Age, gender, race, socioeconomic status, and birth cohort differences on the children's depression inventory: a meta-analysis

Associations between screen time and internalizing disorder diagnoses among 9- to 10-year-olds

BACKGROUND

Children and adolescents spend an increasing amount of time with screen media. Identifying correlates of youth mental disorders has become more urgent with rates of depression, self-harm, suicide attempts, and suicide deaths rising sharply among U.S. children and adolescents after 2012. This study examined the relationship between screen time and internalizing disorders in preadolescent children between the ages of 9 and 10.

METHODS

Participants were 9- and 10-year-old youth (n = 11,780) in the baseline of the multi-site Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development Study (ABCD). Youth reported the number of hours a day they spent watching TV shows or movies, watching videos online, playing video games, texting, using social media, and video chatting. Youth responded to an abbreviated version of the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (K-SADS-5), a semi-structured clinical interview measuring current and past symptoms of internalizing disorders using DSM-5 criteria.

RESULTS

Youth spending 2 or more hours (vs. less than 2) a day with screen media were more likely to fit criteria for depressive disorders, self-harm, and suicidal ideation or attempts, even after adjustment for demographic covariates. For anxiety disorders, associations with digital media use (social media, texting, gaming, and online videos) were stronger than with screen time generally.

LIMITATIONS

This is a cross-sectional study utilizing retrospective screen time reports, which limits our ability to determine causality and the accuracy of the reports.

CONCLUSIONS

Preadolescents who spend more time using screens, especially digital media, are more likely to fit DSM-5 criteria for internalizing disorders.

Predicting South Korea adolescents vulnerable to depressive disorder using Bayesian nomogram: A community-based cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Although South Korea has developed and carried out evidence-based interventions and prevention programs to prevent depressive disorder in adolescents, the number of adolescents with depressive disorder has increased every year for the past 10 years.

AIM

To develop a nomogram based on a naïve Bayesian algorithm by using epidemiological data on adolescents in South Korea and present baseline data for screening depressive disorder in adolescents.

METHODS

Epidemiological data from 2438 subjects who completed a brief symptom inventory questionnaire were used to develop a model based on a Bayesian nomogram for predicting depressive disorder in adolescents.

RESULTS

Physical symptoms, aggression, social withdrawal, attention, satisfaction with school life, mean sleeping hours, and conversation time with parents were influential factors on depressive disorder in adolescents. Among them, physical symptoms were the most influential.

CONCLUSION

Active intervention by periodically checking the emotional state of adolescents and offering individual counseling and in-depth psychological examinations when necessary are required to mitigate depressive disorder in adolescents.

Refugee Children and Interventions for Depression: A Review of Current Interventions and Implications of the Ecological Context

As of 2018, over 25.4 million people worldwide meet the criteria to be considered refugees, the highest number on record. Over half of these individuals are under 18 years old, leaving approximately 12 million children to cope with the trauma and stress typically encountered by refugees. Increased rates of depression in this population are well-documented in the literature. This article reviews the ecological determinants of depression for displaced children and current empirical methods for alleviating depression across contexts. PubMed and PsycINFO databases were reviewed for articles that met the following criteria for inclusion: published between January 1, 2000, and April 16, 2020; peer-reviewed empirical article; in English; reviewed an intervention targeting depression; and included a sample of refugees 18 years of age or younger. Sixteen interventions met inclusion criteria and were assessed using an ecological framework. The programs were analyzed for several methodological and outcome factors including intervention type, retention rate, participant demographics, participant country of origin and host country, ecological framework, and effectiveness. Major findings suggest that interventions including caregivers, involving the child's community, addressing multiple contexts, and that are culturally informed may improve outcomes. This article presents research surrounding risk and protective factors for depression within each context to inform existing interventions and presents additional avenues for services to meet the needs of refugee youth across contexts.

Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Depressive and Social Anxiety Symptoms Among Children and Adolescents Aged 7–17 Years, Stratified by Body Composition

Background

Rare studies investigated the associations between sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption with depressive and social anxiety symptoms among children and adolescents, particularly in different stratification of body composition, which was our purpose.

Methods

A cross-sectional survey of children and adolescents aged 7–17 years was conducted in Beijing, China, in 2020, with an average age of 12.07 (SD: 3.09) years. Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) questionnaires and social anxiety scale for children (SASC) were completed in the baseline questionnaires. SSB consumption and body composition were assessed using child-reported questionnaires and a GE Healthcare Lunar iDXA dual-energy X-ray bone densitometer. Multivariate logistic regression was used to assess the associations between SSB consumption with depressive and social anxiety symptoms. Confounders were evaluated by child-reported and parental questionnaires, including age, sex, parental educational attainment, maternal smoking status, single-child status, BMI, incomes, fruit consumption, physical activity, screen time, and the frequency of fried food consumption. Stratified analyses were performed to explore whether the associations were influenced by body composition.

Results

A total of 1,311 children and adolescents, including 658 boys and 653 girls, were included in the final analysis. There were 13.96 and 29.75% of the study population with depressive and social anxiety symptoms, respectively. Overall, about 63.77% of the children and adolescents consumed SSB, and the average SSB intake was 0.35 servings per day. In the fully adjusted model, compared to participants who did not consume SSB each day, SSB consumption of ≥1 servings/day was positively associated with depressive symptoms [odds ratio (OR) = 2.28, 95% CI = 1.30–4.01] and social anxiety (OR = 1.10, 95% CI = 0.69–1.77), though the latter did not reach statistical significance. When individuals had higher body fat or lower fat-free mass (FFM) or muscle, the ORs of depressive symptoms were more evident among children and adolescents who drank SSB for ≥1 servings/day (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

Higher consumption of SSB could be associated with increased OR of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents. The association remained robust, especially in groups with higher body fat or lower fat-free mass or muscle.

Age-Related Differences in Psychological Distress during the COVID-19 Pandemic

While the negative impact of COVID-19 total lockdown on mental health in youth has been extensively studied, findings collected during subsequent waves of the pandemic, in which restrictive rules were more eased, are very sparse. Here, we explore perceived psychological distress during the partial lockdown of the third wave in Southern Italy in a large sample of students, focusing on age and gender differences. Also, we assessed whether attending the type of education could have a protective role on students' psychological well-being. An online survey was completed by 1064 southern Italian students (age range: 8-19 years; males = 368) from March to July 2021. The survey consists of a set of questions regarding general sociodemographic information as well as several aspects of students' psychological well-being. Psychological distress was higher in high school students compared to both elementary and middle ones. In addition, we found gender differences, but only in high school students, with females reporting higher psychological distress than males. Finally, our mediation analysis showed a mediated role of face-to-face schooling in the relationship between age and psychological distress. In conclusion, this study highlights age-related differences in psychological distress during the pandemic and the protective role of school in presence for mental health in Italian students.

