arnaldo Prata-Barbosa
- D’Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Tovar-Moll
- D’Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Patricia P. Garcez
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Flavio A. Lara
- Laboratory of Cellular Microbiology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Renato J. R. Molica
- Academic Unit of Garanhuns, Federal Rural University of Pernambuco, Garanhuns, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Stevens K. Rehen
- D’Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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20
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Fire SE, Browning JA, Durden WN, Stolen MK. Comparison of during-bloom and inter-bloom brevetoxin and saxitoxin concentrations in Indian River Lagoon bottlenose dolphins, 2002-2011. Aquat Toxicol 2020; 218:105371. [PMID: 31790939 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2019.105371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2019] [Revised: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Harmful algal bloom (HAB) toxins have severe negative impacts on marine mammals, particularly for Florida bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) which frequently experience mass mortality events. Dolphins on the Florida Atlantic coast inhabit a region endemic to two HAB species, Karenia brevis and Pyrodinium bahamense, which produce the neurotoxins brevetoxin (PbTx) and saxitoxin (STX), respectively. Although toxic HABs and associated dolphin mortality events have been reported from this region, there is a lack of available data necessary for comparing toxin exposure levels between bloom ('exposed') conditions and non-bloom ('baseline') conditions. Here we present a 10-year dataset of PbTx and STX concentrations detected in dolphins stranding in this region, and compare the toxin loads from HAB-exposed dolphins to those detected in dolphins recovered in the absence of a HAB. We analyzed liver tissue samples from dead-stranded dolphins (n = 119) recovered and necropsied between 2002-2011, using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) modified for use with mammalian tissues. For dolphins recovered during baseline conditions, toxin-positive samples ranged in concentration from 0.27 to 1.2 ng/g for PbTx and from 0.41 to 1.9 ng/g for STX. For K. brevis-exposed dolphins, concentrations of up to 12.1 ng PbTx/g were detected, and for P. bahamense-exposed dolphins, concentrations of up to 9.9 ng STX/g were detected. Baseline PbTx values were similar to those reported in other regions where K. brevis blooms are more frequent and severe, but HAB-exposed PbTx values were considerably lower relative to these other regions. Since no baseline STX dolphin data exist for any region, our data serve as a first step towards establishing reference STX values for potential dolphin mortality events associated with STX-producing blooms in the future. This study demonstrates that although HABs in eastern Florida are only infrequently associated with dolphin mortalities, the presence of toxins in these animals may pose significant health risks in this region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spencer E Fire
- Florida Institute of Technology, 150 W. University Blvd., Melbourne, FL 32901, United States.
| | - Jeremy A Browning
- Florida Institute of Technology, 150 W. University Blvd., Melbourne, FL 32901, United States
| | - Wendy Noke Durden
- Hubbs-Sea World Research Institute, 3830 South Highway A1A #4-181, Melbourne Beach, FL 32951, United States
| | - Megan K Stolen
- Hubbs-Sea World Research Institute, 3830 South Highway A1A #4-181, Melbourne Beach, FL 32951, United States
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21
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Biessy L, Boundy MJ, Smith KF, Harwood DT, Hawes I, Wood SA. Tetrodotoxin in marine bivalves and edible gastropods: A mini-review. Chemosphere 2019; 236:124404. [PMID: 31545201 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2019] [Revised: 07/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin responsible for countless human intoxications and deaths around the world. The distribution of TTX and its analogues is diverse and the toxin has been detected in organisms from both marine and terrestrial environments. Increasing detections seafood species, such as bivalves and gastropods, has drawn attention to the toxin, reinvigorating scientific interest and regulatory concerns. There have been reports of TTX in 21 species of bivalves and edible gastropods from ten countries since the 1980's. While TTX is structurally dissimilar to saxitoxin (STX), another neurotoxin detected in seafood, it has similar sodium channel blocking action and potency and both neurotoxins have been shown to have additive toxicities. The global regulatory level for the STX group toxins applied to shellfish is 800 μg/kg. The presence of TTX in shellfish is only regulated in one country; The Netherlands, with a regulatory level of 44 μg/kg. Due to the recent interest surrounding TTX in bivalves, the European Food Safety Authority established a panel to assess the risk and regulation of TTX in bivalves, and their final opinion was that a concentration below 44 μg of TTX per kg of shellfish would not result in adverse human effects. In this article, we review current knowledge on worldwide TTX levels in edible gastropods and bivalves over the last four decades, the different methods of detection used, and the current regulatory status. We suggest research needs that will assist with knowledge gaps and ultimately allow development of robust monitoring and management protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Biessy
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand; New Zealand Food Safety Science & Research Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand.
| | | | - Kirsty F Smith
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand.
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand; New Zealand Food Safety Science & Research Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand.
| | - Ian Hawes
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand.
| | - Susanna A Wood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand.
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22
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Numano S, Kudo Y, Cho Y, Konoki K, Yotsu-Yamashita M. Temporal Variation of the Profile and Concentrations of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins and Tetrodotoxin in the Scallop, Patinopecten yessoensis, Cultured in a Bay of East Japan. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:E653. [PMID: 31766477 PMCID: PMC6950525 DOI: 10.3390/md17120653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2019] [Revised: 11/03/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) are the major neurotoxic contaminants of edible bivalves in Japan. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) was recently detected in bivalve shellfish around the world, drawing widespread attention. In Japan, high levels of TTX were reported in the digestive gland of the scallop, Patinopecten yessoensis, in 1993; however, no new data have emerged since then. In this study, we simultaneously analyzed PSTs and TTX in scallops cultured in a bay of east Japan using hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC)-MS/MS. These scallops were temporally collected from April to December 2017. The highest concentration of PSTs (182 µmol/kg, total congeners) in the hepatopancreas was detected in samples collected on May 23, lined to the cell density of the dinoflagellate, Alexandrium tamarense, in seawater around the scallops, whereas the highest concentration of TTX (421 nmol/kg) was detected in samples collected on August 22. Contrary to the previous report, temporal variation of the PSTs and TTX concentrations did not coincide. The highest concentration of TTX in the entire edible tissues was 7.3 µg/kg (23 nmol/kg) in samples obtained on August 22, which was lower than the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)-proposed threshold, 44 µg TTX equivalents/kg shellfish meat. In addition, 12β-deoxygonyautoxin 3 was firstly identified in scallops.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Mari Yotsu-Yamashita
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 468-1 Aramaki-Aza-Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8572, Japan; (S.N.); (Y.K.); (Y.C.); (K.K.)
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23
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McCall JR, Holland WC, Keeler DM, Hardison DR, Litaker RW. Improved Accuracy of Saxitoxin Measurement Using an Optimized Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11110632. [PMID: 31683507 PMCID: PMC6891710 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11110632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Revised: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) is precipitated by a family of toxins produced by harmful algae, which are consumed by filter-feeding and commercially popular shellfish. The toxins, including saxitoxin, neosaxitoxin, and gonyautoxins, accumulate in shellfish and cause intoxication when consumed by humans and animals. Symptoms can range from minor neurological dysfunction to respiratory distress and death. There are over 40 different chemical congeners of saxitoxin and its analogs, many of which are toxic and many of which have low toxicity or are non-toxic. This makes accurate toxicity assessment difficult and complicates decisions regarding whether or not shellfish are safe to consume. In this study, we describe a new antibody-based bioassay that is able to detect toxic congeners (saxitoxin, neosaxitoxin, and gonyautoxins) with little cross-reactivity with the low or non-toxic congeners (decarbamoylated or di-sulfated forms). The anti-saxitoxin antibody used in this assay detects saxitoxin and neosaxitoxin, the two most toxic congers equally well, but not the relatively highly toxic gonyautoxins. By incorporating an incubation step with L-cysteine, it is possible to convert a majority of the gonyautoxins present to saxitoxin and neosaxitoxin, which are readily detected. The assay is, therefore, capable of detecting the most toxic PSP congeners found in commercially relevant shellfish. The assay was validated against samples whose toxicity was determined using standard HPLC methods and yielded a strong linear agreement between the methods, with R2 values of 0.94–0.96. As ELISAs are rapid, inexpensive, and easy-to-use, this new commercially available PSP ELISA represents an advance in technology allowing better safety management of the seafood supply and the ability to screen large numbers of samples that can occur when monitoring is increased substantially in response to toxic bloom events
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer R McCall
- Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA.
| | - W Christopher Holland
- Beaufort Laboratory, National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, National Ocean Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA.
| | | | - D Ransom Hardison
- Beaufort Laboratory, National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, National Ocean Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA.
