Y-chromosome SNP haplotypes suggest evidence of gene flow among caste, tribe, and the migrant Siddi populations of Andhra Pradesh, South India

From observations of lack of haplotype sharing based on Y-chromosome specific short tandem repeat (STR) loci, previous reports suggested negligible gene flow among different geographic populations of India. Using Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) sites in combination with STRs, we observed evidence of haplotype sharing across caste-tribe boundaries in South India. We examined 27 SNPs in the non-recombining region of the Y chromosome to investigate gene flow in 204 individuals belonging to three caste groups (Vizag Brahmins, Peruru Brahmins, Kammas), three tribes (Bagata, Poroja, Valmiki) and an additional group (the Siddis) of African ancestry. Principal component and AMOVA analyses show that the between group component of variation is non-significant (P>0.05), while that among populations within the caste and tribal groups is significant (P<0.001). In particular, the Valmikis and Siddis are close to the caste groups. Of a total of 11 distinct SNP-haplotypes observed, the two tribal groups (Bagata and Poroja) lack the haplotypes H4, H4A, H5A and H16, which are seen in the caste groups. In contrast, all three tribal groups exhibit the Southeast Asian haplotype H11 that is absent in the caste populations. The presence of haplotypes H4, H5, H14, and H16 in the Siddis indicate that they have assimilated considerable non-African admixture. The evidence of haplotype sharing between castes and tribes is also found when the H14 lineage was further subdivided by five STR loci. We conclude that even though these SNP-based Y-haplotypes are able to distinguish the populations, gene flow in these South Indian populations is not as negligible as that inferred from other studies based on Y-specific short tandem repeat markers.

The Eurasian heartland: a continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity

The nonrecombining portion of the human Y chromosome has proven to be a valuable tool for the study of population history. The maintenance of extended haplotypes characteristic of particular geographic regions, despite extensive admixture, allows complex demographic events to be deconstructed. In this study we report the frequencies of 23 Y-chromosome biallelic polymorphism haplotypes in 1,935 men from 49 Eurasian populations, with a particular focus on Central Asia. These haplotypes reveal traces of historical migrations, and provide an insight into the earliest patterns of settlement of anatomically modern humans on the Eurasian continent. Central Asia is revealed to be an important reservoir of genetic diversity, and the source of at least three major waves of migration leading into Europe, the Americas, and India. The genetic results are interpreted in the context of Eurasian linguistic patterns.

Redox regulation of vascular smooth muscle cell differentiation

Experiments were performed to determine the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in regulating vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) phenotype. After quiescence, cultured human VSMCs increased their expression of differentiation proteins (alpha-actin, calponin, and SM1 and SM2 myosin), but not beta-actin. ROS activity, determined using the H(2)O(2)-sensitive probe dichlorodihydrofluorescein (DCF), remained high in quiescent cells and was inhibited by catalase (3000 U/mL) or by N-acetylcysteine (NAC, 2 to 20 mmol/L). A superoxide dismutase mimic (SOD; MnTMPyP, 25 micromol/L) or SOD plus low concentrations of NAC (SODNAC2, 2 mmol/L) increased DCF fluorescence, which was inhibited by catalase or by NAC (10 to 20 mmol/L). Inhibition of ROS activity (by catalase or NAC) decreased the baseline expression of differentiation proteins, whereas elevation of ROS (by SOD or SODNAC2) increased expression of the differentiation markers. The latter effect was blocked by catalase or by NAC (10 to 20 mmol/L). None of the treatments altered beta-actin expression. SODNAC2-treated cells demonstrated contractions to endothelin that were absent in proliferating cells. p38 Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activity was decreased when ROS activity was reduced (NAC, 10 mmol/L) and was augmented when ROS activity was increased (SODNAC2). Inhibition of p38 MAPK with pyridyl imidazole compound (SB202190, 2 to 10 micromol/L) reduced expression of differentiation proteins occurring under basal conditions and in response to SODNAC2. Transduction of VSMCs with an adenovirus encoding constitutively active MKK6, an activator of p38 MAPK, increased expression of differentiation proteins, whereas transduction with an adenovirus encoding dominant-negative p38 MAPK decreased expression of the differentiation proteins. These findings demonstrate that ROS can increase VSMC differentiation through a p38 MAPK-dependent pathway.