Gender differences in the association of depression trajectories with executive and memory functions: Evidence from the longitudinal study of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (2004-2017)

Gender differences in depression trajectories and their effects on cognitive function are poorly understood. This article aims to identify depression trajectories in both genders and further explore the association of depression trajectories with executive and memory functions by gender. A total 3990 participants aged 50 years or older with repeated measurements from waves 1 to 7 (wave 3 excluded) of the Study of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) were included. Group-based trajectory modeling (GBTM) was conducted to identify the optimal number of depression trajectories. Generalized estimating equation (GEE) models were used to examine the relation of depression trajectories to cognitive function after stratification by gender. Three distinct depression trajectories were identified in both genders, but the patterns of trajectories among genders were nonidentical. The trajectories of depression in males were characterized by non-low, moderate, persistent-depressive symptoms but with an unstable trend, while in females, they were characterized by non-low, moderate, persistent-depressive symptoms and with a worsening trend. The prevalence of persistent high depression in women (20.08%) was higher than that in men (3.13%). Moderate and persistent high depression trajectories were negatively associated with episodic memory (β = -0.53 and -0.72, respectively, p < 0.001) and verbal fluency in females (β = -0.96 and -1.47, p=0.01 and < 0.001, respectively). Older women had a greater frequency of developing depression than older men. Gender differences in depression trajectories existed. Moderate and persistent high depression trajectories exerted a negative effect on some domains of cognitive impairment only in females.

Metacognitions and brooding predict depressive symptoms in a community adolescent sample

Depressive symptoms are prevalent in adolescence, and girls have higher levels of depressive symptoms and depressive disorder than boys. Rumination and especially brooding, seem to be a central maintaining factor of depressive symptoms, where metacognitions about rumination play a prominent role in maintaining depressive rumination. There is a sex difference in adults in depressive disorder. The current investigation of a high school / community sample of adolescents aged 16-20 from Norway (N = 1198, 62.2% women) found that adolescent women had higher scores than men on all relevant measures: Depressive symptoms, negative and positive metacognitions, pondering, and brooding. A path model for predicting depressive symptoms showed that the major factors for both sexes were negative metacognitions and brooding. The predictors of depressive symptoms were invariant across sex and age groups, suggesting similar underlying mechanisms across these groups. The overall findings suggest that metacognitive therapy may be an efficient intervention for depressive symptoms among adolescents.

Cognitive Triad and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescence: Specificity and Overlap

Adolescence is a critical period for the development of depressive symptoms and the understanding of vulnerability factors that facilitate their onset is pivotal. In this study, we focused on Beck's cognitive triad, namely its three-fold structure, comprising views of the self, world, and future. Despite its crucial role in the cognitive theory of depression, the relationship between the cognitive triad and depressive symptoms in adolescence is still unclear. In our study, we adopted a meta-analytic commonality analysis approach, in order to clarify whether the three components of the triad overlap in accounting for depressive symptoms, or they show distinct profiles of association. By relying on six independent samples of early adolescents (age range = 13-14: n = 174, 66% female, n = 347, 41% female), mid adolescents (age range = 15-17: n = 304, 61% female; n = 92, 34% female), and late adolescents (age range = 18-21: n = 217, 84% female, n = 101, 56% female), we showed that the views of the self, world, and future substantially overlap in accounting for depressive symptoms, although specific areas of distinctiveness could be detected. Moreover, the association between the cognitive triad and depressive symptoms appeared to be a function of both the developmental phase and gender. Furthermore, the cognitive triad emerged as specifically related to symptoms related to negative mood, absence of positive mood, and negative appraisal of the past. These findings advance our understanding of cognitive vulnerability for depressive symptoms in adolescence.

Non-Suicidal Self-Injury Among Adolescents: A Structural Model with Socioecological Connectedness, Bullying Victimization, and Depression

The objective was to examine the associations of socioecological connectedness with bullying victimization and depressive symptoms in early adolescence and with non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) in mid-adolescence, and how these might differ between genders. Diverse adolescents (N = 4115; 49.1% girls) in the 7th grade reported on connections with parents/family, peers, school, and neighborhood, as well as bullying victimization and depressive symptoms, and NSSI in 10th grade (M^e = 16.1 years). Structural equation modeling with WSLMV indicated that the lower likelihood of NSSI in 10th grade was associated with higher perceptions of connections between adolescents and their families, both directly as well as indirectly through reduced bully victimization and depressive symptoms three years earlier. Higher school connectedness was indirectly associated with the lower likelihood of NSSI through bullying victimization and depressive symptoms. Paths to NSSI varied for girls and boys. Results advance the understanding of developmental pathways leading to NSSI in adolescent girls and boys.

Development of internalizing symptoms during adolescence in three countries: the role of temperament and parenting behaviors

This longitudinal study examined the unique and joint effects of early adolescent temperament and parenting in predicting the development of adolescent internalizing symptoms in a cross-cultural sample. Participants were 544 early adolescents (T1: M_age = 12.58; 49.5% female) and their mothers (n = 530) from Medellín, Colombia (n = 88), Naples, Italy (n = 90), Rome, Italy (n = 100) and Durham, North Carolina, United States (African Americans n = 92, European Americans n = 97, and Latinx n = 77). Early adolescent negative emotionality (i.e., anger and sadness experience), self-regulation (i.e., effortful control), and parent monitoring and psychological control were measured at T1. Adolescent internalizing symptoms were measured at three time points. Latent Growth Curve Modeling (LGCM) without covariates or predictors indicated a slight linear increase in internalizing symptoms from ages 13-16 years across nearly all cultural groups. Multi-group LGCMs demonstrated several paths were consistently invariant across groups when examining how well temperament and parenting predicted intercept and slope factors. Higher initial levels of internalizing symptoms were significantly predicted by higher adolescent negative emotionality and parental psychological control as well as lower adolescent effortful control and parental monitoring measured one year earlier. Overall, adolescent effortful control appeared to protect against the emergence of internalizing symptoms in all cultures, but this effect faded over time. This study advances knowledge of the normative development of internalizing symptoms during adolescence across cultures while highlighting the predictive value of early adolescent temperament and parenting.