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24
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Watanabe R, Kanamori M, Yoshida H, Okumura Y, Uchida H, Matsushima R, Oikawa H, Suzuki T. Development of Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Post-Column Fluorescent Derivatization for the Rapid Detection of Saxitoxin Analogues and Analysis of Bivalve Monitoring Samples. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11100573. [PMID: 31581573 PMCID: PMC6832970 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11100573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Saxitoxin (STX) and its analogues produced by toxic dinoflagellates accumulate in bivalves, and routine monitoring of bivalves is important to prevent cases of human poisoning. In this study, we describe a rapid detection method for the analysis of STXs using ultra-performance liquid chromatography with post-column fluorescent detection and to investigate water depths and sampling points optimal for shellfish toxin monitoring. Cultured scallops (Mizuhopecten yessoensis) and mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) were collected from various water depths and sampling points were used in this study. Irrespective of bivalve species, toxin concentrations in bivalves were lower at deeper water depths. The toxin concentrations of bivalves did not differ greatly when bivalves were collected from the same bay. Although the levels of contamination of bivalves with STXs can depend on various environmental and geographical factors, our findings are useful for formulating a sampling protocol for the prevention of harvesting contaminated shellfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryuichi Watanabe
- National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Fukuura 2-12-4, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Makoto Kanamori
- Hakodate Fisheries Research Institute, Hokkaido Research Organization, Benten-cho 20-5, Hakodate, Hokkaido 040-0051, Japan.
| | - Hidetsugu Yoshida
- Hakodate Fisheries Research Institute, Hokkaido Research Organization, Benten-cho 20-5, Hakodate, Hokkaido 040-0051, Japan.
| | - Yutaka Okumura
- Tohoku National Fisheries Research Institute, Shinhama-cho 3-27-5, Shiogama, Miyagi 985-0001, Japan.
| | - Hajime Uchida
- National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Fukuura 2-12-4, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Ryoji Matsushima
- National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Fukuura 2-12-4, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Hiroshi Oikawa
- National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Fukuura 2-12-4, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Toshiyuki Suzuki
- National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Fukuura 2-12-4, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
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25
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Smith ZJ, Martin RM, Wei B, Wilhelm SW, Boyer GL. Spatial and Temporal Variation in Paralytic Shellfish Toxin Production by Benthic Microseira (Lyngbya) wollei in a Freshwater New York Lake. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E44. [PMID: 30650549 PMCID: PMC6356249 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11010044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Revised: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Butterfield Lake is a mesotrophic lake in New York State where residents and pets have experienced unexplained health issues. Microseira wollei (basionym Lyngbya wollei) was found at two of 15 sites in Butterfield Lake and analyzed for microcystins, anatoxins, cylindrospermopsins, and paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins (PSTs). Only PSTs and trace levels of anatoxin-a were detected in these samples. This is the first published report of PSTs within a New York State lake. To evaluate the environmental and temporal drivers leading to the observed toxicity, PST content at the two sites was examined in detail. There were distinct differences in the total PST content, filament nutrient, filament chlorophyll, and relationship to environmental drivers between the sites, as well as distinct differences in the total PST content measured using different analytical techniques. A multivariate model containing site, temperature, and filament chlorophyll explained 85% of the variation in PSTs observed over the growing season. This work emphasizes the importance of proper site selection and choice of analytical technique in the development of monitoring programs to protect lake users from the occurrence of benthic cyanobacteria toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zacharias J Smith
- Department of Chemistry, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
| | - Robbie M Martin
- Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA.
| | - Bofan Wei
- Department of Chemistry, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
| | - Steven W Wilhelm
- Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA.
| | - Gregory L Boyer
- Department of Chemistry, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
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26
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Naouli J, Abouabdellah R, Bennouna A, Laissaoui A, Swarzenski PW, Ait Bouh H, Mesfioui A, Benbrahim MS, Dechraoui Bottein MY. Using the radioligand-receptor binding assay for paralytic shellfish toxins: A case study on shellfish from Morocco. J Environ Radioact 2018; 192:485-490. [PMID: 30103169 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2018.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2018] [Revised: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/21/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) events occur regularly along the Mediterranean and Atlantic coast of Morocco, and have been responsible for several severe cases of human intoxication. Along the southern Atlantic coast of Morocco, aquaculture and intensive artisanal fishing practices have recently been particularly heavily impacted, and toxic species have been observed in increasing intensity and frequency. In the 1990's a regulatory monitoring program was established for the coastal waters off Morocco by the National Institute of Fisheries Research (INRH), to reduce the risk of intoxication with biotoxins. The regulatory monitoring is conducted weekly and includes toxic phytoplankton enumeration and identification, as well as saxitoxin (STX) analysis in seafood using the mouse bioassay (MBA). Animal testing remains the most widely used screening method for PSP toxin detection, yet its use is being reconsidered for animal-related ethical issues, as well as for practical considerations. To be able to better evaluate alternatives to animal testing, the performance of a nuclear-based radioligand-receptor binding assay (RBA) for paralytic shellfish toxins was assessed and compared with the MBA using four commercially important shellfish matrices, including cockles Cerastoderma edule, razor shells Solen marginatus, oysters Crassostrea gigas, and mussels Perna perna. Over 50 samples were collected and analysed as part of the regulatory monitoring framework including a suite of monthly samples from 2017 and all samples identified as toxic by MBA since 2011. Testing of reference material and evaluation of assay-critical parameters (e.g. slope of calibration curve, internal quality control QC and IC50) confirmed the robustness of the RBA methodology. With this RBA method, STX-like activity detected in shellfish samples ranged from 33 to 8500 μg STX equivalents per kg. RBA data were significantly correlated (P < 0.0001, Pearson r = 0.96) with the MBA-derived dataset. Importantly, the RBA method allowed for the detection and quantification of PSP toxins at levels not detectable by using the mouse bioassay. The limits of quantification of the RBA was calculated and found to be 10-fold lower than that of the MBA, respectively 35.24 ± 5.99 and 325 μg STX equivalents per kg of tissue. In addition, the RBA was easier to use and produced reliable results more rapidly than the MBA and without use of live animals. Considering the increasing risks associated with harmful algal blooms, globally and in Morocco, together with the increased development of aquaculture production and seafood consumption and the difficulties of live animal testing, these findings indicate that the RBA method is a reliable and effective alternative to the MBA method.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Naouli
- Centre National de L'Energie, des Sciences et des Techniques Nucléaires, B.P 1382, R.P.10001, Rabat, Morocco; Faculty of Science, Laboratory of Genetics, Neuro-endocrinology and Biotechnology, B.P 14000, Kenitra, Morocco
| | | | - A Bennouna
- National Institute for Fisheries Research, Morocco
| | - A Laissaoui
- Centre National de L'Energie, des Sciences et des Techniques Nucléaires, B.P 1382, R.P.10001, Rabat, Morocco
| | - P W Swarzenski
- International Atomic Energy Agency, Environment Laboratories, 4a Quai Antoine 1er, 98000 Monaco
| | - H Ait Bouh
- Centre National de L'Energie, des Sciences et des Techniques Nucléaires, B.P 1382, R.P.10001, Rabat, Morocco
| | - A Mesfioui
- Faculty of Science, Laboratory of Genetics, Neuro-endocrinology and Biotechnology, B.P 14000, Kenitra, Morocco
| | | | - M-Y Dechraoui Bottein
- International Atomic Energy Agency, Environment Laboratories, 4a Quai Antoine 1er, 98000 Monaco.
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27
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Sendall BC, McGregor GB. Cryptic diversity within the Scytonema complex: Characterization of the paralytic shellfish toxin producer Heterosyctonema crispum, and the establishment of the family Heteroscytonemataceae (Cyanobacteria/Nostocales). Harmful Algae 2018; 80:158-170. [PMID: 30502809 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2018] [Revised: 10/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/01/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Strains of the freshwater filamentous, benthic cyanobacterium Scytonema crispum Agardh isolated from six sites in subtropical south-east Queensland were characterised using a combination of phenotypic and genetic traits. Morphologically, the strains were consistent with the description of Scytonemataceae sensu stricto, and the description of Scytonema crispum. However, phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene, the 16S-23S rRNA operon, and the nifH gene revealed that these strains and three others from outside Australia formed a monophyletic clade distinct from Scytonema and other species in the Scytonemataceae. Collectively, this data suggests this group is sufficiently evolutionarily distinct to be placed in a new family, Heteroscytonemataceae fam. nov. Accordingly, the taxon previously known as S. crispum has been transferred to a new genus Heteroscytonema gen nov., as H. crispum. Some strains of H. crispum exhibited facultative production of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs). The concentration of PSTs produced by individual strains varied widely, from 2.7 μg g-1 to 171.3 μg g-1, and included C toxins, decarbamoyl saxitoxin (dcSTX), gonyautoxins (GTX2, GTX3 and GTX5), saxitoxin (STX) and uncharacterised PSTs. The majority of the Australian strains produced dcSTX as the dominant saxitoxin analogue, a significant finding given that dcSTX has approximately half the relative toxicity of STX. The PST profile varied within and between Australian strains of H. crispum and in strains collected from New Zealand and the United States. The sxtA gene, one of the determinants for the production of PSTs, was present in all strains in which PSTs were detected. The discovery of PST-producing H. crispum in the headwaters of a major drinking water reservoir presents a serious risk for potential human and animal exposure to these neurotoxic compounds and further highlights the importance of monitoring benthic cyanobacteria populations for potentially toxigenic species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara C Sendall
- Queensland Department of Health, Forensic and Scientific Services, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, Qld 4108, Australia.