The essential role of MEKK3 in TNF-induced NF-kappaB activation

Activation of IkappaB kinase (IKK) is the key step in stimulation of the transcription factor NF-kappaB, which regulates many genes in the inflammatory response pathway. The molecular mechanism that underlies IKK activation in response to tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is still unknown. Using mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 3 (MEKK3)-deficient fibroblast cells, we found that MEKK3 plays a critical role in TNF-induced NF-kappaB activation. We have shown that MEKK3 is required for IKK activation and functions downstream of receptor-interacting protein (RIP) and TNF receptor- associated factor 2. We have also shown that MEKK3 interacts with RIP and directly phosphorylates IKK. The kinase activity of MEKK3 is pivotal to its function and, therefore, MEKK3 links RIP and IKK in TNF-induced NF-kappaB activation.

Genetic Diversity and Population History of the Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens) as Inferred from Mitochondrial DNA Sequence Variations

The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is one of the flagship species in worldwide conservation and is of special interest in evolutionary studies due to its taxonomic uniqueness. We sequenced a 236-bp fragment of the mitochondrial D-loop region in a sample of 53 red pandas from two populations in southwestern China. Seventeen polymorphic sites were found, together with a total of 25 haplotypes, indicating a high level of genetic diversity in the red panda. However, no obvious genetic divergence was detected between the Sichuan and Yunnan populations. The consensus phylogenetic tree of the 25 haplotypes was starlike. The pairwise mismatch distribution fitted into a pattern of populations undergoing expansion. Furthermore, Fu's F(S) test of neutrality was significant for the total population (F(S) = -7.573), which also suggests a recent population expansion. Interestingly, the effective population size in the Sichuan population was both larger and more stable than that in the Yunnan population, implying a southward expansion from Sichuan to Yunnan.

African Origin of Modern Humans in East Asia: A Tale of 12,000 Y Chromosomes

To test the hypotheses of modern human origin in East Asia, we sampled 12,127 male individuals from 163 populations and typed for three Y chromosome biallelic markers (YAP, M89, and M130). All the individuals carried a mutation at one of the three sites. These three mutations (YAP+, M89T, and M130T) coalesce to another mutation (M168T), which originated in Africa about 35,000 to 89,000 years ago. Therefore, the data do not support even a minimal in situ hominid contribution in the origin of anatomically modern humans in East Asia.

MEKK2 is required for T-cell receptor signals in JNK activation and interleukin-2 gene expression

The c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) are members of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) gene family and are essential for cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Previously we found that activation of JNK in T-cells required costimulation of both T-cell receptor and auxiliary receptors such as CD28. In this study, we cloned a full-length human MEK kinase (MEKK) 2 cDNA from Jurkat T-cells and demonstrated that it was a major upstream MAPK kinase kinase for the JNK cascade in T-cells. The human MEKK2 cDNA encoded a polypeptide of 619 amino acids and was the human counterpart of the reported murine MEKK2. It was 94% homologous with human and murine MEKK3 at the catalytic domains and 60% homologous at the N-terminal noncatalytic region. Northern blot analysis showed that MEKK2 was ubiquitously expressed, with the highest level in peripheral blood leukocytes. In T cells, MEKK2 was found to be a strong activator of JNK but not of extracellular signal-regulated kinase MAPKs and to activate JNK-dependent AP-1 reporter gene expression. MEKK2 also synergized with anti-CD3 antibody to activate JNK in T cells, and stimulation of T cells led to induction of MEKK2 tyrosine phosphorylation. Significantly, the JNK activation induced by anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 antibodies, but not by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate and Ca(2+) ionophore A23187, was inhibited by dominant negative MEKK2 mutants. AP-1 and interleukin-2 reporter gene induction in T-cells was also inhibited by dominant negative MEKK2 mutants. Taken together, our results showed that human MEKK2 is a key signaling molecule for T-cell receptor/CD3-mediated JNK MAPK activation and interleukin-2 gene expression.

RAPD analysis of Astragalus medicines marketed in Taiwan

The genetic variability of Astragalus medicine materials sold by twenty randomly selected stores in Taiwan was investigated using RAPD analysis in order to obtain available primers which could clearly differentiate among them. Total DNA isolated from the rhizomes of the samples were used as templates, and sixty 10 mer arbitrary primers were used in the analysis. The aim of the present study is to construct an identification model of molecular biotechniques applicable to Chinese herbal medicines in RAPD analysis. Three of the primers, OPT-03, OPT-13, and OPT-17, revealed polymorphic RAPD fingerprints among the samples of Astragalus membranaceus, and between Astragalus membranaceus and Hedysarum polybotrys samples. SSCP analysis was also conducted on PCR products from the ITS-1 region of ribosomal DNA in order to differentiate the two species.