Reliability and Validity of the Korean Version of Children's Depression Inventory 2 Short Version as a Screening Tool: A Comparison With the Standard 28-Item Version

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the reliability and validity of the Korean version of Children's Depression Inventory 2 Short Version (CDI 2:S) in comparison with its full-length version (CDI 2) as a screening tool for depressive youth.

METHODS

A total of 714 children from the community and 62 psychiatric patients were enrolled in this study. The Korean version of the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL-K) served as the reference standard for computing receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. To evaluate the ability of the CDI 2 and CDI 2:S to discriminate major depressive disorders, areas under the curves (AUCs) were compared. To investigate psychometric properties of the CDI 2:S, internal consistency was calculated and confirmatory factor analysis was conducted.

RESULTS

For the CDI 2, the cutoff at 20 yielded the best balance between sensitivity (83%) and specificity (91%). For the CDI 2:S, the cutoff point of 10 resulted in high sensitivity (82%) and high specificity (93%). The short form was proven to be as sensitive and specific as the CDI 2. Further analyses confirmed that the CDI 2:S also had good reliability and validity.

CONCLUSION

The CDI 2:S, a sensitive and brief form of the CDI 2, may serve as a better option in time-constrained psychiatric settings.

In-person victimization, cyber victimization, and polyvictimization in relation to internalizing symptoms and self-esteem in adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

BACKGROUND

There is mixed evidence for whether in-person victimization and cyber victimization are differentially linked to internalizing symptoms and self-esteem among adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The goals of the present study were to (1) evaluate in-person victimization and cyber victimization in relation to internalizing symptoms (i.e., anxiety and depression) and self-esteem and (2) examine differences in internalizing symptoms and self-esteem between in-person victimization, cyber victimization, and polyvictimization (i.e., both in-person victimization and cyber victimization).

METHODS

Participants were 78 adolescents (ages 13-17 years) diagnosed with ADHD who completed ratings of in-person victimization, cyber victimization, anxiety, depression, and self-esteem. Parents completed ratings of their adolescent's anxiety and depression.

RESULTS

Adolescents with ADHD reported experiencing higher rates of in-person victimization (64%) than cyber victimization (23%) in the last 30 days. In addition, 22% reported that they experienced polyvictimization. In-person victimization was associated with higher adolescent-reported anxiety symptoms, whereas cyber victimization was associated with higher parent-reported depressive symptoms; both were associated with lower adolescent-reported self-esteem. Adolescents who reported polyvictimization reported the highest anxiety and depressive symptoms and the lowest self-esteem.

CONCLUSIONS

Approximately one quarter of adolescents with ADHD report experiencing polyvictimization in the past month. Findings indicate that in-person victimization and cyber victimization are each uniquely associated with lower self-esteem and differentially associated with co-occurring internalizing symptoms among adolescents with ADHD. Polyvictimization is especially linked to higher internalizing symptoms and lower self-esteem. Longitudinal studies are needed to better understand the directionality of these associations.

Age related sex differences in maladaptive regulatory responses to sadness: A study of youths at high and low familial risk for depression

Offspring of parents with depression histories are at increased risk of developing depression and also report maladaptive ways of self-regulating sadness. Maladaptive regulation of sadness tends to be more prevalent among females than males and has been proposed as one explanation of sex differences in depression rates that emerge around mid-adolescence. However, there is scant information about the age at which the sex differences in maladaptive regulatory responses become evident and whether such age-related sex differences vary depending on depression risk. The present study examined two samples aged 8-18 years: 86 offspring of emotionally healthy parents and 98 offspring of parents with depression histories. Subjects were clinically assessed and provided self-reports of maladaptive responses to sadness. In the combined samples, sex differences in maladaptive responses were significant at age 12.5 years and older ages (i.e., chronologically earlier than the documented emergence of sex differences in depression). While in the high-risk group, sex differences in maladaptive regulatory responses were significant at 12.11 years of age and older, in the low-risk group there was no age at which sex differences were significant. Our findings support the possible mechanistic role of maladaptive emotion regulation in the emergence of sex disparities in depression rates and have implications for prevention.

Covariance Between Parent and Child Symptoms Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic

OBJECTIVE

COVID-19 has had unprecedented effects on American families, including increases in depression, anxiety, and irritability for both parents and children. While parents and children influence each other's psychological functioning during non-disaster times, this effect may be amplified during times of disaster. The current study investigated how COVID-19 influenced covariance of depressive symptoms and irritability in children and their parents.

METHODS

Three hundred and ninety-one parents and their 8- to 17-year-old children (Mage = 10.68 years old, 70% male, 86% White) from a large sample of children and parents, primarily from Southeastern Louisiana, completed self-report measures of depression and irritability approximately 6 weeks into the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as providing retrospective reports of their symptoms prior to the pandemic. Actor-partner interdependence models were used to measure the reciprocal effects of parent symptoms on children and vice versa, both before and during the pandemic.

RESULTS

Actor effects in both the depressive symptoms and irritability models suggested that pre-COVID-19 depressive symptoms and irritability were robust predictors of early-COVID-19 depressive symptoms and irritability for both parents and children. Partner effects were also detected in the irritability model, in that parental irritability prior to COVID-19 was associated with decreased child irritability during the pandemic. Both before and during the pandemic, associations between parent and child depressive symptoms and irritability scores were weaker in families evidencing greater dysfunction.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that COVID-19-related stress is associated with increases in both parent and child symptomatology, and that family relationships likely influence associations between these symptoms.

A Half Century of Research on Childhood and Adolescent Depression: Science Mapping the Literature, 1970 to 2019

In order to gain an in-depth understanding of research about childhood and adolescent depression, this article analyzes the scale, development, and geographic distribution of the literature in the field based on 8491 articles extracted from the Web of Science Core database. Using citation analysis, this article identifies influential journals, scholars, and documents in this field. The study found that in the past 15 years, the number of documents has increased significantly and geographical diversity has also increased. Most of the highly influential literature relates to depression inventories. Using keyword co-occurrence analysis, this article also identified three key research topics focusing on (a) child and adolescent depression symptoms and prevalence, (b) parental depression and child behavioral or emotional problems, and (c) childhood abuse and depression. This study uses 'science mapping' as a means to provide a better understanding of research trends about childhood and adolescent depression that have emerged over the past half century, and may serve as reference for future research.

