Resonance energy transfer: methods and applications

Resonance energy transfer is widely used in studies of biomolecular structure and dynamics. It provides information about distances on the order of 10 to 100 A and is thus suitable for investigating spatial relationships of interest in biochemistry. The information available from energy transfer studies has been enhanced by the advances in instrumental methods and procedures of data analysis related to fluorescence decay studies. Some practical aspects of the method are reviewed. These include sample preparation, Förster type distance determination, methods of detecting energy transfer and calculating transfer efficiency, time-resolved measurements, and data analysis. Applications of resonance energy transfer, including qualitative measurements as well as microscopy, average distance estimation, and distance distribution analysis, are surveyed.

The Ikaros gene is required for the development of all lymphoid lineages

The Ikaros gene encodes a family of early hematopoietic- and lymphocyte-restricted transcription factors. Mice homozygous for a germline mutation in the Ikaros DNA-binding domain lack not only T and B lymphocytes and natural killer cells but also their earliest defined progenitors. In contrast, the erythroid and myeloid lineages were intact in these mutant mice. We propose that Ikaros promotes differentiation of pluripotential hematopoietic stem cell(s) into the lymphocyte pathways. In the absence of a functional Ikaros gene, these stem cells are exclusively diverted into the erythroid and myeloid lineages.

Interleukin (IL)-10 inhibits nuclear factor kappa B (NF kappa B) activation in human monocytes. IL-10 and IL-4 suppress cytokine synthesis by different mechanisms

Our previous studies in human monocytes have demonstrated that interleukin (IL)-10 inhibits lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated production of inflammatory cytokines, IL-1 beta, IL-6, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha by blocking gene transcription. Using electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSA), we now show that, in monocytes stimulated with LPS or TNF alpha, IL-10 inhibits nuclear stimulation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF kappa B), a transcription factor involved in the expression of inflammatory cytokine genes. Several other transcription factors including NF-IL-6, AP-1, AP-2, GR, CREB, Oct-1, and Sp-1 are not affected by IL-10. This selective inhibition by IL-10 of NF kappa B activation occurs rapidly and in a dose-dependent manner and correlates well with IL-10's cytokine synthesis inhibitory activity in terms of both kinetics and dose responsiveness. Furthermore, compounds such as tosylphenylalanyl chloromethyl ketone and pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate that are known to selectively inhibit NF kappa B activation block cytokine gene transcription in LPS-stimulated monocytes. Taken together, these results suggest that inhibition of NF kappa B activation may be an important mechanism for IL-10 suppression of cytokine gene transcription in human monocytes. IL-4, another cytokine that inhibits cytokine mRNA accumulation in monocytes, shows little inhibitory effect on LPS-induced NF kappa B activation. Further examination reveals that, unlike IL-10, IL-4 enhances mRNA degradation and does not suppress cytokine gene transcription. These data indicate that IL-10 and IL-4 inhibit cytokine production by different mechanisms.

Evidence for existence of tissue-specific regulation of the mammalian pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

Tissue distribution and kinetic parameters for the four isoenzymes of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK1, PDK2, PDK3 and PDK4) identified thus far in mammals were analysed. It appeared that expression of these isoenzymes occurs in a tissue-specific manner. The mRNA for isoenzyme PDK1 was found almost exclusively in rat heart. The mRNA for PDK3 was most abundantly expressed in rat testis. The message for PDK2 was present in all tissues tested but the level was low in spleen and lung. The mRNA for PDK4 was predominantly expressed in skeletal muscle and heart. The specific activities of the isoenzymes varied 25-fold, from 50nmol/min per mg for PDK2 to 1250nmol/min per mg for PDK3. Apparent Ki values of the isoenzymes for the synthetic analogue of pyruvate, dichloroacetate, varied 40-fold, from 0.2 mM for PDK2 to 8 mM for PDK3. The isoenzymes were also different with respect to their ability to respond to NADH and NADH plus acetyl-CoA. NADH alone stimulated the activities of PDK1 and PDK2 by 20 and 30% respectively. NADH plus acetyl-CoA activated these isoenzymes nearly 200 and 300%. Under comparable conditions, isoenzyme PDK3 was almost completely unresponsive to NADH, and NADH plus acetyl-CoA caused inhibition rather than activation. Isoenzyme PDK4 was activated almost 2-fold by NADH, but NADH plus acetyl-CoA did not activate above the level seen with NADH alone. These results provide the first evidence that the unique tissue distribution and kinetic characteristics of the isoenzymes of PDK are among the major factors responsible for tissue-specific regulation of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex activity.