Melting curve analysis of SNPs (McSNP): a gel-free and inexpensive approach for SNP genotyping

High-throughput methods for assaying DNA variation require two important steps: (i) discriminating the variation and (ii) detecting the signal. In this report, we describe a novel SNP genotyping method that we refer to as melting curve analysis of SNPs (McSNP). McSNP combines a classic approach for discriminating alleles, restriction enzyme digestion, with a more recent method for detecting DNA fragments, melting curve analysis. Melting curve analysis is performed by slowly heating DNA fragments in the presence of the dsDNA-specific fluorescent dye SYBR Green I. As the sample is heated, fluorescence rapidly decreases when the melting temperature of a particular fragment is reached. We show that it is possible to determine the composition of simple mixtures of DNA fragments, such as those that result from restriction enzyme digestions of short PCR products. McSNP is well suited for high-throughput genotyping because 96 samples can be analyzed and automatically scored in 20 min. Our results clearly demonstrate that McSNP is a simple, inexpensive, and accurate means of genotyping SNP variation.

The stability of cytokeratin 18 in human liver cells during colchicine-induced microtubule disruption

The cytoskeleton plays important roles in cell function and is therefore implicated in the pathogenesis of many human liver diseases, including malignant tumors. The stability of cytokeratin proteins during tumor transformation in human hepatocellular carcinoma has been studied with a molecular approach previously. The results demonstrate that the cytokeratin is modulated in human hepatocellular carcinoma. Besides this, three low molecular weight cytokeratin molecules (named HCC CK) are found. This indicates that these HCC CKs have undergone modulation from the human hepatocyte cytokeratin 18. We also checked the cytokeratin profile of the human hepatoma cell line PLC/PRF/5 with the same methods to ensure the HCC CK molecules are produced by modulation but not protein degradation. The stability of cytokeratin molecules was studied by a different approach. The cytokeratin compositions of human liver cells (Chang cell line) were analysed under the effects of microtubule-disrupting drug (colchicine) by SDS-PAGE, Western blot, immunoprecipitation using a commercially available monoclonal anti-cytokeratin 18 antibody and immunofluorescent staining. Within 1 h of treatment, the microtubule began to collapse and the filamentous structure was shortening. The microtubule had almost collapsed and became fragmented to form a lattice-like network after 24 h of treatment. The cytokeratin was modulated after long-term (24 h) treatment of colchicine, and the molecular weight became 14 kD and the antigenicity was lost. The stability of cytokeratin molecules was related to the intact microtubule network, after disruption of the microtubule the cytokeratin would be modulated. The intact microtubule network was a stabilizing factor of cytokeratin 18 in human liver cells.

Genetic influences on craniofacial outcome in an avian model of prenatal alcohol exposure

BACKGROUND

Understanding the basis for ethanol's teratogenic effects may inform the etiology of fetal alcohol syndrome. Here we investigate how genetic background and susceptibility to ethanol-induced neural crest apoptosis contribute to the distinctive craniofacial phenotype observed after prenatal alcohol exposure.

METHODS

Nine different chick strains were exposed to ethanol at gastrulation. The sensitivity of these embryos to ethanol-induced neural crest apoptosis was reported elsewhere (Debelak and Smith, 2000). Here, these embryos were permitted to develop until embryonic day 10, when facial morphogenesis was largely complete, and cephalometric measurements were made on cleared skulls. Shifts in facial growth were correlated against the severity of ethanol-induced apoptosis in facial precursors.

RESULTS

The facial shape produced by ethanol exposure was a function of the embryos' genetic strain. Three general responses were observed: apparent midfacial flattening (Babcock B300 x Hampshire Red, ISA-Babcock, HyLine W98, and HyLine W36 strains), overall facial expansion (Spafas and Babcock B300 strains), or overall facial hypoplasia (DeKalb strains). When dose and timing of exposure were held constant, the embryo's genetic background predicted the facial outcome. For ethanol-sensitive strains, apoptosis of facial precursor populations was required to produce the facial defects. That some strains had essentially normal faces despite extensive cell death indicated a capacity to recover from the earlier neural crest losses.