The analysis of network structure among the depressive symptoms in a clinical sample of children and adolescents

The symptoms of depressive disorder in children and adolescents vary widely and have complex interconnections with each other. This study aimed to identify the network structures among individual depressive symptoms in clinically referred children and adolescents. A total of 464 children and adolescents who visited the outpatient psychiatry clinic in South Korea were enrolled. The Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) was used to assess depressive symptoms. To construct the network structure and estimate the centrality indices among individual symptoms, the Gaussian graphical model was utilized with the tuning parameter to minimize the extended Bayesian information criterion. Among all symptoms, self-hatred had the highest strength centrality, followed by crying and self-deprecation. Among 191 valid edges constituting the CDI symptom network, sadness-crying, school work difficulty-school performance decrement, disobedience-fights, misbehavior-low self-esteem, self-deprecation-self-blame, school dislike-lack of friendship, self-hatred-negative body image, anhedonia-social withdrawal, self-hatred-suicidal ideation, crying-irritability, and sadness-loneliness showed significantly higher weights than the other edges. The present study identified the network structure among depressive symptoms in children and adolescents. Future studies including more symptoms of depression are warranted to provide insights into the underlying mechanisms of child and adolescent depression.

Gray Matter Volume in the Developing Frontal Lobe and Its Relationship With Executive Function in Late Childhood and Adolescence: A Community-Based Study

Background: During late childhood and adolescence, the frontal lobe undergoes critical developmental changes, affecting a wide range of executive functions significantly. Conversely, abnormality in the maturation of the frontal lobe during this period may result in a limited ability to effectively use various executive functions. However, at present, it is still unclear how the structural development of the frontal lobe is associated with different aspects of executive functions during this developmental period. To fill the gap in evidence, we aimed to elucidate gray matter volume (GMV) in the frontal lobe and its relationship with multiple aspects of executive functions in late childhood and adolescence. Methods: We recruited our participants aged between 6 and 17 years to assess GMV in the frontal lobe and its relationship with different domains of executive functions in late childhood and adolescence. We used the voxel-based morphometry-DARTEL procedure to measure GMVs in multiple frontal sub-regions and Stroop test and Advanced Test of Attention (ATA) to measure executive functions. We then conducted partial correlation analyses and performed multiple comparisons with different age and sex groups. Results: Overall, 123 participants took part in our study. We found that many regional GMVs in the frontal lobe were negatively correlated with ATA scores in participants in late childhood and positively correlated with ATA scores in participants in adolescence. Only a few correlations of the GMVs with Stroop test scores were significant in both age groups. Although most of our results did not survive false discovery rate (FDR) correction (i.e., FDR <0.2), considering their novelty, we discussed our results based on uncorrected p-values. Our findings indicate that the frontal sub-regions that were involved in attentional networks may significantly improve during late childhood and become stabilized later in adolescence. Moreover, our findings with the Stroop test may also present the possibility of the later maturation of higher-order executive functioning skills. Conclusion: Although our findings were based on uncorrected p-values, the novelty of our findings may provide better insights into elucidating the maturation of the frontal lobe and its relationship with the development of attention networks in late childhood and adolescence.

Sex-related differences in brain dynamism at rest as neural correlates of positive and negative valence system constructs

Clinical anxiety and depression are the most prevalent mental illnesses, likely representing maladaptive expressions of negative valence systems concerned with conditioned responses to fear, threat, loss, and frustrative nonreward. These conditions exhibit similar, striking sex/gender-related differences in onset, incidence, and severity for which the neural correlates are not yet established. In alarge sample of neurotypical young adults, we demonstrate that intrinsic brain dynamism metrics derived from sex-sensitive models of whole-brain network function are significantly associated with valence system traits. Surprisingly, we found that greater brain dynamism is strongly positively correlated to anxiety and depression traits in males, but almost wholly decoupled from traits for important cognitive control and reappraisal strategies associated with positive valence. Conversely, intrinsic brain dynamism is strongly positively coupled to drive, novelty-seeking and self-control in females with only rare or non-significant directional negative correlation with anxiety and depression traits. Our results suggest that the dynamic neural correlates of traits for valence, anxiety and depression are significantly different in males/men and females/women. These findings may relate to the known sex/gender-related differences in cognitive reappraisal of emotional experiences and clinical presentations of anxiety and depression, with potential relevance to gold standard therapies based on enhancing cognitive control strategies.

Is the US Gender Gap in Depression Changing Over Time? A Meta-Regression

The depression gap refers to higher rates of depression among women than men. Change in the depression gap over time might elucidate social causes of this disparity-such as unequal college attendance or employment status. We conducted a meta-regression analysis to estimate variation in the depression gap over time by age, accounting for potential sources of variation between studies. Electronic databases and bibliographies were searched for English-language studies from January 1980 through October 2019; 144 independent estimates from US-representative samples met selection criteria (n = 813,189). The depression gap was summarized as prevalence ratios among studies using diagnostic instruments and as standardized mean differences among symptom-based studies. Primary study measures were baseline study year (range, 1982-2017) and age (age groups ranging, in years, from 10-59 and 60 or older). Compared with respondents aged ≥60 years, depression prevalence was greater among respondents aged 10-19 (prevalence ratio = 1.26, 95% confidence interval: 1.02, 1.56). Over time, the depression gap did not change among adults, but it increased among adolescents (age-by-time interaction prevalence ratio = 1.05, 95% confidence interval: 1.01, 1.08). Results were similar for symptom-based studies. The present study finds no evidence of a change in the depression gender gap for US adults; however, the gap increased among adolescents. Greater attention to factors driving this widening disparity in adolescent depression is needed.

Executive function as a mechanism linking socioeconomic status to internalizing and externalizing psychopathology in children and adolescents

INTRODUCTION

The association between low socioeconomic status (SES) in childhood and increased risk for psychopathology is well established, but the mechanisms explaining this relationship are poorly understood. Here, we investigate the potential role of difficulties in executive functioning (EF) as a mechanism linking childhood and adolescent SES with externalizing and internalizing psychopathology.

METHODS

We examined whether difficulties with EF mediated the association between SES and externalizing and internalizing psychopathology in two cross-sectional samples of children and adolescents (Study 1: N = 94, ages 6-18, 51.1% male; Study 2: N = 259, ages 8-16, 54.1% male) from diverse SES backgrounds in the United States. EF was measured through behavioral tasks and parent-reported behavioral regulation (BR).