A dominant mutation in the Ikaros gene leads to rapid development of leukemia and lymphoma

The Ikaros gene is essential for lymphoid lineage specification. As previously reported, mice homozygous for a mutation in the Ikaros DNA-binding domain fail to generate mature lymphocytes as well as their earliest described progenitors. In addition, our studies with mice heterozygous for this mutation establish the Ikaros gene as an essential regulator of T cell proliferation. Thymocytes display augmented TCR-mediated proliferative responses, and peripheral T cells are autoproliferative. A general lymphoproliferation precedes the T cell leukemia and lymphoma that rapidly develop in all heterozygotes. The first step toward leukemic transformation occurs within the maturing thymocyte population and is demarcated by clonal expansions and loss of the single Ikaros wild-type allele. From these studies, we propose that within developing and mature T lymphocytes, distinct thresholds of Ikaros activity are required to regulate proliferation. A decrease in Ikaros activity below the first threshold causes the rapid accumulation of T lymphoblasts, whereas a further decrease leads to neoplastic transformation.

Mutational analysis of the adeno-associated virus type 2 (AAV2) capsid gene and construction of AAV2 vectors with altered tropism

Adeno-associated virus type 2 (AAV2) has proven to be a valuable vector for gene therapy. Characterization of the functional domains of the AAV capsid proteins can facilitate our understanding of viral tissue tropism, immunoreactivity, viral entry, and DNA packaging, all of which are important issues for generating improved vectors. To obtain a comprehensive genetic map of the AAV capsid gene, we have constructed 93 mutants at 59 different positions in the AAV capsid gene by site-directed mutagenesis. Several types of mutants were studied, including epitope tag or ligand insertion mutants, alanine scanning mutants, and epitope substitution mutants. Analysis of these mutants revealed eight separate phenotypes. Infectious titers of the mutants revealed four classes. Class 1 mutants were viable, class 2 mutants were partially defective, class 3 mutants were temperature sensitive, and class 4 mutants were noninfectious. Further analysis revealed some of the defects in the class 2, 3, and 4 mutants. Among the class 4 mutants, a subset completely abolished capsid formation. These mutants were located predominantly, but not exclusively, in what are likely to be beta-barrel structures in the capsid protein VP3. Two of these mutants were insertions at the N and C termini of VP3, suggesting that both ends of VP3 play a role that is important for capsid assembly or stability. Several class 2 and 3 mutants produced capsids that were unstable during purification of viral particles. One mutant, R432A, made only empty capsids, presumably due to a defect in packaging viral DNA. Additionally, five mutants were defective in heparan binding, a step that is believed to be essential for viral entry. These were distributed into two amino acid clusters in what is likely to be a cell surface loop in the capsid protein VP3. The first cluster spanned amino acids 509 to 522; the second was between amino acids 561 and 591. In addition to the heparan binding clusters, hemagglutinin epitope tag insertions identified several other regions that were on the surface of the capsid. These included insertions at amino acids 1, 34, 138, 266, 447, 591, and 664. Positions 1 and 138 were the N termini of VP1 and VP2, respectively; position 34 was exclusively in VP1; the remaining surface positions were located in putative loop regions of VP3. The remaining mutants, most of them partially defective, were presumably defective in steps of viral entry that were not tested in the preliminary screening, including intracellular trafficking, viral uncoating, or coreceptor binding. Finally, in vitro experiments showed that insertion of the serpin receptor ligand in the N-terminal regions of VP1 or VP2 can change the tropism of AAV. Our results provide information on AAV capsid functional domains and are useful for future design of AAV vectors for targeting of specific tissues.