CONCLUSIONS

We propose that ethanol's effects on craniofacial development are multifactoral, and these influences may include susceptibility to apoptosis, regenerative capacity, and compensatory outgrowth of the facial primordia. The embryo's genetic background may modulate these events. The high and low responder chick strains are useful tools to dissect these contributions.

DYN 12, a small molecule inhibitor of the enzyme amadorase, lowers plasma 3-deoxyglucosone levels in diabetic rats

3-Deoxyglucosone (3DG) is a highly reactive alpha-dicarbonyl sugar and potent protein cross-linker that is important in the formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs), which have been postulated to lead to the development of diabetic complications. (1) Reducing 3DG levels in diabetics is a potentially effective therapy to slow the development of diabetic complications. Standard biochemical methods were used to isolate, identify, and characterize the enzyme responsible for the production of 3DG, in order to develop an effective therapeutic agent against this target. We have purified and characterized Amadorase, a fructosamine-3-kinase, and demonstrated both in vitro and in vivo that it is responsible for the production of 3-deoxyglucosone (3DG). A small molecule inhibitor of Amadorase, DYN 12, significantly lowered plasma levels of 3DG in diabetic (by 46%, p = 0.0116) and normal (by 43%, p = 0.0024) rats. These data are the first indications that it is possible to significantly reduce 3DG production in diabetics and thus possibly reduce the development of diabetic complications.

Y chromosome haplotypes reveal prehistorical migrations to the Himalayas

By using 19 Y chromosome biallelic markers and 3 Y chromosome microsatellite markers, we analyzed the genetic structure of 31 indigenous Sino-Tibetan speaking populations (607 individuals) currently residing in East, Southeast, and South Asia. Our results showed that a T to C mutation at locus M122 is highly prevalent in almost all of the Sino-Tibetan populations, implying a strong genetic affinity among populations in the same language family. Furthermore, the extremely high frequency of H8, a haplotype derived from M122C, in the Sino-Tibetan speaking populations in the Himalayas including Tibet and northeast India indicated a strong bottleneck effect that occurred during a westward and then southward migration of the founding population of Tibeto-Burmans. We, therefore, postulate that the ancient people, who lived in the upper-middle Yellow River basin about 10,000 years ago and developed one of the earliest Neolithic cultures in East Asia, were the ancestors of modern Sino-Tibetan populations.

Distribution of three HIV-1 resistance-conferring polymorphisms (SDF1-3'A, CCR2-641, and CCR5-delta32) in global populations

Chemokine receptors (CCR5, CXCR4 and CCR2) have been shown to be important co-receptors for HIV infection. Mutations at CCR5 (CCR5-delta2), CCR2 (CCR2-641), and stromal-derived factor SDF1 (SDF1-3'A), a primary ligand for CXCR4, are known to have protective effects against HIV-1 infection and the onset of AIDS symptoms. We studied the three-locus genotype frequency distributions in 70worldwide populations from a sample of 2341 individuals without any known history of HIV-1 infection and AIDS symptoms. From these data, we estimated the risk of AIDS onset (relative hazard, RH) of each population. This survey shows that the substantial allele frequency differences of each of these mutations translate into an extensive variation in relative hazards for AIDS in worldwide populations. However, no evidence of natural selection against the mutant gene carriers is detected. Finally, the combined three-locus genotype data predict the highest relative hazard (RH) in South-East Asia and Africa where AIDS is known to be more prevalent.

MEKK1 activation of human estrogen receptor alpha and stimulation of the agonistic activity of 4-hydroxytamoxifen in endometrial and ovarian cancer cells

Estrogens are mitogens that stimulate the growth of both normal and transformed epithelial cells of the female reproductive system. The effect of estrogens is mediated through the estrogen receptors, which are ligand-regulated transcription factors. Tamoxifen, a selective estrogen receptor modulator, functions as an estrogen receptor antagonist in breast but an agonist in uterus. In the current study, we show that coexpression of a constitutively active MEKK1, but not RAF or MEKK2, significantly increases the transcriptional activity of the receptor in endometrial and ovarian cancer cells. The expression of wild-type MEKK1 and an active Rac1, which functions upstream of MEKK1, also increased the activity of the receptor while coexpression of dominant negative MEKK1 blocked the Rac1 induction, indicating that endogenous MEKK1 is capable of activating the receptor. Additional experiments demonstrated that the MEKK1-induced activation was mediated through both Jun N-terminal kinases and p38/Hog1 and was independent of the known phosphorylation sites on the receptor. p38, but not Jun N-terminal kinases, efficiently phosphorylated the receptor in immunocomplex kinase assays, suggesting a differential involvement of the two kinases in the receptor activation. More importantly, the expression of the constitutively active MEKK1 increased the agonistic activity of 4-hydroxytamoxifen to a level comparable to that of 17beta-estradiol and fully blocked its antagonistic activity. These findings suggest that the uterine-specific agonistic activity of the tamoxifen compound may be determined by the status of kinases acting downstream of MEKK1.