| | - Glenn B McGregor
- Queensland Department of Environment and Science, GPO Box 5078 Brisbane Qld 4001, Australia
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Cheng S, Zheng B, Yao D, Kuai S, Tian J, Liang H, Ding Y. Study of the binding way between saxitoxin and its aptamer and a fluorescent aptasensor for detection of saxitoxin. Spectrochim Acta A Mol Biomol Spectrosc 2018; 204:180-187. [PMID: 29933153 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2018.06.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2018] [Revised: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 06/10/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Aptamers could be used to construct simple and effective biosensor because the conformational switch of aptamer upon target binding is easy to be transferred to optical or electrochemical signals. Nevertheless, we found that the binding between saxitoxin (STX) and aptamer (M-30f) is not accompanied with conformational switch. Here, the circular dichroism spectra, fluorophore and quencher labeled aptamer, and crystal violet-based assays were used to identify the binding way between STX and aptamer. The results show that the conformation of aptamer is stabilized in PBS buffer (10 mM phosphate buffer, 2.7 mM KCl, 137 mM NaCl, pH 7.4) and this conformation may provide an exactly suitable cave for STX binding. Through the analysis of UV-melting curves and circular dichroism-melting curves, it is found that different concentrations of STX produce different unfolding extents of the aptamer under high temperature. Then, a simple temperature-assisted "turn-on" fluorescent aptasensor was developed to detect STX and the application in real sample detection demonstrates its feasibility. The proposed method provides not only an alternative for STX detection but also a strategy for simple aptasensor design using aptamers that do not switch conformation upon targets binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Cheng
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Anhui Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Materials and Devices, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, Anhui 230009, PR China
| | - Bin Zheng
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hefei Normal University, Hefei, Anhui 230061, PR China.
| | - Dongbao Yao
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, PR China
| | - Shenglong Kuai
- Anhui Technical College of Water Resources and Hydroelectric Power, Hefei, Anhui 231603, PR China
| | - Jingjing Tian
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Anhui Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Materials and Devices, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, Anhui 230009, PR China
| | - Haojun Liang
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, PR China
| | - Yunsheng Ding
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Anhui Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Materials and Devices, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, Anhui 230009, PR China.
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29
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Reis Costa P, Braga AC, Turner AD. Accumulation and Elimination Dynamics of the Hydroxybenzoate Saxitoxin Analogues in Mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis Exposed to the Toxic Marine Dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10110428. [PMID: 30373104 PMCID: PMC6267569 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10110428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Revised: 10/09/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) is a severe food-borne illness, caused by the ingestion of seafood containing paralytic shellfish toxins (PST), which are naturally produced by marine dinoflagellates and accumulate in shellfish during algae blooms. Novel PST, designated as hydroxybenzoate analogues (also known as GC toxins), was relatively recently discovered in Gymnodinium catenatum strains worldwide. However, to date, there have been no studies examining their accumulation in shellfish. In this study, mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) were exposed to G. catenatum for five days and then exposed to a non-toxic diet for 24 h, to investigate the toxin’s accumulation/elimination dynamics. As determined by UHPLC-HILIC-MS/MS, the hydroxybenzoate analogues, GC1 to GC6, comprised 41% of the algae toxin profile and only 9% in mussels. Elimination of GC toxins after 24 h was not evident. This study highlights that a relevant fraction of PST in mussels are not routinely analysed in monitoring programs and that there is a need to better understand the toxicological potential of the hydroxybenzoate analogues, in order to properly address the risk of G. catenatum blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Reis Costa
- IPMA-Portuguese Institute for the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Brasília, 1449-006 Lisbon, Portugal.
- CCMAR-Centre of Marine Sciences, University of Algarve, Campus of Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal.
| | - Ana Catarina Braga
- IPMA-Portuguese Institute for the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Brasília, 1449-006 Lisbon, Portugal.
- Biology Department and CESAM, Aveiro University, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
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30
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Wu HY, Luan QS, Guo MM, Gu HF, Zhai YX, Tan ZJ. Phycotoxins in scallops (Patinopecten yessoensis) in relation to source, composition and temporal variation of phytoplankton and cysts in North Yellow Sea, China. Mar Pollut Bull 2018; 135:1198-1204. [PMID: 30301019 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.08.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Revised: 08/20/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The North Yellow Sea is a major aquaculture production area for the scallop Patinopecten yessoensis. In this study, the temporal and spatial variation of phycotoxins in scallops, phytoplankton, and their cysts were analyzed during a survey conducted from June 2011 to April 2012 around Zhangzi Island. The study area is a semi-enclosed epicontinental sea surrounded by the Shandong Peninsula, the Liaodong Peninsula and the Korean Peninsula. The three main results of the study were as follows: (1) The saxitoxin-group toxins, okadaic acid and analogues, and pectenotoxins were the major phycotoxin residues found in scallops; (2) Six kinds of toxic microalgae were identified, Protoperidinium spp., Gonyaulax spp., and Alexandrium spp. were the dominant taxa; Seven types of potential marine toxin-producing dinoflagellates, A. tamarense, A. catenella, Dinophysis fortii, G. catenatum, Gambierdiscus toxicus, Azadinium poporum, and Pseudo-nitzschia pungen were identified as the primary source of phycotoxins and were present at relatively high density from June to October; and (3) azaspiracids and domoic acid might be new potential sources of toxin pollution. This study represents the first assessment to phycotoxins around Zhangzi Island in the North Yellow Sea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Yan Wu
- Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Aquatic Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture, Qingdao 266071, China; Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Carbon-sink Fisheries Laboratory, Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Qing-Shan Luan
- Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Aquatic Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture, Qingdao 266071, China; Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Carbon-sink Fisheries Laboratory, Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Meng-Meng Guo
- Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Aquatic Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture, Qingdao 266071, China; Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Carbon-sink Fisheries Laboratory, Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Hai-Feng Gu
- Third Institute of Oceanography, SOA, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Yu-Xiu Zhai
- Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Aquatic Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture, Qingdao 266071, China; Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Carbon-sink Fisheries Laboratory, Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Zhi-Jun Tan
- Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Aquatic Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture, Qingdao 266071, China; Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Carbon-sink Fisheries Laboratory, Qingdao 266071, China.
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31
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Silva M, Rey V, Barreiro A, Kaufmann M, Neto AI, Hassouani M, Sabour B, Botana A, Botana LM, Vasconcelos V. Paralytic Shellfish Toxins Occurrence in Non-Traditional Invertebrate Vectors from North Atlantic Waters (Azores, Madeira, and Morocco). Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10090362. [PMID: 30200645 PMCID: PMC6162766 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10090362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2018] [Revised: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) are potent alkaloids of microalgal and cyanobacterial origin, with worldwide distribution. Over the last 20 years, the number of poisoning incidents has declined as a result of the implementation of legislation and monitoring programs based on bivalves. In the summer of 2012 and 2013, we collected a total of 98 samples from 23 different species belonging to benthic and subtidal organisms, such as echinoderms, crustaceans, bivalves, and gastropods. The sampling locations were Madeira, São Miguel Island (Azores archipelago), and the northwestern coast of Morocco. The samples were analyzed using post-column oxidation liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detection method. Our main goal was to detect new vectors for these biotoxins. After reporting a total of 59 positive results for PSTs with 14 new vectors identified, we verified that some of the amounts exceeded the limit value established in the EU. These results suggest that routine monitoring of saxitoxin and its analogs should be extended to more potential vectors other than bivalves, including other edible organisms, for a better protection of public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Silva
- Department of Biology, Science Faculty, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edificio do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal.
| | - Verónica Rey
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Science Faculty, University of Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Aldo Barreiro
- Department of Biology, Science Faculty, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edificio do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal.
| | - Manfred Kaufmann
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edificio do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Life Sciences Faculty, Madeira University, Marine Biology Station, 9000-107 Funchal, Madeira Island, Portugal.
- Center of Interdisciplinary Marine and Environmental Research of Madeira-CIIMAR-Madeira, Edificio Madeira Tecnopolo, Caminho da Penteada, 9020-105 Funchal, Madeira, Portugal.
| | - Ana Isabel Neto
- cE3c/GBA-Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes/Azorean Biodiversity Group and Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Azores, 9501-801 Ponta Delgada, São Miguel, Azores, Portugal.
| | - Meryem Hassouani
- Phycology Research Unit-Biotechnology, Ecosystems Ecology and Valorization Laboratory, Science Faculty, University of Chouaib Doukkali, El Jadida BP20, Morocco.
| | - Brahim Sabour
- Phycology Research Unit-Biotechnology, Ecosystems Ecology and Valorization Laboratory, Science Faculty, University of Chouaib Doukkali, El Jadida BP20, Morocco.
| | - Ana Botana
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Science Faculty, University of Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Luis M Botana
- Department of Pharmacology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- Department of Biology, Science Faculty, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edificio do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal.