Heat-inducible degron: a method for constructing temperature-sensitive mutants

A temperature-sensitive (ts) mutant retains the function of a gene at a low (permissive) temperature but not at a high (nonpermissive) temperature. Arg-DHFR, a dihydrofolate reductase bearing an amino-terminal (N-terminal) arginine, is long-lived in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, even though arginine is a destabilizing residue in the N-end rule of protein degradation. A ts derivative of Arg-DHFR was identified that is long-lived at 23 degrees C but rapidly degraded by the N-end rule pathway at 37 degrees C. Fusions of ts Arg-DHFR to either Ura3 or Cdc28 of S. cerevisiae confer ts phenotypes specific for these gene products. Thus, Arg-DHFRts is a heat-inducible degradation signal that can be used to produce ts mutants without a search for ts mutations.

Aiolos, a lymphoid restricted transcription factor that interacts with Ikaros to regulate lymphocyte differentiation

Development of the lymphoid system is dependent on the activity of zinc finger transcription factors encoded by the Ikaros gene. Differences between the phenotypes resulting from a dominant-negative and a null mutation in this gene suggest that Ikaros proteins act in concert with another factor with which they form heterodimers. Here we report the cloning of Aiolos, a gene which encodes an Ikaros homologue that heterodimerizes with Ikaros proteins. In contrast to Ikaros--which is expressed from the pluripotent stem cell to the mature lymphocyte--Aiolos is first detected in more committed progenitors with a lymphoid potential and is strongly up-regulated as these differentiate into pre-T and pre-B cell precursors. The expression patterns of Aiolos and Ikaros, the relative transcriptional activity of their homo- and heteromeric complexes, and the dominant interfering effect of mutant Ikaros isoforms on Aiolos activity all strongly suggest that Aiolos acts in concert with Ikaros during lymphocyte development. We therefore propose that increasing levels of Ikaros and Aiolos homo- and heteromeric complexes in differentiating lymphocytes are essential for normal progression to a mature and immunocompetent state.

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone precursor: characterization in rat brain

To characterize the precursor of mammalian thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), a rat hypothalamic lambda gt11 library was screened with an antiserum directed against a synthetic peptide representing a portion of the rat TRH prohormone. The nucleotide sequence of the immunopositive complementary DNA encoded a protein with a molecular weight of 29,247. This protein contained five copies of the sequence Gln-His-Pro-Gly flanked by paired basic amino acids and could therefore generate five TRH molecules. In addition, potential cleavage sites in the TRH precursor could produce other non-TRH peptides, which may be secreted. In situ hybridization to rat brain sections demonstrated that the pre-proTRH complementary DNA detected neurons concentrated in the parvocellular division of the paraventricular nucleus, the same location as cells detected by immunohistochemistry. These findings indicate that mammalian TRH arises by posttranslational processing of a larger precursor protein. The ability of the TRH prohormone to generate multiple copies of the bioactive peptide may be an important mechanism in the amplification of hormone production.

Starvation and diabetes increase the amount of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isoenzyme 4 in rat heart

This study investigated whether conditions known to alter the activity and phosphorylation state of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex have specific effects on the levels of isoenzymes of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) in rat heart. Immunoblot analysis revealed a remarkable increase in the amount of PDK4 in the hearts of rats that had been starved or rendered diabetic with streptozotocin. Re-feeding of starved rats and insulin treatment of diabetic rats very effectively reversed the increase in PDK4 protein and restored PDK enzyme activity to levels of chow-fed control rats. Starvation and diabetes also markedly increased the abundance of PDK4 mRNA, and re-feeding and insulin treatment reduced levels of the message to that of controls. In contrast with the findings for PDK4, little or no changes in the amounts of PDK1 and PDK2 protein and the abundance of their messages occurred in response to starvation and diabetes. The observed shift in the relative abundance of PDK isoenzymes probably explains previous studies of the effects of starvation and diabetes on heart PDK activity. The results indicate that control of the amount of PDK4 is important in long-term regulation of the activity of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex in rat heart.