Natives or immigrants: modern human origin in east Asia

East Asia is one of the few regions in the world where a relatively large number of human fossils have been unearthed--a discovery that has been taken as evidence for an independent local origin of modern humans outside of Africa. However, genetic studies conducted in the past ten years, especially using Y chromosomes, have provided unequivocal evidence for an African origin of East Asian populations. The genetic signatures present in diverse East Asian populations mark the footsteps of prehistoric migrations that occurred tens of thousands of years ago.

[Tn5 mutagenesis and the characteristics of indole-3-acetic acid biosynthesis in Alcaligenes faecalis A1501]

The IAA production of Alcaligenes faecalis wild type strain A1501 depended on addition of L-tryptopham(trp). A1501 could grow well in minimal medium without Trp, but could not produce IAA. The results indicated that there was Trp-dependent IAA biosynthesis pathway in A. faecalis A1501. A1501 shows a characteristic of cell density-dependent IAA biosynthesis. The Tn5-induced mutant bank of A1501 was constructed using Tn5 mutagenesis and one Trp auxotrophic mutant AT63 was selected and identified. The Tn5-induced mutant AT63 could synthesis 2.24 micrograms/mL IAA in minimal medium without L-Trp. It indicated there were at least two IAA biosynthesis pathways in A. faecalis, one needed Trp, the other needed IGP as precursor. The results of southern hybridization also suggested that the Tn5-insertion might locate in gene locus encoded IAA synthetase.

[Expression of E-cadherin and its clinical significance in non-small cell lung cancer]

BACKGROUND

To investigate the expression and clinical significance of E-cadherin (E-Cad) in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and its metastatic lymph nodes.

METHODS

E-Cad expression was detected in 30 normal lung tissues , 61 cancerous tissues and 41 metastatic lymph nodes by immunohistochemical method.

RESULTS

In all of the normal epithelial cells , expression of E-Cad was clearly evident on cell-cell boundaries. Abnormal expression rate of E-Cad in primary NSCLC and metastatic lymph nodes were 52. 46 % and 63. 41 % respectively , and no significant difference was found between the two groups ( P > 0. 05) . The abnormal E-Cad expression in lung cancer was closely related to the P-TNM stages , pathological grades and lymph node involvement ( P < 0. 001-0. 05) , but not to the histological classification of the cancer ( P > 0. 05) .

CONCLUSIONS

E-Cad might be a valuable marker in assessing biological behavior and metastatic potential of NSCLC.

Polynesian origins: insights from the Y chromosome

The question surrounding the colonization of Polynesia has remained controversial. Two hypotheses, one postulating Taiwan as the putative homeland and the other asserting a Melanesian origin of the Polynesian people, have received considerable attention. In this work, we present haplotype data based on the distribution of 19 biallelic polymorphisms on the Y chromosome in a sample of 551 male individuals from 36 populations living in Southeast Asia, Taiwan, Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia. Surprisingly, nearly none of the Taiwanese Y haplotypes were found in Micronesia and Polynesia. Likewise, a Melanesian-specific haplotype was not found among the Polynesians. However, all of the Polynesian, Micronesian, and Taiwanese haplotypes are present in the extant Southeast Asian populations. Evidently, the Y-chromosome data do not lend support to either of the prevailing hypotheses. Rather, we postulate that Southeast Asia provided a genetic source for two independent migrations, one toward Taiwan and the other toward Polynesia through island Southeast Asia.