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32
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Turner AD, Dhanji-Rapkova M, Dean K, Milligan S, Hamilton M, Thomas J, Poole C, Haycock J, Spelman-Marriott J, Watson A, Hughes K, Marr B, Dixon A, Coates L. Fatal Canine Intoxications Linked to the Presence of Saxitoxins in Stranded Marine Organisms Following Winter Storm Activity. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E94. [PMID: 29495385 PMCID: PMC5869382 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10030094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
At the start of 2018, multiple incidents of dog illnesses were reported following consumption of marine species washed up onto the beaches of eastern England after winter storms. Over a two-week period, nine confirmed illnesses including two canine deaths were recorded. Symptoms in the affected dogs included sickness, loss of motor control, and muscle paralysis. Samples of flatfish, starfish, and crab from the beaches in the affected areas were analysed for a suite of naturally occurring marine neurotoxins of dinoflagellate origin. Toxins causing paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) were detected and quantified using two independent chemical testing methods in samples of all three marine types, with concentrations over 14,000 µg saxitoxin (STX) eq/kg found in one starfish sample. Further evidence for PSP intoxication of the dogs was obtained with the positive identification of PSP toxins in a vomited crab sample from one deceased dog and in gastrointestinal samples collected post mortem from a second affected dog. Together, this is the first report providing evidence of starfish being implicated in a PSP intoxication case and the first report of PSP in canines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Monika Dhanji-Rapkova
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Karl Dean
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Steven Milligan
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Mike Hamilton
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Julie Thomas
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Chris Poole
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Jo Haycock
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Jo Spelman-Marriott
- Taverham Veterinary Hospital, Fir Covert Road, Taverham, Norwich, Norfolk NR8 6HT, UK.
| | - Alice Watson
- Taverham Veterinary Hospital, Fir Covert Road, Taverham, Norwich, Norfolk NR8 6HT, UK.
| | - Katherine Hughes
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK.
| | - Bridget Marr
- Environment Agency, Dragonfly House, 2 Gilders Way, Norwich, Norfolk NR3 1UB, UK.
| | - Alan Dixon
- North Norfolk District Council, Holt Road, Cromer, Norfolk, NR27 9EN, UK.
| | - Lewis Coates
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
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33
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Lian Z, Wang J. Selective isolation of gonyautoxins 1,4 from the dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum based on molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction. Mar Pollut Bull 2017; 122:500-504. [PMID: 28662976 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.06.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Revised: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/21/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Gonyautoxins 1,4 (GTX1,4) from Alexandrium minutum samples were isolated selectively and recognized specifically by an innovative and effective extraction procedure based on molecular imprinting technology. Novel molecularly imprinted polymer microspheres (MIPMs) were prepared by double-templated imprinting strategy using caffeine and pentoxifylline as dummy templates. The synthesized polymers displayed good affinity to GTX1,4 and were applied as sorbents. Further, an off-line molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction (MISPE) protocol was optimized and an effective approach based on the MISPE coupled with HPLC-FLD was developed for selective isolation of GTX1,4 from the cultured A. minutum samples. The separation method showed good extraction efficiency (73.2-81.5%) for GTX1,4 and efficient removal of interferences matrices was also achieved after the MISPE process for the microalgal samples. The outcome demonstrated the superiority and great potential of the MISPE procedure for direct separation of GTX1,4 from marine microalgal extracts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziru Lian
- Marine College, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China
| | - Jiangtao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100,China.
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Dorantes-Aranda JJ, Tan JYC, Hallegraeff GM, Campbell K, Ugalde SC, Harwood DT, Bartlett JK, Campàs M, Crooks S, Gerssen A, Harrison K, Huet AC, Jordan TB, Koeberl M, Monaghan T, Murray S, Nimmagadda R, Ooms C, Quinlan RK, Shi F, Turner AD, Yakes BJ, Turnbull AR. Detection of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Mussels and Oysters Using the Qualitative Neogen Lateral-Flow Immunoassay: An Interlaboratory Study. J AOAC Int 2017; 101:468-479. [PMID: 28851479 DOI: 10.5740/jaoacint.17-0221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) in bivalve molluscs represent a public health risk and are controlled via compliance with a regulatory limit of 0.8 mg saxitoxin (STX)⋅2HCl equivalents per kilogram of shellfish meat (eq/kg). Shellfish industries would benefit from the use of rapid immunological screening tests for PSTs to be used for regulation, but to date none have been fully validated. An interlaboratory study involving 16 laboratories was performed to determine the suitability of the Neogen test to detect PSTs in mussels and oysters. Participants performed the standard protocol recommended by the manufacturer and a modified protocol with a conversion step to improve detection of gonyautoxin 1&4. The statistical analysis showed that the protocols had good homogeneity across all laboratories, with satisfactory repeatability, laboratory, and reproducibility variation near the regulatory level. The mean probability of detection (POD) at 0.8 mg STX⋅2HCl eq/kg using the standard protocol in mussels and oysters was 0.966 and 0.997, respectively, and 0.968 and 0.966 using the modified protocol. The estimated LOD in mussels was 0.316 mg STX⋅2HCl eq/kg with the standard and 0.682 mg STX⋅2HCl eq/kg with the modified protocol, and 0.710 and 0.734 mg STX⋅2HCl eq/kg for oysters, respectively. The Neogen test may be acceptable for regulatory purposes for oysters in accordance with European Commission directives in which the standard protocol provides, at the regulatory level, a probability of a negative response of 0.033 on 95% of occasions. Its use for mussels is less consistent at the regulatory level due to the wide prediction interval around the POD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan José Dorantes-Aranda
- University of Tasmania, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, Private Bag 129, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Jessica Y C Tan
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, 2b Hartley Grv., Urrbrae, SA 5064, Australia
| | - Gustaaf M Hallegraeff
- University of Tasmania, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, Private Bag 129, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Katrina Campbell
- Queen's University Belfast, School of Biological Sciences, Institute for Global Food Security, David Keir Building, Stranmillis Rd, Belfast, BT9 5AG, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah C Ugalde
- University of Tasmania, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, Private Bag 129, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax St, Nelson 7010, New Zealand
| | - Jill K Bartlett
- University of Canberra, Institute for Applied Ecology, ACT 2617, Australia
| | - Mònica Campàs
- IRTA, Carretera de Poble Nou, km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain
| | - Steven Crooks
- Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Veterinary Sciences Division, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Arjen Gerssen
- Wageningen University and Research, RIKILT, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Keith Harrison
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Barrack Rd, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Anne-Catherine Huet
- CER Groupe, Health Department, Rue du Point du Jour 8, 6900 Marloie, Belgium
| | - Timothy B Jordan
- Analytical Services Tasmania, 18 St Johns Ave, New Town, Hobart, TAS 7008, Australia
| | - Martina Koeberl
- National Measurement Institute, 1/153 Bertie St, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
| | - Tim Monaghan
- Cameron of Tasmania, 145-149 Arthur Hwy, Dunalley, TAS 7177, Australia
| | - Sam Murray
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax St, Nelson 7010, New Zealand
| | - Rama Nimmagadda
- Advanced Analytical Australia Pty Ltd, 11 Julius Ave, North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia
| | - Corinne Ooms
- Spring Bay Seafoods, 488 Freestone Point Rd, Triabunna, TAS 7190, Australia
| | - Rae K Quinlan
- University of Tasmania, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, Private Bag 129, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Feng Shi
- Advanced Analytical Australia Pty Ltd, 11 Julius Ave, North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia
| | - Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Barrack Rd, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Betsy Jean Yakes
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Regulatory Science, College Park, MD
| | - Alison R Turnbull
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, 2b Hartley Grv., Urrbrae, SA 5064, Australia