RESULTS

In both samples, children and adolescents from lower SES families were more likely to experience both externalizing and internalizing psychopathology than youth from more advantaged backgrounds and exhibited greater EF difficulties - they had lower performance on a task measuring inhibitory control and lower parent-rated BR. Reduced inhibitory control and BR, in turn, were associated with higher externalizing and internalizing psychopathology. In Study 1, difficulties with BR mediated the association of low-SES with both externalizing and internalizing psychopathology. In Study 2, low inhibitory control mediated the association between low-SES and externalizing psychopathology. These findings largely persisted after adjusting for exposure to violence, a form of adversity that is common in children from low-SES backgrounds.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that reduced EF may be an underlying mechanism through which low-SES confers risk for psychopathology in children and adolescents.

Dynamic Associations of Parent-Adolescent Closeness and Friend Support With Adolescent Depressive Symptoms Across Ages 12-19

Supportive relationships with parents and friends reduce adolescent risk for depression; however, whether and how the strength of these associations changes across adolescence remains less clear. Age-varying associations of mother-adolescent and father-adolescent closeness and friend support with depressive symptoms were examined across ages 12.5-19.5 using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (N = 4,819). Positive relationships with mothers, fathers, and friends were associated with lower depressive symptoms across adolescence, and the associations were generally stable across age. The association between father-adolescent closeness and depressive symptoms was stronger for girls than for boys during mid-adolescence. Mother-adolescent closeness was more strongly negatively associated with depressive symptoms in the context of higher friend support during mid-adolescence.

From Stressful Experiences to Depression in Chinese Migrant Children: The Roles of Stress Mindset and Coping

Migrant children are at high risk for depression, though the exact mechanism is still unclear. This study investigated whether and how different stress mindsets (threat vs. challenge) and coping strategies (avoidant vs. approach) mediated the association between stressful experiences and depression in migrant children, and whether these relationships would be moderated by gender. One hundred and ninety-eight rural-to-urban migrant children (56.0% girls; M_age = 11.8 years) in Beijing, China, completed self-administered measures of stressful experiences, threat and challenge mindsets, coping strategies, and depression. Path analysis was conducted to examine the proposed mediation model. A dual-pathway model of stress coping was discovered: (1) a stress-threat-avoidance-depression pathway, in which threat mindset and avoidant coping mediated the association between stressful experiences and depression, and (2) a challenge-approach-enhancement pathway, in which approach coping mediated the association between challenge mindset and fewer depressive symptoms, without being influenced by stressful experiences. The dual-pathway mechanism did not vary by gender, and it can explain the greater vulnerability of girls to depression. Together, findings suggest that stressful events, threat mindset, and avoidant coping act as risk factors for depression, whereas challenge mindset and approach coping can function as protective factors to counteract the impacts of stressful experiences and promote psychological well-being among migrant children.

Dramaturgical perspective mediates the association between parenting by lying in childhood and adolescent depression and the protective role of parent-child attachment

BACKGROUND

Recent findings reveal that individuals who experience parenting by lying in childhood may exhibit depression through adulthood. Questions remain regarding the cognitive mechanism underlying this association and whether depression manifests as early as adolescence.

OBJECTIVE

Our current study used a survey to test the associations among parenting by lying in childhood, adolescent depression, dramaturgical perspective, and parent-child attachment.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Adolescents (n = 964, M_age = 13.62, SD_age = 1.04) were recruited from five secondary schools in a city in central China. A total of 446 (46.3 %) boys and 518 (53.7 %) girls participated in the survey.

METHODS

We used questionnaires to measure parenting by lying, dramaturgical perspective, parent-child attachment and depression.

RESULTS

A bias-corrected bootstrapping mediation test indicated that the process by which parenting by lying predicted depression through a dramaturgical perspective was significant,ab = .06, SE = .01, 95 % CI = [.027, .089]. Moderation analysis indicated that the interaction between parenting by lying and parent-child attachment was associated with depression (B = - .05, p < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

Parenting by lying in childhood was found to be positively associated with adolescent depression. The association was mediated by the child's use of a dramaturgical perspective and moderated by parent-child attachment. This study highlights an intriguing but under-researched parenting practice and extends our understanding of its association with adolescent depression. In practice, strengthening parent-child attachment can weaken the association between parenting by lying and depression.

Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in Norwegian 10-14-year-olds: Results from a cross-sectional study

Youth mental health problems is the leading cause of disability worldwide and a major public health concern. Prevalence rates are needed for planning preventive interventions and health care services. We here report Norwegian prevalence estimates for youth mental disorders based on findings from the Bergen Child Study cohort. A web-based psychiatric interview; the Development and Well-Being Assessment, was completed by parents and teachers of 2,043 10-14-year-olds from the city of Bergen, Norway. Post-stratification weights were used to account for selective participation related to parental educational in the estimation of prevalence rates. Prevalence rates are presented for the whole sample and stratified by gender and age. The overall population weighted estimate suggests that 6.93% (95% CI 5.06–9.41) of the children met DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for one or more psychiatric disorders. There were no robust indications of age- or gender-related differences in the prevalence. 11.4% of the children fulfilled criteria for more than one diagnosis. The most common comorbid conditions were ADHD and disruptive disorders. The prevalence of psychiatric disorders was relatively low among Norwegian 10-14-year-olds, compared to published worldwide prevalence estimates. This is in line with estimates from prior studies from the Nordic countries. These findings raise important questions about the origins of different prevalence rates for psychiatric disorders between societies. The findings also illustrate the importance of locally driven epidemiological studies for planning preventative efforts and appropriately scaling mental health services to meet the need of the population.

Emotional Reactions and Likelihood of Response to Questions Designed for a Mental Health Chatbot Among Adolescents: Experimental Study

BACKGROUND

Psychological distress increases across adolescence and has been associated with several important health outcomes with consequences that can extend into adulthood. One type of technological innovation that may serve as a unique intervention for youth experiencing psychological distress is the conversational agent, otherwise known as a chatbot. Further research is needed on the factors that may make mental health chatbots destined for adolescents more appealing and increase the likelihood that adolescents will use them.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to assess adolescents' emotional reactions and likelihood of responding to questions that could be posed by a mental health chatbot. Understanding adolescent preferences and factors that could increase adolescents' likelihood of responding to chatbot questions could assist in future mental health chatbot design destined for youth.