GLQ223: an inhibitor of human immunodeficiency virus replication in acutely and chronically infected cells of lymphocyte and mononuclear phagocyte lineage

GLQ223 is a highly purified, formulated preparation of trichosanthin, a 26-kDa plant-derived ribosome-inactivating protein with potent inhibitory activity against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in vitro. The compound produced concentration-dependent inhibition of HIV replication in acutely infected cultures of T-lymphoblastoid cells (VB cell line). Treatment with GLQ223 selectively reduced levels of detectable viral proteins compared to total cellular protein synthesis and produced a selective decrease in levels of viral RNA relative to total cellular RNA in acutely infected cells. Substantial inhibition of viral replication was observed at concentrations of GLQ223 that showed little inhibition of parallel uninfected cultures. Selective anti-HIV activity was also observed in cultures of primary monocyte/macrophages chronically infected with HIV in vitro. When freshly drawn blood samples from HIV-infected patients were treated with a single 3-hr exposure to GLQ223. HIV replication was blocked for at least 5 days in subsequently cultured monocyte/macrophages, without further treatment. The anti-HIV activity of GLQ223 in both acutely and chronically infected cells and its activity in cells of both lymphoid and mononuclear phagocytic lineage make it an interesting candidate as a potential therapeutic agent in HIV infection and AIDS.

Depressive and disruptive disorders and mental health service utilization in children and adolescents

OBJECTIVE

To examine the relationship of depressive and disruptive disorders with patterns of mental health services utilization in a community sample of children and adolescents.

METHOD

Data were from the NIMH Methods for the Epidemiology of Child and Adolescent Mental Disorders (MECA) Study. The sample consisted of 1,285 child (ages 9-17 years) and parent/guardian pairs. Data included child psychopathology (assessed by the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children), impairment, child need and use of mental health services, and family socioeconomic status.

RESULTS

After adjusting for potential confounding factors, disruptive disorder was significantly associated with children's use of mental health services, but depressive disorder was not. For school-based services, no difference was found between the 2 types of disorders. Parents perceived greater need for mental health services for children with disruptive disorders than for those with depression. Conversely, depression was more related to children's perception of mental health service need than was disruptive disorder.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings highlight the need for more effective ways to identify and refer depressed children to mental health professionals, the importance of improving school-based services to meet children's needs, and the necessity to better educate parents and teachers regarding the identification of psychiatric disorders, especially depression.

Thyroid hormone regulates TRH biosynthesis in the paraventricular nucleus of the rat hypothalamus

Thyroid hormone is important in the regulation of synthesis and secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) in the anterior pituitary, but its role in the control of hypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) is controversial. To determine whether thyroid hormone regulates the function of TRH in the hypothalamic tuberoinfundibular system, a study was made of the effect of hypothyroidism on thyrotropin-releasing hormone messenger RNA (proTRH mRNA) and TRH prohormone in the rat paraventricular nucleus. Extracts of rat hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus were examined by quantitative Northern blot analysis, and coronal sections of rat brain were examined by in situ hybridization histochemistry and immunocytochemistry. A nearly twofold increase in proTRH mRNA was observed in hypothyroid animals; this increase could be obliterated by levothyroxine treatment, suggesting an inverse relation between circulating thyroid hormone and proTRH mRNA. In situ hybridization showed that this response occurred exclusively in medial parvocellular neurons of the paraventricular nucleus. A simultaneous increase in proTRH mRNA and immunoreactive TRH prohormone in this region suggests that hypothyroidism induces both transcription and translation of the TRH prohormone in the paraventricular nucleus.