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Turnbull AR, Tan JYC, Ugalde SC, Hallegraeff GM, Campbell K, Harwood DT, Dorantes-Aranda JJ. Single-Laboratory Validation of the Neogen Qualitative Lateral Flow Immunoassay for the Detection of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Mussels and Oysters. J AOAC Int 2017; 101:480-489. [PMID: 28797318 DOI: 10.5740/jaoacint.17-0135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Detection of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) in bivalve shellfish by analytical methods is complicated and costly, requiring specific expertise and equipment. Following extensive blooms of Alexandrium tamarense Group 1 in Tasmania, Australia, an investigation was made into commercially available screening test kits suitable for use with the toxin profiles found in affected bivalves. The qualitative Neogen rapid test kit, with a modified protocol to convert gonyautoxins GTX1&4 and GTX2&3 into neosaxitoxin and saxitoxin (STX), respectively, with higher cross-reactivities, was the best fit-for-purpose. This validation study of the test kit and the modified protocol was undertaken following AOAC INTERNATIONAL guidelines for the validation of qualitative binary chemistry methods. The validation used four different PST profiles representing natural profiles found in Australia and in Europe: two in a mussel matrix and two in an oyster matrix. The test kit was shown to have appropriate selectivity of the toxin analogs commonly found in bivalve shellfish. The matrix and probability of detection (POD) study showed that the rapid test kit used with the modified protocol was able to consistently detect PST at the bivalve regulatory level of 0.8 mg STX⋅2HCl eq/kg, with a POD estimated via the binomial logistic regression of 1.0 at 0.8 mg STX⋅2HCl eq/kg in all tested profiles in both matrixes. The POD at 0.4 mg STX⋅2HCl eq/kg was 0.75 and 0.46 for the two toxin profiles in an oyster matrix and 0.96 and 1.0 for the two toxin profiles in a mussel matrix. No significant differences in the PODs of the PSTs at the regulatory level were found between production lots of the test kits. The results suggest the method is suitable to undergo a collaborative validation study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison R Turnbull
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, 2b Hartley Grove, Urrbrae, SA 5064, Australia
| | - Jessica Y C Tan
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, 2b Hartley Grove, Urrbrae, SA 5064, Australia
| | - Sarah C Ugalde
- University of Tasmania, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, Private Bag 129, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Gustaaf M Hallegraeff
- University of Tasmania, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, Private Bag 129, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Katrina Campbell
- Queen's University Belfast, School of Biological Sciences, Institute for Global Food Security, David Keir Building, Stranmillis Rd, Belfast BT9 5AG, United Kingdom
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax St, Nelson 7010, New Zealand
| | - Juan José Dorantes-Aranda
- University of Tasmania, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, Private Bag 129, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
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Casali SP, Dos Santos ACA, de Falco PB, Calijuri MDC. Influence of environmental variables on saxitoxin yields by Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii in a mesotrophic subtropical reservoir. J Water Health 2017; 15:509-518. [PMID: 28771148 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2017.266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Saxitoxins are a class of toxins produced by at least two groups of evolutionarily distant organisms (cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates). While the toxicity of these toxins is relatively well characterized, to date little is known about their drivers and ecological functions, especially in lower latitude tropical and subtropical freshwater ecosystems. In the present study, we aimed to obtain a better understanding of the main drivers of saxitoxin concentrations in aquatic environments. We investigated the relationships among saxitoxin concentrations in a mesotrophic subtropical reservoir dominated by the cyanobacteria Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii with physical, chemical and biological water variables. The highest saxitoxin concentrations were 0.20 μg·L-1, which occurred in the samples with the highest densities of C. raciborskii (maximum of 4.3 × 104 org·mL-1) and the highest concentration of dissolved nutrients (nitrate from 0.2 to 0.8 μg·L-1, ortophosphate from 0.3 to 8.5 μg·L-1). These correlations were confirmed by statistical analyses. However, the highest saxitoxin relative concentrations (per trichome) were associated with lower C. raciborskii densities, suggesting that saxitoxin production or the selection of saxitoxin-producing strains was associated with the adaptation of this species to conditions of stress. Our results indicate that C. raciborskii toxin yields vary depending on the enrichment conditions having potential implications for reservoir management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Pereira Casali
- Laboratório de Biotoxicologia de Águas Continentais e Efluentes (BIOTACE), Escola de Engenharia do São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Trabalhador São-Carlense, 400. CEP 13566-590 São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - André Cordeiro Alves Dos Santos
- Laboratório de Microbiologia Ambiental, Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Rodovia João Leme dos Santos km 110, Sorocaba, SP, Brazil E-mail:
| | | | - Maria do Carmo Calijuri
- Laboratório de Biotoxicologia de Águas Continentais e Efluentes (BIOTACE), Escola de Engenharia do São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Trabalhador São-Carlense, 400. CEP 13566-590 São Carlos, SP, Brazil
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Beach DG. Differential Mobility Spectrometry for Improved Selectivity in Hydrophilic Interaction Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins. J Am Soc Mass Spectrom 2017; 28:1518-1530. [PMID: 28374313 DOI: 10.1007/s13361-017-1651-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2017] [Revised: 03/01/2017] [Accepted: 03/02/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) are neurotoxins produced by dinoflagellates and cyanobacteria that cause paralytic shellfish poisoning in humans. PST quantitation by LC-MS is challenging because of their high polarity, lability as gas-phase ions, and large number of potentially interfering analogues. Differential mobility spectrometry (DMS) has the potential to improve the performance of LC-MS methods for PSTs in terms of selectivity and limits of detection. This work describes a comprehensive investigation of the separation of 16 regulated PSTs by DMS and the development of highly selective LC-DMS-MS methods for PST quantitation. The effects of all DMS parameters on the separation of PSTs from one another were first investigated in detail. The labile nature of 11α-gonyautoxin epimers gave unique insight into fragmentation of labile analytes before, during, and after the DMS analyzer. Two sets of DMS parameters were identified that either optimized the resolution of PSTs from one another or transmitted them at a limited number of compensation voltage (CV) values corresponding to structural subclasses. These were used to develop multidimensional LC-DMS-MS/MS methods using existing HILIC-MS/MS parameters. In both cases, improved selectivity was observed when using DMS, and the quantitative capabilities of a rapid UPLC-DMS-MS/MS method were evaluated. Limits of detection of the developed method were similar to those without DMS, and differences were highly analyte-dependant. Analysis of shellfish matrix reference materials showed good agreement with established methods. The developed methods will be useful in cases where specific matrix interferences are encountered in the LC-MS/MS analysis of PSTs in complex biological samples. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel G Beach
- Measurement Science and Standards, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS, B3H 3Z1, Canada.
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Finnis S, Krstic N, McIntyre L, Nelson TA, Henderson SB. Spatiotemporal patterns of paralytic shellfish toxins and their relationships with environmental variables in British Columbia, Canada from 2002 to 2012. Environ Res 2017; 156:190-200. [PMID: 28359039 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2017.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Revised: 01/12/2017] [Accepted: 03/09/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Harmful algal blooms produce paralytic shellfish toxins that accumulate in the tissues of filter feeding shellfish. Ingestion of these toxic shellfish can cause a serious and potentially fatal condition known as paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). The coast of British Columbia is routinely monitored for shellfish toxicity, and this study uses data from the monitoring program to identify spatiotemporal patterns in shellfish toxicity events and their relationships with environmental variables. METHODS The dinoflagellate genus Alexandrium produces the most potent paralytic shellfish toxin, saxitoxin (STX). Data on all STX measurements were obtained from 49 different shellfish monitoring sites along the coast of British Columbia for 2002-2012, and monthly toxicity events were identified. We performed hierarchical cluster analysis to group sites that had events in similar areas with similar timing. Machine learning techniques were used to model the complex relationships between toxicity events and environmental variables in each group. RESULTS The Strait of Georgia and the west coast of Vancouver Island had unique toxicity regimes. Out of the seven environmental variables used, toxicity in each cluster could be described by multivariable models including monthly sea surface temperature, air temperature, sea surface salinity, freshwater discharge, upwelling, and photosynthetically active radiation. The sea surface salinity and freshwater discharge variables produced the strongest univariate models for both geographic areas. CONCLUSIONS Applying these methods in coastal regions could allow for the prediction of shellfish toxicity events by environmental conditions. This has the potential to optimize biotoxin monitoring, improve public health surveillance, and engage the shellfish industry in helping to reduce the risk of PSP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Finnis
- Spatial Pattern Analysis & Research Lab, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Road, Victoria, BC, Canada V8P 5C2.
| | - Nikolas Krstic
- Environmental Health Services, British Columbia Centre for Disease Control, 655 West 12th Avenue, Vancouver, BC, Canada V5Z 4R4.
| | - Lorraine McIntyre
- Environmental Health Services, British Columbia Centre for Disease Control, 655 West 12th Avenue, Vancouver, BC, Canada V5Z 4R4.
| | - Trisalyn A Nelson
- Spatial Pattern Analysis & Research Lab, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Road, Victoria, BC, Canada V8P 5C2.
| | - Sarah B Henderson
- Environmental Health Services, British Columbia Centre for Disease Control, 655 West 12th Avenue, Vancouver, BC, Canada V5Z 4R4; School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, 2206 East Mall, 3rd Floor, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z3.