METHODS

We recruited 19 adolescents aged 14 to 17 years to participate in a study with a 2×2×3 within-subjects factorial design. Each participant was sequentially presented with 96 chatbot questions for a duration of 8 seconds per question. Following each presentation, participants were asked to indicate how likely they were to respond to the question, as well as their perceived affective reaction to the question. Demographic data were collected, and an informal debriefing was conducted with each participant.

RESULTS

Participants were an average of 15.3 years old (SD 1.00) and mostly female (11/19, 58%). Logistic regressions showed that the presence of GIFs predicted perceived emotional valence (β=-.40, P<.001), such that questions without GIFs were associated with a negative perceived emotional valence. Question type predicted emotional valence, such that yes/no questions (β=-.23, P=.03) and open-ended questions (β=-.26, P=.01) were associated with a negative perceived emotional valence compared to multiple response choice questions. Question type also predicted the likelihood of response, such that yes/no questions were associated with a lower likelihood of response compared to multiple response choice questions (β=-.24, P=.03) and a higher likelihood of response compared to open-ended questions (β=.54, P<.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study add to the rapidly growing field of teen-computer interaction and contribute to our understanding of adolescent user experience in their interactions with a mental health chatbot. The insights gained from this study may be of assistance to developers and designers of mental health chatbots.

Social and sex differences in psychiatric comorbidity and psychosocial functioning among adolescents with depression

BACKGROUND

To determine social and sex differences in psychosocial functioning and psychiatric comorbidity among adolescents with depression.

METHODS

A cohort-based study in Stockholm, Sweden. Adolescents who turned 13 years during 2001-2007, were followed in registers until they turned 18 in 2005-2011, (n = 169,262). In the current study, those with depression at age 13-17 were included (n = 6,439).

RESULTS

Adolescents with parents with low (OR=1.5, CI 1.1-2.2) education were more likely to have low psychosocial functioning. Those with parents with low education and low household income were more likely to have comorbid internalizing (OR=1.3, CI 1.0-1.7/1.3, CI 1.0-1.7) and externalizing disorders (OR=2.5, CI 1.5-4.0/2.4, CI 1.4-4.2). Adolescents with parents born outside the Nordic countries were more likely to have comorbid externalizing disorders (OR=1.6, CI 1.1-2.4). No social differences were evident in relation to family receipt of unemployment benefits. Social differences were found for both girls and boys in relation to psychosocial functioning and comorbidity but the magnitude of social differences in depression with comorbidity was overall larger for boys than girls.

LIMITATIONS

The findings of the current study can only be generalized to adolescents that have sought care for and been diagnosed with depression, within a setting similar to this study, e.g. with free access to care.

CONCLUSION

Adolescents with depression and with more disadvantaged social circumstances in the childhood run a higher risk of psychiatric comorbidity and low psychosocial functioning, which can indicate a lengthy clinical course and poorer response to treatment. Both boys and girls follow this path but partly in different kinds of psychiatric comorbidity.

What makes adolescents psychologically distressed? Life events as risk factors for depression and suicide

Adolescence is a vulnerable period for psychological distress. This study aimed to comprehensively investigate the distribution of major stress-causing factors and their correlates in a large population of adolescents. A computerized self-report questionnaire was completed by 291,110 participating adolescents over a 4-year period using a cross-sectional study design. The questionnaire included items assessing demographic variables, major stressors, severity of perceived stress, and mental health outcomes such as depressed mood, suicidal ideation, and attempts. Among the major stressors, schoolwork/career was the most predominant (54.7%). However, the odds ratios for depressed mood and suicidal ideation were the highest in the stressor of conflict with peers (OR = 1.97 for depressed mood and OR = 2.00 for suicidal ideation), followed by family circumstances (OR = 1.77 and 1.94 for depressed mood and suicidal ideation, respectively). Conversely, schoolwork/career presented significantly lower odds ratios of 0.87 and 0.87 for depressed mood and suicidal ideation, respectively. This study provides important information on psychological distress related to adolescents' mental health. Although school/career was the most prevalent source of psychological stress, the odds ratios for negative health outcomes of adolescents were higher in interpersonal problems such as conflicts with parents and peers and family circumstances. The present findings might help parents and clinicians understand the psychological distress of adolescents and improve their mental health.

Network analysis for the symptom of depression with Children's Depression Inventory in a large sample of school-aged children

BACKGROUND

Depressive disorders have various symptom presentations, which may have complex and dynamic interactions. This study aimed to investigate the network structures underlying the symptoms and to identify the central symptoms of depression in school-aged children.

METHODS

Participants were a large community sample of elementary school children aged 6 to 12 years (N = 10,233). To assess the depressive symptoms, we utilized the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI). We binarized the scores on the CDI to generate a symptom network using the eLasso method, based on the Ising model. We evaluated the centralities in individual symptoms using the network centrality indices and the associations between symptoms.

RESULTS

Of the symptoms, loneliness, self-hatred, school dislike, and low self-esteem were the most central symptoms in the network of depressive symptoms. School work difficulty-school performance decrement, sadness-crying, self-hatred-negative body image, low self-esteem-fight, anhedonia-school dislike, sadness-loneliness, self-deprecation-school work difficulty, and school dislike-lack of friendship had significantly higher edge weight than most edges. The estimated network between the symptoms was robust to stability and accuracy tests.

LIMITATIONS

Participants were not clinical but community samples, who show lower level of symptoms.

CONCLUSION

The present symptom network analysis provided important insights on various interconnectivities between individual symptoms in childhood depression and on the central symptoms. In addition, our findings presented both similarities and differences with a previous Western study, thus, warranting future cross-cultural studies.

Socioeconomic status and child psychopathology in the United States: A meta-analysis of population-based studies

Children raised in families with low socioeconomic status (SES) are more likely to exhibit symptoms of psychopathology. However, the strength of this association, the specific indices of SES most strongly associated with childhood psychopathology, and factors moderating the association are strikingly inconsistent across studies. We conducted a meta-analysis of 120 estimates of the association between family SES and child psychopathology in 13 population-representative cohorts of children studied in the US since 1980. Among 26,715 participants aged 3-19 years, we observed small to moderate associations of low family income (g = 0.19), low Hollingshead index (g = 0.21), low subjective SES (g = 0.24), low parental education (g = 0.25), poverty status (g = 0.25), and receipt of public assistance (g = 0.32) with higher levels of childhood psychopathology. Moderator testing revealed that receipt of public assistance showed an especially strong association with psychopathology and that SES was more strongly related to externalizing than internalizing psychopathology. Dispersion in our final, random effects, model suggested that the relation between SES and child psychopathology is likely to vary in different populations of children and in different communities. These findings highlight the need for additional research on the mechanisms of SES-related psychopathology risk in children in order to identify targets for potential intervention.