Mechanism responsible for inactivation of skeletal muscle pyruvate dehydrogenase complex in starvation and diabetes

Regulation of the activity of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex in skeletal muscle plays an important role in fuel selection and glucose homeostasis. Activation of the complex promotes disposal of glucose, whereas inactivation conserves substrates for hepatic glucose production. Starvation and diabetes induce a stable increase in pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase activity in skeletal muscle mitochondria that promotes phosphorylation and inactivation of the complex. The present study shows that these metabolic conditions induce a large increase in the expression of PDK4, one of four pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isoenzymes expressed in mammalian tissues, in the mitochondria of gastrocnemius muscle. Refeeding starved rats and insulin treatment of diabetic rats decreased pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase activity and also reversed the increase in PDK4 protein in gastrocnemius muscle mitochondria. Starvation and diabetes also increased the abundance of PDK4 mRNA in gastrocnemius muscle, and refeeding and insulin treatment again reversed the effects of starvation and diabetes. These findings suggest that an increase in amount of this enzyme contributes to hyperphosphorylation and inactivation of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex in these metabolic conditions. It was further found that feeding rats WY-14,643, a selective agonist for the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPAR-alpha), also induced large increases in pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase activity, PDK4 protein, and PDK4 mRNA in gastrocnemius muscle. Since long-chain fatty acids activate PPAR-alpha endogenously, increased levels of these compounds in starvation and diabetes may signal increased expression of PDK4 in skeletal muscle.

Efficacy and safety of statin treatment for cardiovascular disease: a network meta-analysis of 170,255 patients from 76 randomized trials

BACKGROUND

Statins represent the largest selling class of cardiovascular drug in the world. Previous randomized trials (RCTs) have demonstrated important clinical benefits with statin therapy.

AIM

We combined evidence from all RCTs comparing a statin with placebo or usual care among patients with and without prior coronary heart disease (CHD) to determine clinical outcomes.

DESIGN

We searched independently, in duplicate, 12 electronic databases (from inception to August 2010), including full text journal content databases, to identify all statin versus inert control RCTs. We included RCTs of any statin versus any non-drug control in any populations. We abstracted data in duplicate on reported major clinical events and adverse events. We performed a random-effects meta-analysis and meta-regression. We performed a mixed treatment comparison using Bayesian methods.

RESULTS

We included a total of 76 RCTs involving 170,255 participants. There were a total of 14,878 deaths. Statin therapy reduced all-cause mortality, Relative Risk (RR) 0.90 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.86-0.94, P ≤ 0.0001, I(2)=17%]; cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality (RR 0.80, 95% CI 0.74-0.87, P<0.0001, I(2)=27%); fatal myocardial infarction (MI) (RR 0.82, 95% CI 0.75-0.91, P<0.0001, I(2)=21%); non-fatal MI (RR 0.74, 95% CI 0.67-0.81, P ≤ 0.001, I(2)=45%); revascularization (RR 0.76, 95% CI 0.70-0.81, P ≤ 0.0001); and a composite of fatal and non-fatal strokes (0.86, 95% CI 0.78-0.95, P=0.004, I(2)=41%). Adverse events were generally mild, but 17 RCTs reported on increased risk of development of incident diabetes [Odds Ratio (OR) 1.09; 95% CI 1.02-1.17, P=0.001, I(2)=11%]. Studies did not yield important differences across populations. We did not find any differing treatment effects between statins.

DISCUSSION

Statin therapies offer clear benefits across broad populations. As generic formulations become more available efforts to expand access should be a priority.

Requirements for interleukin-4-induced gene expression and functional characterization of Stat6

Interleukin-4 (IL-4) stimulation leads to the activation of the signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (Stat6). In this study, we present data relating to the functional properties of Stat6. Human embryonic kidney 293 cells were shown to be deficient of Stat6 yet express all other components of the IL-4 signaling cascade. This cell line was used for transient-transfection studies of wild-type and mutant Stat6 proteins. The wild-type protein was shown to activate a reporter construct carrying multiple copies of the IL-4 response element derived from the human immunoglobulin heavy-chain germ line epsilon promoter. Similarly, a truncated protein lacking 41 amino acids of the N terminus was fully active. However, removal of the C-terminal 186 amino acids completely abolished transcription activation. Amino acid substitutions were introduced into the putative DNA binding domain (VVI at positions 411 to 413), the SH2 domain (R-562), or the tyrosine (Y-641) which presumably becomes phosphorylated upon activation. All three of these Stat6 mutants were unable to activate transcription in 293 cells. Wild-type and mutant Stat6 derivatives were also expressed in insect cells, and purified proteins were analyzed in vitro for the ability to interact with both DNA and tyrosine-phosphorylated peptides derived from the IL-4 receptor alpha chain. Mutations within the DNA binding domain, the SH2 domain, or tyrosine 641 completely abolished DNA binding. In contrast, only the SH2 mutant failed to interact with tyrosine-phosphorylated peptides. The transdominant effects of all Stat6 derivatives were analyzed by using HepG2 cells, which express endogenous Stat6 protein. Differential effects were observed with various mutants, supporting the current model of the Jak/STAT activation cycle.