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Oyaneder Terrazas J, Contreras HR, García C. Prevalence, Variability and Bioconcentration of Saxitoxin-Group in Different Marine Species Present in the Food Chain. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E190. [PMID: 28604648 PMCID: PMC5488040 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9060190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Revised: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 06/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The saxitoxin-group (STX-group) corresponds to toxic metabolites produced by cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates of the genera Alexandrium, Gymnodinium, and Pyrodinium. Over the last decade, it has been possible to extrapolate the areas contaminated with the STX-group worldwide, including Chile, a phenomenon that has affected ≈35% of the Southern Pacific coast territory, generating a high economic impact. The objective of this research was to study the toxicity of the STX-group in all aquatic organisms (bivalves, algae, echinoderms, crustaceans, tunicates, cephalopods, gastropods, and fish) present in areas with a variable presence of harmful algal blooms (HABs). Then, the toxic profiles of each species and dose of STX equivalents ingested by a 60 kg person from 400 g of shellfish were determined to establish the health risk assessment. The toxins with the highest prevalence detected were gonyautoxin-4/1 (GTX4/GTX1), gonyautoxin-3/2 (GTX3/GTX2), neosaxitoxin (neoSTX), decarbamoylsaxitoxin (dcSTX), and saxitoxin (STX), with average concentrations of 400, 2800, 280, 200, and 2000 µg kg-1 respectively, a species-specific variability, dependent on the evaluated tissue, which demonstrates the biotransformation of the analogues in the trophic transfer with a predominance of α-epimers in all toxic profiles. The identification in multiple vectors, as well as in unregulated species, suggests that a risk assessment and risk management update are required; also, chemical and specific analyses for the detection of all analogues associated with the STX-group need to be established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javiera Oyaneder Terrazas
- Physiology and Biophysics Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago 8380000, Chile.
| | - Héctor R Contreras
- Department of Basic and Clinical Oncology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago 8380000, Chile.
| | - Carlos García
- Department of Basic and Clinical Oncology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago 8380000, Chile.
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Natsuike M, Oikawa H, Matsuno K, Yamaguchi A, Imai I. The physiological adaptations and toxin profiles of the toxic Alexandrium fundyense on the eastern Bering Sea and Chukchi Sea shelves. Harmful Algae 2017; 63:13-22. [PMID: 28366387 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2017.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2016] [Revised: 01/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/06/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Abundant cyst distributions of the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium fundyense (previous A. tamarense north American clade) were recently observed on the north Chukchi Sea shelf and on the eastern Bering Sea shelf, suggesting that A. fundyense is both highly adapted to the local environments in the high latitude areas and might cause toxin contamination of plankton feeders. However, little is known about the physiological characteristics and toxin profiles of A. fundyense in these areas, which are characterized by low water temperatures, weak sunlight, and more or less permanent ice cover during winter. To clarify the physiological characteristics of A. fundyense, the effects of water temperature and light intensity on the vegetative growth and toxin profiles of this species were examined using A. fundyense strains isolated from one sediment sample collected from each area. Using the same sediments samples, seasonal changes of the cyst germination in different water temperatures were investigated. Vegetative cells grew at temperatures as low as 5°C and survived at 1°C under relatively low light intensity. They also grew at moderate water temperatures (10-15°C). Their cysts could germinate at low temperatures (1°C) and have an endogenous dormancy period from late summer to early spring, and warmer water temperatures (5-15°C) increased germination success. These physiological characteristics suggest that A. fundyense in the Chukchi Sea and eastern Bering Sea is adapted to the environments of high latitude areas. In addition, the results suggest that in the study areas A. fundyense has the potential to germinate and grow when water temperatures increase. Cellular toxin amounts of A. fundyense strains from the eastern Bering Sea and Chukchi Sea were ranged from 7.2 to 38.2 fmol cell-1. These toxin amounts are comparable with A. fundyense strains isolated from other areas where PSP toxin contamination of bivalves occurs. The dominant toxin of the strains isolated from the Chukchi Sea was saxitoxin, while most A. fundyense strains from the eastern Bering Sea are dominated by the C2 toxin. Toxin profiles similar to those detected in Chukchi Sea have not been reported by any previous research. The dominance of a highly toxic PST variant in Chukchi A. fundyense suggests that presence of the species at low cell concentrations may cause toxin contamination of predators. This study revealed that abundant A. fundyense cysts deposited on the eastern Bering Sea and Chukchi Sea shelves potentially germinate and grow with PSP toxin contents in the local environments. In conclusion, a high risk of PSP occurrences exists on the eastern Bering Sea and Chukchi Sea shelves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masafumi Natsuike
- Graduate School of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, 3-1-1 Minato-cho, Hakodate, Hokkaido 041-8611, Japan; Tokyo Institute of Technology, School of Environment and Society, 2-12-1-M1-4 Ookayama, Meguro, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan.
| | - Hiroshi Oikawa
- National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan
| | - Kohei Matsuno
- Australian Antarctic Division,203 Channel Highway, Kingston, Tasmania, 7050, Australia
| | - Atsushi Yamaguchi
- Graduate School of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, 3-1-1 Minato-cho, Hakodate, Hokkaido 041-8611, Japan
| | - Ichiro Imai
- Graduate School of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, 3-1-1 Minato-cho, Hakodate, Hokkaido 041-8611, Japan
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O'Neill K, Musgrave IF, Humpage A. Low dose extended exposure to saxitoxin and its potential neurodevelopmental effects: A review. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 2016; 48:7-16. [PMID: 27716534 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2016.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2016] [Accepted: 09/27/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Saxitoxin (STX) and its analogs, the paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), are a group of potent neurotoxins well known for their role in acute paralytic poisoning by preventing the generation of action potentials in neuronal cells. They are found in both marine and freshwater environments globally and although acute exposure from the former has previously received more attention, low dose extended exposure from both sources is possible and to date has not been investigated. Given the known role of cellular electrical activity in neurodevelopment this pattern of exposure may be a significant public health concern. Additionally, the presence of PSTs is likely to be an ongoing and possibly increasing problem in the future. This review examines the neurodevelopmental toxicity of STX, the risk of extended or repeated exposure to doses with neurodevelopmental effects, the potential implications of this exposure and briefly, the steps taken and difficulties faced in preventing exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie O'Neill
- Discipline of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Level 3 Medical School South, Frome Rd, Adelaide, 5005, South Australia, Australia.
| | - Ian F Musgrave
- Discipline of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Level 3 Medical School South, Frome Rd, Adelaide, 5005, South Australia, Australia.
| | - Andrew Humpage
- Australian Water Quality Center, SA Water House, 250 Victoria Square, Adelaide, 5000, South Australia, Australia.
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Knaack JS, Porter KA, Jacob JT, Sullivan K, Forester M, Wang RY, Trainer VL, Morton S, Eckert G, McGahee E, Thomas J, McLaughlin J, Johnson RC. Case diagnosis and characterization of suspected paralytic shellfish poisoning in Alaska. Harmful Algae 2016; 57:45-50. [PMID: 28918891 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2014] [Accepted: 12/18/2014] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Clinical cases of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) are common in Alaska, and result from human consumption of shellfish contaminated with saxitoxin (STX) and its analogues. Diagnosis of PSP is presumptive and based on recent ingestion of shellfish and presence of manifestations consistent with symptoms of PSP; diagnosis is confirmed by detection of paralytic shellfish toxins in a clinical specimen or food sample. A clinical diagnostic analytical method using high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) was used to evaluate the diagnosis of saxitoxin-induced PSP (STX-PSP) in 11 Alaskan patients using urine specimens collected between June 2010 and November 2011. Concentrations of urinary STX were corrected for creatinine concentrations to account for dilution or concentration of urine from water intake or restriction, respectively. Of the 11 patients with suspected PSP, four patients were confirmed to have STX-PSP by urine testing (24-364ng STX/g creatinine). Five patients had clinical manifestations of PSP though no STX was detected in their urine. Two patients were ruled out for STX-PSP based on non-detected urinary STX and the absence of clinical findings. Results revealed that dysphagia and dysarthria may be stronger indicators of PSP than paresthesia and nausea, which are commonly used to clinically diagnose patients with PSP. PSP can also occur from exposure to a number of STX congeners, such as gonyautoxins, however their presence in urine was not assessed in this investigation. In addition, meal remnants obtained from six presumptive PSP cases were analyzed using the Association of Official Analytical Chemists' mouse bioassay. All six samples tested positive for PSP toxins. In the future, the clinical diagnostic method can be used in conjunction with the mouse bioassay or HPLC-MS/MS to assess the extent of STX-PSP in Alaska where it has been suggested that PSP is underreported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer S Knaack
- Emergency Response Branch, Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Highway, MS F44, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA.
| | - Kimberly A Porter
- Epidemic Intelligence Service, (Alaska Section of Epidemiology), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Justin T Jacob
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education Fellow at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, MC-100-44, P.O. Box 117, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831-0117, USA
| | - Kate Sullivan
- Fisheries Technology, University of Alaska Southeast, 2600 7th Ave, Ketchikan, AK 99901, USA
| | - Matthew Forester
- Alaska Environmental Health Laboratory, Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, 5251 Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Ave., Anchorage, AK 99507, USA
| | - Richard Y Wang
- Emergency Response Branch, Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Highway, MS F44, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Vera L Trainer
- Marine Biotoxins Program, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, WA 98112 USA
| | - Steve Morton
- National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Marine Biotoxins Program, 219 Fort Johnson Road, Charleston, SC 29412, USA
| | - Ginny Eckert
- School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 17101 Point Lena Loop Rd., Juneau, AK 99801, USA
| | - Ernest McGahee
- Emergency Response Branch, Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Highway, MS F44, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Jerry Thomas
- Emergency Response Branch, Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Highway, MS F44, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Joseph McLaughlin
- Section of Epidemiology, Alaska Department of Health and Social Services, 3601 C Street, Suite 540, Anchorage, AK 99503, USA
| | - Rudolph C Johnson
- Emergency Response Branch, Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Highway, MS F44, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA.