Digital Phenotyping of Emotion Dysregulation Across Lifespan Transitions to Better Understand Psychopathology Risk

Ethical and consensual digital phenotyping through smartphone activity (i. e., passive behavior monitoring) permits measurement of temporal risk trajectories unlike ever before. This data collection modality may be particularly well-suited for capturing emotion dysregulation, a transdiagnostic risk factor for psychopathology, across lifespan transitions. Adolescence, emerging adulthood, and perinatal transitions are particularly sensitive developmental periods, often marked by increased distress. These participant groups are typically assessed with laboratory-based methods that can be costly and burdensome. Passive monitoring presents a relatively cost-effective and unobtrusive way to gather rich and objective information about emotion dysregulation and risk behaviors. We first discuss key theoretically-driven concepts pertaining to emotion dysregulation and passive monitoring. We then identify variables that can be measured passively and hold promise for better understanding emotion dysregulation. For example, two strong markers of emotion dysregulation are sleep disturbance and problematic use of Internet/social media (i.e., use that prompts negative emotions/outcomes). Variables related to mobility are also potentially useful markers, though these variables should be tailored to fit unique features of each developmental stage. Finally, we offer our perspective on candidate digital variables that may prove useful for each developmental transition. Smartphone-based passive monitoring is a rigorous method that can elucidate psychopathology risk across human development. Nonetheless, its use requires researchers to weigh unique ethical considerations, examine relevant theory, and consider developmentally-specific lifespan features that may affect implementation.

Self-injury from early adolescence to early adulthood: age-related course, recurrence, and services use in males and females from the community

Adolescent self-injury is a widespread public health problem, but long-term longitudinal studies from European countries are rare. Self-injury in males and sex differences are poorly understood. This study describes the prevalence, frequency, age-related course, and recurrence of, and mental health services use related to adolescent self-injury. Data came from a Swiss prospective-longitudinal cohort study (N = 1482). Adolescents (52% male) reported frequency of self-injury and mental health services use (including reasons for and types of services use, hospitalizations) at ages 13, 15, 17, and 20. Between ages 13-20, 27% of adolescents reported self-injury at least once. In males, prevalence decreased from 12 to 5%; in females self-injury peaked at age 15 (16%) and then decreased (11% at age 20). In males, recurrence of self-injury increased after age 15 (from odds ratio [OR] < 3 to OR > 10); in females, recurrence was high from age 13 onwards (OR > 5). Predictors of recurrence included childhood/early adolescent internalizing symptoms and early self-injury onset. Typically, less than half of adolescents with self-injury used mental health services. Males with self-injury used services mainly for externalizing problems, learning difficulties, and attention/concentration problems; females for depression or self-injury, family problems, and victimization. Types of services used changed with age, and adolescents with self-injury had increased rates of hospitalization. There are notable sex differences in the longitudinal course of self-injury and reasons for related mental health services use. Treating early internalizing symptoms could be a promising target for preventing recurrent self-injury. Males are at particular risk of not receiving adequate treatment for self-injury.

Parental Demandingness Predicts Adolescents' Rumination and Depressive Symptoms in a One-year Longitudinal Study

While past research has linked parental demandingness (parents' rules, regulations, and restrictions for their children) to depression in adolescents, the mechanism underlying this relationship has not been well understood. This study attempts to disentangle the association between parental demandingness and depression by examining the potential mediating role of rumination (a repetitive and passive focus on negative emotions and symptoms) using an objective observational measure of parenting and a two-wave longitudinal design. Participants were 125 students aged 9 to 14 (M = 12.21, SD = 1.39) from local schools in Hong Kong. Participants completed questionnaires and participated in interaction tasks with their primary caregiving parents at T1 and completed the questionnaires again at T2 (one year later). A longitudinal mediation analysis suggested that the relationship between parental demandingness and depression was mediated by rumination. This study advances the existing literature by supporting that parental demandingness influences depression among children through increasing rumination. The present findings provide insights into the future development of parenting interventions (which aim at reducing parents' commands) in prevention programs for depression in children.

Personality development from 12 to 18 years of age: changes in mean levels and structure of traits

The Estonian NEO‐FFI was administered to 2650 Estonian adolescents (1420 girls and 1230 boys) aged from 12 to 18 years and attending 6th, 8th, 10th, or 12th grade at secondary schools all over Estonia. Although the mean levels of personality traits of Estonian adolescents were quite similar to the respective scores of Estonian adults, there was a developmental gap in Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. Three of the five personality dispositions demonstrated a modest cross‐sectional change in the mean level of the trait scores: the level of Openness increased and the levels of Agreeableness and Conscientiousness decreased between 12 and 18 years of age. Although the five‐factor structure of personality was already recognizable in the sample of 12‐year‐old children, it demonstrated only an approximate congruence with the adult structure, suggesting that not all children of that age have developed abilities required for observing one's own personality dispositions and for giving reliable self‐reports on the basis of these observations. The self‐reported personality trait structure matures and becomes sufficiently differentiated around age 14–15 and grows to be practically indistinguishable from adult personality by the age of 16. Personality of adolescents becomes more differentiated with age: along with the growth of mental capacities the correlations among the personality traits and intelligence become smaller. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Internalizing Problems in Adolescence: Linking Loneliness, Social Anxiety Symptoms, and Depressive Symptoms Over Time

Adolescents are particularly vulnerable to experiencing loneliness, social anxiety symptoms, and depressive symptoms. These internalizing problems often co-occur but, until now, it remains unclear how they are associated over time. Insight in these temporal sequences is important to enhance our understanding of how internalizing problems arise and may reinforce each other over time. To examine these temporal sequences, three samples of adolescents were used: Sample 1 consisted of 1,116 adolescents (48.97% girls, M_age = 13.59), Sample 2 of 1,423 adolescents (52.42% girls, M_age = 13.79), and Sample 3 of 549 adolescents (62.66% girls, M_age = 14.82). Adolescents filled out well-established self-report measures of loneliness, social anxiety symptoms, and depressive symptoms during regular school hours at three measurement occasions with a 1-year interval. Meta-analytic techniques were used to estimate the average true effects across three-variable autoregressive cross-lagged models in the three samples. In addition, indirect effects and gender differences in the temporal associations were explored in all three samples. The results suggest that social anxiety symptoms play a crucial role as potential antecedent of emerging feelings of loneliness and depression in adolescence. In addition, in line with theoretical expectations, our results suggest the presence of a vicious cycle between adolescents' feelings of loneliness and social anxiety symptoms. The indirect effects were inconsistent across samples and no gender differences were found. These findings shed more light on the unique temporal relationships among different internalizing problems. Clinical interventions should target social anxiety symptoms to prevent feelings of loneliness and vice versa.