The expression of cytokeratin 18 in transitional cell carcinoma comparing with hepatoma

The epithelium in kidneys and urinary bladders contain CK18 as in liver cells. The modulation of cytokeratin 18 during tumor transformation in hepatoma had been previously recognized through a series of biochemical and immunological approaches. A 14 KD hepatoma related molecules was found in the previous studies. We would like to utilize the hepatoma transformation model to study the changes in CK18 in transitional cell carcinoma, using immunoblotting and western blotting techniques. The result is that transitional cell carcinoma retain their CK18 molecule. Furthermore, CK18 related molecules similar to those seen in hepatoma also present in transitional cell carcinoma. The conclusions are transitional cell carcinoma contains CK18 related proteins similar to those seen in hepatoma tissues. We suggest that this element would be responsible for the change during the malignant transformation processes.

Stabilizing of cytokeratin in PLC/PRF/5 cells

There are two sorted groups of cytokeratin 18 (CK18) in forms of assembly and disassembly in PLC/PRF/5 cells. A subcellular shifting is found in association with conditions of microtubule networks. The finding shows that CK18 mostly in forms of assembly, when microtubule networks are in status. The result also reveals that CK18 is relatively in forms of disassembly, while microtubule networks are disrupted in steps. It indicates that intact microtubule networks are probably a stabilizing factor of assembled CK18. It implies that CK18 is not a stable molecule when the cell is under environmental stress.

[Advance in soil sampling methods in rhizosphere microzone study]

Soil sampling methods in rhizosphere microzone study since 1960's were reviewed. It was suggested that the trend of rhizosphere soil sampling was from field coarse sampling to fine division of indoor simulated experiment. The simulated equipment was applied for field experiments, and the purpose guiding production practice could be achieved finally. Meanwhile, with the widening of the concept of rhizosphere, such as ecoboundary layer, rhizosphere soil sampling tends to keep unvarnished and fine.

MEK kinase 1 is critically required for c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation by proinflammatory stimuli and growth factor-induced cell migration

Exposure of eukaryotic cells to extracellular stimuli results in activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades composed of MAPKs, MAPK kinases (MAP2Ks), and MAPK kinase kinases (MAP3Ks). Mammals possess a large number of MAP3Ks, many of which can activate the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) MAPK cascade when overexpressed, but whose biological function is poorly understood. We examined the function of the MAP3K MEK kinase 1 (MEKK1) in proinflammatory signaling. Using MEKK1-deficient embryonic stem cells prepared by gene targeting, we find that, in addition to its function in JNK activation by growth factors, MEKK1 is required for JNK activation by diverse proinflammatory stimuli, including tumor necrosis factor alpha, IL-1, double-stranded RNA, and lipopolysaccharide. MEKK1 is also essential for induction of embryonic stem cell migration by serum factors, but is not required for activation of other MAPKs or the IkappaB kinase signaling cascade.

Synergistic interaction of MEK kinase 2, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) kinase 2, and JNK1 results in efficient and specific JNK1 activation

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are activated through cascades or modules consisting of a MAPK, a MAPK kinase (MAPKK), and a MAPKK kinase (MAPKKK). Investigating the molecular basis of activation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) subgroup of MAPK by the MAPKKK MEKK2, we found that strong and specific JNK1 activation by MEKK2 was mediated by the MAPKK JNK kinase 2 (JNKK2) rather than by JNKK1 through formation of a tripartite complex consisting of MEKK2, JNKK2, and JNK1. No scaffold protein was required for the MEKK2-JNKK2-JNK1 tripartite-complex formation. Expression of JNK1, JNKK2, and MEKK2 significantly augmented the coprecipitation of, respectively, MEKK2-JNKK2, MEKK2-JNK1, and JNKK2-JNK1, indicating that the interaction of MEKK2, JNKK2, and JNK1 is synergistic. Finally, the JNK1 was activated more efficiently in the MEKK2-JNKK2-JNK1 complex than was the JNK1 excluded from the complex. Thus, formation of a signaling complex through synergistic interaction of a MAPKKK, a MAPKK, and a MAPK molecule like MEKK2-JNKK2-JNK1 is likely to be responsible for the efficient, specific flow of information via MAPK cascades.

Multiple origins of Tibetan Y chromosomes

The genetic origin of Tibetans was investigated using Y chromosome markers. A total of three populations were studied, two from central Tibet speaking central Tibetan and one from Yunnan speaking Kham. Two dominant paternal lineages (>80%) were identified in all three populations with one possibly from central Asia (YAP+) and the other from east Asia (M122C). We conclude that Tibetan Y chromosomes may have been derived from two different gene pools, given the virtual absence of M122C in central Asia and YAP+ in east Asia, with drift an unlikely mechanism accounting for these observations.