Preliminary epidemiological assessment of MERS-CoV outbreak in South Korea, May to June 2015

South Korea is experiencing the largest outbreak of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infections outside the Arabian Peninsula, with 166 laboratory-confirmed cases, including 24 deaths up to 19 June 2015. We estimated that the mean incubation period was 6.7 days and the mean serial interval 12.6 days. We found it unlikely that infectiousness precedes symptom onset. Based on currently available data, we predict an overall case fatality risk of 21% (95% credible interval: 14–31).

Biological laser printing: a novel technique for creating heterogeneous 3-dimensional cell patterns

We have developed a laser-based printing technique, called biological laser printing (BioLP). BioLP is a non-contact, orifice-free technique that rapidly deposits fL to nL scale volumes of biological material with spatial accuracy better than 5 microm. The printer's orifice-free nature allows for transfer of a wide range of biological material onto a variety of substrates. Control of transfer is performed via a computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) system which allows for deposition rates up to 100 pixels of biological material per second using the current laser systems. In this article, we present a description of the apparatus, a model of the transfer process, and a comparison to other biological printing techniques. Further, examples of current system capabilities, such as adjacent deposition of multiple cell types, large-scale cell arrays, and preliminary experiments on creating multi-layer cell constructs are presented. These cell printing experiments not only demonstrate near 100% viability, they also are the first steps toward using BioLP to create heterogeneous 3-dimensional constructs for use in tissue engineering applications.

Components of a Stat recognition code: evidence for two layers of molecular selectivity

Latent and activated forms of Stat1 and Stat6 have been expressed and purified, enabling biochemical experiments relating to their functional activities. Stat1 bound to a phosphotyrosine peptide derived from the IFN gamma receptor with a KD of 50 nM, whereas Stat6 bound to an IL-4 receptor peptide with a KD of 300 nM. Stat-receptor peptide interactions were specific and dependent upon tyrosine phosphorylation. Activated forms of Stat1 and Stat6 were used to select their optimal DNA binding sites. Stat1 selected a recognition site having dyad half-sites separated by 3 bp. Stat6 selected a recognition site composed of the same dyad half-sites, yet separated by 4 bp. Chimeric Stat1-Stat6 recombinants were expressed, purified, and assayed for receptor coupling and DNA binding specificity. Such studies led to the identification of polypeptide domains that specify these activities. These observations provide a framework for understanding how different cytokines elicit distinctive patterns of gene expression.

Reconstitution of mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation cascades in bacteria. Efficient synthesis of active protein kinases

Mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathways include a three-kinase cascade terminating in a MAP kinase family member. The middle kinase in the cascade is a MAP/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) kinase or MEK family member and is highly specific for its MAP kinase target. The first kinase in the cascade, a MEK kinase (MEKK), is characterized by its ability to activate one or more MEK family members. A two-plasmid bacterial expression system was employed to express active forms of the following MEK and MAP kinase family members: ERK1, ERK2, alpha-SAPK, and p38 and their upstream activators, MEK1, -2, -3, and -4. In each kinase module, the upstream activator, a constitutively active mutant of MEK1 or MEKK1, was expressed from a low copy plasmid, while one or two downstream effector kinases were expressed from a high copy plasmid with different antibiotic resistance genes and origins of replication. Consistent with their high activity, ERK1 and ERK2 were doubly phosphorylated on Tyr and Thr, were recognized by an antibody specific to the doubly phosphorylated forms, and were inactivated by either phosphoprotein phosphatase 2A or phosphotyrosine phosphatase type 1. Likewise, activated p38 and alpha-stress-activated protein kinase could also be inactivated by either phosphatase, and alpha-stress-activated protein kinase was recognized by an antibody specific to the doubly phosphorylated forms. These three purified, active MAP kinases have specific activities in the range of 0.6-2.3 micromol/min/mg. Coexpression of protein kinases with their substrates in bacteria is of great value in the preparation of numerous phosphoproteins, heretofore not possible in procaryotic expression systems.