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Rey V, Botana AM, Alvarez M, Antelo A, Botana LM. Liquid Chromatography with a Fluorimetric Detection Method for Analysis of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins and Tetrodotoxin Based on a Porous Graphitic Carbon Column. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8070196. [PMID: 27367728 PMCID: PMC4963829 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8070196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2016] [Revised: 06/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish toxins (PST) traditionally have been analyzed by liquid chromatography with either pre- or post-column derivatization and always with a silica-based stationary phase. This technique resulted in different methods that need more than one run to analyze the toxins. Furthermore, tetrodotoxin (TTX) was recently found in bivalves of northward locations in Europe due to climate change, so it is important to analyze it along with PST because their signs of toxicity are similar in the bioassay. The methods described here detail a new approach to eliminate different runs, by using a new porous graphitic carbon stationary phase. Firstly we describe the separation of 13 PST that belong to different groups, taking into account the side-chains of substituents, in one single run of less than 30 min with good reproducibility. The method was assayed in four shellfish matrices: mussel (Mytillus galloprovincialis), clam (Pecten maximus), scallop (Ruditapes decussatus) and oyster (Ostrea edulis). The results for all of the parameters studied are provided, and the detection limits for the majority of toxins were improved with regard to previous liquid chromatography methods: the lowest values were those for decarbamoyl-gonyautoxin 2 (dcGTX2) and gonyautoxin 2 (GTX2) in mussel (0.0001 mg saxitoxin (STX)·diHCl kg−1 for each toxin), decarbamoyl-saxitoxin (dcSTX) in clam (0.0003 mg STX·diHCl kg−1), N-sulfocarbamoyl-gonyautoxins 2 and 3 (C1 and C2) in scallop (0.0001 mg STX·diHCl kg−1 for each toxin) and dcSTX (0.0003 mg STX·diHCl kg−1 ) in oyster; gonyautoxin 2 (GTX2) showed the highest limit of detection in oyster (0.0366 mg STX·diHCl kg−1). Secondly, we propose a modification of the method for the simultaneous analysis of PST and TTX, with some minor changes in the solvent gradient, although the detection limit for TTX does not allow its use nowadays for regulatory purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Rey
- Department Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain.
| | - Ana M Botana
- Department Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain.
| | | | - Alvaro Antelo
- CIFGA S.A., Plaza Santo Domingo 20-5ª, Lugo 27001, Spain.
| | - Luis M Botana
- Department Pharmacology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain.
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Brentano DM, Giehl ELH, Petrucio MM. Abiotic variables affect STX concentration in a meso-oligotrophic subtropical coastal lake dominated by Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Cyanophyceae). Harmful Algae 2016; 56:22-28. [PMID: 28073493 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Revised: 03/13/2016] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii is capable of producing toxins including saxitoxin (STX). Few studies have verified the influence of environmental variables on the production of STX and most have only been studied in the laboratory. The goal of this work was to identify the abiotic variables related to STX concentration in situ. The relationship among STX concentration and the physical variables, nutrients and chlorophyll-a (chl-a) concentration was examined in a meso-oligotrophic subtropical coastal lake dominated by C. raciborskii. A generalized linear model was developed, incorporating all variables measured monthly over a 45-month monitoring period. Conductivity and dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) concentration provided the greatest explanatory power for STX concentration in situ. Previous studies suggested that C. raciborskii cells exposed to stress associated with higher ionic concentrations appear to activate the biosynthesis of STX suggesting that STX can elicit changes cell permeability and may contribute to the homeostasis of this organism. An increase of DIN concentration results in a higher concentration of STX which may be related to a reduced metabolic demand, since the uptake of inorganic nitrogen requires less energy than N2-fixation. Thus, increased DIN can favor the growth of C. raciborskii population or improve cellular homeostasis, both potentially increasing STX concentration in the aquatic system, which was observed through a delayed response pattern. The developed model, while providing only a moderate predictive power, can assist in the understanding of the environmental variables associated with increases in STX concentration, and in monitoring and minimizing the risks of toxic blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Débora Monteiro Brentano
- Instituto Federal de Educação Ciência e Tecnologia de Santa Catarina, Laboratório de Ecotoxicologia, Av. Mauro Ramos, 950, Florianópolis, SC CEP 88020-300, Brazil.
| | - Eduardo L Hettwer Giehl
- Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia, Campus Reitor David Ferreira Lima, Florianópolis, SC CEP 88040-900, Brazil.
| | - Maurício Mello Petrucio
- Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Laboratório de Ecologia de Águas Continentais, Campus Reitor David Ferreira Lima, Florianópolis, SC CEP 88040-900, Brazil.
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45
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McNamee SE, Medlin LK, Kegel J, McCoy GR, Raine R, Barra L, Ruggiero MV, Kooistra WHCF, Montresor M, Hagstrom J, Blanco EP, Graneli E, Rodríguez F, Escalera L, Reguera B, Dittami S, Edvardsen B, Taylor J, Lewis JM, Pazos Y, Elliott CT, Campbell K. Distribution, occurrence and biotoxin composition of the main shellfish toxin producing microalgae within European waters: A comparison of methods of analysis. Harmful Algae 2016; 55:112-120. [PMID: 28073524 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Revised: 02/16/2016] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are a natural global phenomena emerging in severity and extent. Incidents have many economic, ecological and human health impacts. Monitoring and providing early warning of toxic HABs are critical for protecting public health. Current monitoring programmes include measuring the number of toxic phytoplankton cells in the water and biotoxin levels in shellfish tissue. As these efforts are demanding and labour intensive, methods which improve the efficiency are essential. This study compares the utilisation of a multitoxin surface plasmon resonance (multitoxin SPR) biosensor with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and analytical methods such as high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for toxic HAB monitoring efforts in Europe. Seawater samples (n=256) from European waters, collected 2009-2011, were analysed for biotoxins: saxitoxin and analogues, okadaic acid and dinophysistoxins 1/2 (DTX1/DTX2) and domoic acid responsible for paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP) and amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP), respectively. Biotoxins were detected mainly in samples from Spain and Ireland. France and Norway appeared to have the lowest number of toxic samples. Both the multitoxin SPR biosensor and the RNA microarray were more sensitive at detecting toxic HABs than standard light microscopy phytoplankton monitoring. Correlations between each of the detection methods were performed with the overall agreement, based on statistical 2×2 comparison tables, between each testing platform ranging between 32% and 74% for all three toxin families illustrating that one individual testing method may not be an ideal solution. An efficient early warning monitoring system for the detection of toxic HABs could therefore be achieved by combining both the multitoxin SPR biosensor and RNA microarray.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara E McNamee
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University, Stranmillis Road, Belfast BT9 5AG, UK
| | - Linda K Medlin
- Marine Biological Association of UK, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth, UK
| | - Jessica Kegel
- Marine Biological Association of UK, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth, UK
| | - Gary R McCoy
- Martin Ryan Institute, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | - Robin Raine
- Martin Ryan Institute, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | - Lucia Barra
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121 Napoli, Italy
| | | | | | - Marina Montresor
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121 Napoli, Italy
| | - Johannes Hagstrom
- Linnaeus University, Marine Ecology Department, SE-39182 Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Eva Perez Blanco
- Linnaeus University, Marine Ecology Department, SE-39182 Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Edna Graneli
- Linnaeus University, Marine Ecology Department, SE-39182 Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Francisco Rodríguez
- Instituto Español de Oceanografía, Subida a Radio Faro 50, 36390 Vigo, Spain
| | - Laura Escalera
- Instituto Español de Oceanografía, Subida a Radio Faro 50, 36390 Vigo, Spain
| | - Beatriz Reguera
- Instituto Español de Oceanografía, Subida a Radio Faro 50, 36390 Vigo, Spain
| | - Simon Dittami
- University of Oslo, Department of Biosciences, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Bente Edvardsen
- University of Oslo, Department of Biosciences, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Joe Taylor
- Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Westminster, London W1W 6UW, UK
| | - Jane M Lewis
- Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Westminster, London W1W 6UW, UK
| | - Yolanda Pazos
- INTECMAR, Peirao de Vilaxoán, Villagarcía de Arosa 36611, Spain
| | - Christopher T Elliott
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University, Stranmillis Road, Belfast BT9 5AG, UK
| | - Katrina Campbell
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University, Stranmillis Road, Belfast BT9 5AG, UK.