Rheology of the upper mantle: a synthesis

Rheological properties of the upper mantle of the Earth play an important role in the dynamics of the lithosphere and asthenosphere. However, such fundamental issues as the dominant mechanisms of flow have not been well resolved. A synthesis of laboratory studies and geophysical and geological observations shows that transitions between diffusion and dislocation creep likely occur in the Earth's upper mantle. The hot and shallow upper mantle flows by dislocation creep, whereas cold and shallow or deep upper mantle may flow by diffusion creep. When the stress increases, grain size is reduced and the upper mantle near the transition between these two regimes is weakened. Consequently, deformation is localized and the upper mantle is decoupled mechanically near these depths.

Maternal smoking during pregnancy and smoking by adolescent daughters

OBJECTIVES

Since cigarette smoking in adolescence represents a crucial entry point in the progression to illicit drugs, risk factors for adolescent smoking have public health implications. The influence of mothers on children's smoking appears to be greater than that of fathers. To explain the selective influence of mothers, we examined the consequences of maternal smoking during pregnancy in two longitudinal samples.

METHODS

Analyses were conducted on follow-up interview data from two dyadic samples of mothers and firstborn adolescents for whom data on maternal smoking during and after pregnancy were available (192 mother-child pairs originating from New York State and 797 dyads from a national sample).

RESULTS

In both samples, maternal smoking during pregnancy, when postnatal smoking was controlled, selectively increased the probability that female children would smoke and would persist in smoking (adjusted odds ratios of about 4).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that nicotine or other substances released by maternal smoking can affect the fetus, perhaps through the nicotinic input to the dopaminergic motivational system, so as to predispose the brain in a critical period of its development to the subsequent addictive influence of nicotine consumed more than a decade later in life.

The complete unique long sequence and the overall genomic organization of the GA strain of Marek's disease virus

We have determined the DNA sequence of the unique long (UL) region and the repeat long (RL) region in the genome of serotype 1 GA strain of Marek's disease virus (MDV), a member of the alpha-herpesvirus family. With this information, the complete nucleotide sequence of GA-MDV is now known. The entire GA-MDV genome is predicted to be about 174 kbp in size, with an organization of TRL-UL-IRL-IRS-US-TRS, typical of a alpha-herpesvirus. The UL sequence contains 113,508 bp and has a base composition of 41.7% G + C. A total of 67 ORFs were identified completely within the UL region, among which 55 are homologous to genes encoded by herpes simplex virus-1. Twelve of them are unique with presently unknown functions. The sequence of RL reported here together with those published earlier reveal the major structural features of the RL. Virtually all of the ORFs encoded by RL are specific to serotype I of MDV. These ORFs are likely to contribute to some of the unique biological properties of MDV. Among the proteins encoded by MDV-specific ORFs are Meq, a jun/fos family of transcriptional factor implicated in transformation and latency, virus-encoded interleukin-8, a CXC chemokine, and pp38 and pp24, two phosphoproteins with undefined functions. There is also a putative lipase gene (LORF2) that has homologies in HPRS-24 (serotype II) strain of MDV and in various avian adenoviruses. An additional unique feature of MDV is the presence of long terminal repeat remnant sequences of avian retrovirus reticuloendotheliosis virus. These remnant sequences are derived from the U3-enhancer region through ancestral insertions by reticuloendotheliosis virus proviruses.