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46
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Han M, Lee H, Anderson DM, Kim B. Paralytic shellfish toxin production by the dinoflagellate Alexandrium pacificum (Chinhae Bay, Korea) in axenic, nutrient-limited chemostat cultures and nutrient-enriched batch cultures. Mar Pollut Bull 2016; 104:34-43. [PMID: 26874747 PMCID: PMC6437782 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.01.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Revised: 12/31/2015] [Accepted: 01/31/2016] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Blooms of Alexandrium pacificum (formerly Alexandrium tamarense) are common in Chinhae Bay (Korea), presumably linked to anthropogenic eutrophication. Here we examine PSP toxin content and composition in axenic chemostat and batch cultures of A. pacificum using growth conditions that differed according to dilution rate, nutrient limitations, and enrichments. Phosphate (P)-limited cells in chemostat cultures had higher toxin content and a toxin composition that differed from that of nitrogen (N)-limited cells at the highest growth rates. Therefore, toxin composition changes do occur in axenic cultures of A. pacificum following extended growth under steady state conditions. In nutrient-limited batch cultures that received N and P enrichment, the N-enriched cultures showed a more diverse toxin profile than the P-enriched cells; the toxin content of N-enriched cells was lower than in the P-enriched cultures. We infer the following order for the biosynthesis of individual toxins: C1, C2>GTX3>GTX1>neoSTX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myungsoo Han
- Department of Life Science, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, South Korea
| | - Haeok Lee
- Department of Life Science, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, South Korea
| | - Donald M Anderson
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543-1049, USA
| | - Baikho Kim
- Department of Life Science, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, South Korea.
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47
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Hatfield RG, Punn R, Algoet M, Turner AD. A Rapid Method for the Analysis of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins Utilizing Standard Pressure HPLC: Refinement of AOAC 2005.06. J AOAC Int 2016; 99:475-80. [PMID: 26965793 DOI: 10.5740/jaoacint.15-0080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Superficially porous column technologies have previously been shown to provide faster chromatographic analysis of toxin oxidation products when analyzing shellfish for paralytic shellfish toxins. While sub 3 μm fused core columns have facilitated enhanced method performance, including significantly lower analysis times and lower LOD, they were also found to last for only a few hundred injections before pressure increases rendered them unusable with standard HPLC. Recently 5 μm superficially porous columns have become commercially available. In this study, a 5 μm fused core column was used to develop a fast chromatographic method for the analysis of paralytic shellfish toxins, with performance characteristics and column lifetime being assessed. The 5 μm column was found to be able to perform approximately 3000 injections without significant increases in back pressure or reduction in performance. Data generated using the column were found to be equivalent to that determined using current HPLC column technologies for both screening and quantitation methods. Furthermore, an increase in sensitivity for all toxins tested under the routine monitoring program for British waters was observed and the overall run time of the analysis halved. Overall, the 5 μm fused core column provided a significant increase in sample throughput, a reduction in mobile phase consumption, and an increase in method sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert G Hatfield
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Barrack Rd, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, UK
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48
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Silva M, Rey V, Botana A, Vasconcelos V, Botana L. Determination of Gonyautoxin-4 in Echinoderms and Gastropod Matrices by Conversion to Neosaxitoxin Using 2-Mercaptoethanol and Post-Column Oxidation Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 8:E11. [PMID: 26729166 PMCID: PMC4728533 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8010011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2015] [Revised: 12/14/2015] [Accepted: 12/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Paralytic Shellfish Toxin blooms are common worldwide, which makes their monitoring crucial in the prevention of poisoning incidents. These toxins can be monitored by a variety of techniques, including mouse bioassay, receptor binding assay, and liquid chromatography with either mass spectrometric or pre- or post-column fluorescence detection. The post-column oxidation liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection method, used routinely in our laboratory, has been shown to be a reliable method for monitoring paralytic shellfish toxins in mussel, scallop, oyster and clam species. However, due to its high sensitivity to naturally fluorescent matrix interferences, when working with unconventional matrices, there may be problems in identifying toxins because of naturally fluorescent interferences that co-elute with the toxin peaks. This can lead to erroneous identification. In this study, in order to overcome this challenge in echinoderm and gastropod matrices, we optimized the conversion of Gonyautoxins 1 and 4 to Neosaxitoxin with 2-mercaptoethanol. We present a new and less time-consuming method with a good recovery (82.2%, RSD 1.1%, n = 3), requiring only a single reaction step.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Silva
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, Porto 4619-007, Portugal.
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas, 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal.
| | - Verónica Rey
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Science Faculty, University of Santiago of Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain.
| | - Ana Botana
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Science Faculty, University of Santiago of Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain.
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, Porto 4619-007, Portugal.
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas, 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal.
| | - Luis Botana
- Department of Pharmacology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain.
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49
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Mendoza ADL, Sombrito EZ, Cruz LJ. A tyrosine-containing analog of mu-conotoxin GIIIA as ligand in the receptor binding assay for paralytic shellfish poisons. Toxicon 2015; 99:95-101. [PMID: 25817004 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2014] [Revised: 03/23/2015] [Accepted: 03/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Development of novel analytical tools to detect marine biotoxins has been warranted in view of the apparent global pervasiveness of algal-derived shellfish poisoning, and the limitations of existing methods. Here, we describe the initial phase in the development and evaluation of a tyrosine-containing analog of μ-conotoxin (μ-CTX) GIIIA as an alternative to saxitoxin (STX) in a receptor binding assay (RBA) for paralytic shellfish poisons. The peptide analog was synthesized and characterized for structure and bioactivity. The major product of oxidation elicited paralytic symptoms in mice at a minimum dose of 1.31 mg kg(-1) (i.p.). Mass spectrometry analysis of the bioactive peptide gave a molecular mass of 2637.52 Da that was close to the predicted value. Iodination via chloramine-T produced non-, mono- and di-iodinated peptides (respectively, NIP, MIP and DIP). Competition assays against (3)H-STX revealed higher Ki and EC50 (P < 0.0001, ANOVA) indicating reduced affinity for the receptor, and limited displacement of receptor-bound STX. However, subsequent use of MIP may extend the application of RBA to detect small changes in toxin levels owing to its likely enhanced displacement by STX. This may be useful in analyzing samples with toxicities near the regulatory limit, or in establishing baseline values in high risk environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aileen D L Mendoza
- Philippine Nuclear Research Institute, Commonwealth Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines; Marine Science Institute, Velasquez St., University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines.
| | - Elvira Z Sombrito
- Philippine Nuclear Research Institute, Commonwealth Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines.
| | - Lourdes J Cruz
- Marine Science Institute, Velasquez St., University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines.
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50
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Lu G, Song X, Yu Z, Cao X, Yuan Y. Environmental effects of modified clay flocculation on Alexandrium tamarense and paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins (PSTs). Chemosphere 2015; 127:188-194. [PMID: 25721022 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.01.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2014] [Revised: 01/13/2015] [Accepted: 01/25/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Among various mitigation strategies for harmful algal blooms (HABs), the flocculation of algal cells by using modified clay (MC) has been widely applied in the field, particularly in Japan, Korea and China. However, to examine the long-term effects and the environmental safety of this method, we investigated alterations in macronutrients and paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins (PSTs) induced by the application of MC treatment to a toxic bloom, Alexandrium tamarense. The control, algal cells grew in nature condition (A1), was compared to the only MC flocculation (A2) and the MC-sediment co-matrix systems of A. tamarense (A3). The low-dosage of 0.25 g L(-1) MC could efficiently remove >90% of the A. tamarense cells within 3.5h. The mechanisms underlying the effects elicited by MC flocculation on nutrient cycling, PSTs and Chl-a degradation were also discussed. This study demonstrated that MC treatment was able to significantly remove the macronutrients (43-60% TP removal and 17-30% TN removal) and scavenge most of the PSTs from seawater, thereby speeding up the nutrient settling and the transformation and degradation of PSTs (83% decreasing in A2). Simultaneously, the study firstly demonstrated the potential detoxification of PSTs by using MC treatment, from the high toxicity of gonyautoxin 1 and 4 (GTX1 and GTX4) to the lower toxicity decarbamoyl gonyautoxins (dcGTX3) and gonyautoxin 2 (GTX2), particularly within the water-sediment environment during the two month incubation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangyuan Lu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, IOCAS, Qingdao 266071, PR China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, PR China; School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China.
| | - Xiuxian Song
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, IOCAS, Qingdao 266071, PR China.
| | - Zhiming Yu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, IOCAS, Qingdao 266071, PR China.
| | - Xihua Cao
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, IOCAS, Qingdao 266071, PR China.
| | - Yongquan Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, IOCAS, Qingdao 266071, PR China.
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