Increased prevalence of depression in South Korea from 2002 to 2013

South Korea has one of the highest suicide rates among countries. However, the prevalence of depression in South Korea has been reported to be much lower than in other countries. The current study aims to estimate the prevalence of major depressive disorder using a large representative sample of the South Korean population. The prevalence of depression in a sampled population of one million individuals increased from 2.8% in 2002 to 5.3% in 2013; it was found to increase with the age of the population, and was higher in females than in males for most age groups. A Cox's proportional hazard model showed that suicide risk was significantly higher in people with depression (hazard ratio [HR] 3.79, 95% CI 3.14-4.58) than those without depression. It was also significantly higher in older people (HR 1.52, 95% CI 1.36-1.70) than in younger people, and in males (HR 2.45, 95% CI 2.02-2.96) than in females. Furthermore, higher income groups were at lower suicide risk as compared to lower income groups (HR 0.88, 95% CI 0.80-0.95). This study using the large representative sample data provided evidence that increased prevalence of depression contributed to the increased risk of suicide in South Korea during the recent decade.

The long-term indirect effect of the early Family Check-Up intervention on adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms via inhibitory control

This study examined the long-term effects of a randomized controlled trial of the Family Check-Up (FCU) intervention initiated at age 2 on inhibitory control in middle childhood and adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. We hypothesized that the FCU would promote higher inhibitory control in middle childhood relative to the control group, which in turn would be associated with lower internalizing and externalizing symptomology at age 14. Participants were 731 families, with half (n = 367) of the families assigned to the FCU intervention. Using an intent-to-treat design, results indicate that the FCU intervention was indirectly associated with both lower internalizing and externalizing symptoms at age 14 via its effect on increased inhibitory control in middle childhood (i.e., ages 8.5-10.5). Findings highlight the potential for interventions initiated in toddlerhood to have long-term impacts on self-regulation processes, which can further reduce the risk for behavioral and emotional difficulties in adolescence.

The relationship between PTSD and depressive symptoms among children after a natural disaster: A 2-year longitudinal study

This study examined the relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depressive symptoms among children who survived the Lushan earthquake. Three hundred thirty-three children (154 males, 179 females) were assessed for acute stress disorder (ASD) and depressive symptoms at 2 weeks (T1), and their PTSD and depressive symptoms were recorded at 1.5 (T2), 6 (T3), 12 (T4) and 24 (T5) months after the earthquake. The results showed that ASD predicted PTSD and depressive symptoms from T1 to T2, and PTSD symptoms predicted depressive symptoms from T2 to T5, but not vice versa. Depressive symptoms predicted avoidance from T1 to T5; in turn, avoidance predicted depressive symptoms from T3 to T5. Hyperarousal and intrusive symptoms had an effect on depressive symptoms between T1 and T2, and depressive symptoms predicted hyperarousal and intrusion from T2 to T3; after 12 months they did not significantly predict each other. The results suggest that PTSD symptoms generally precede depressive symptoms, and that hyperarousal and intrusive symptoms are major symptoms of PTSD soon after trauma events, while avoidance symptoms are major symptoms of PTSD late after trauma events. The relationship between PTSD and depressive symptoms mostly fits the interactive model.

Children's Attention to Mother and Adolescent Stress Moderate the Attachment-Depressive Symptoms Link

The breadth of children’s attentional field around their mother determines whether securely or insecurely attached children are at risk to develop depressive symptoms when confronted with distress in adolescence. To test this effect longitudinally, we measured children’s (M_age = 10.93; N = 109) baseline attentional breadth around their mother, attachment status (combining attachment coherence, secure base script knowledge, and self-reported trust), and self-reported depressive symptoms. One and two years later, we measured self-reported distress and depressive symptoms. We tested three-way interactions between attentional breadth × attachment × distress on changes in depressive symptoms. This three-way interaction was marginally significantly linked with changes in depressive symptoms from baseline to year 1, and significantly with changes in depressive symptoms from baseline to year 2. Results pointed to the protective role of a narrow attentional field around the mother in middle childhood for securely attached children who are confronted with distress later in life.

Reward Responsiveness and Ruminative Styles Interact to Predict Inflammation and Mood Symptomatology

Abnormal reward responsiveness and rumination each are associated with elevated inflammation and mood symptoms. Ruminating on positive and negative affect, or dampening positive affect, may amplify, or buffer, the associations of reward hyper/hyposensitivity with inflammation and mood symptoms. Young adults (N = 109) with high or moderate reward sensitivity completed reward responsiveness and ruminative style measures at the initial visit of a longitudinal study of mood symptoms, a blood draw to assess inflammatory biomarkers, and mood symptom measures at the study visits before and after the day of the blood draw. The interaction between high reward responsiveness and rumination on positive affect was associated with higher levels of an inflammatory composite measure and hypomanic symptoms. The interaction between lower reward responsiveness and high dampening of positive affect was associated with higher levels of the inflammatory composite measure and depressive symptoms. Lower reward responsiveness also interacted with low rumination on positive affect to predict increases in depressive symptoms and higher levels of the inflammatory composite. Thus, levels of reward responsiveness and ruminative response styles may synergistically influence the development of inflammatory phenotypes and both hypomanic and depressive mood symptoms.

The Development of Internalizing and Externalizing Problems in Primary School: Contributions of Executive Function and Social Competence

This study sought to elucidate the contributions of inferior executive function and social competence to the development of internalizing and externalizing problems in primary school. Children (N = 1,115), on average 5.36 years old in first grade, were followed across primary school with measures of multi-method and multi-informant. Results of growth modeling demonstrated that poor executive function in first grade predicted high levels of both problems and a low rate of decline in externalizing problems over time, independent of the co-occurrence of both problems. Moreover, the impact of poor executive function on behavioral problems may be dependent on its association with disruptive social competence. Findings highlighted the interrelations of risk factors to understanding the development of behavioral problems in primary school.

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous System Functioning and Experiences of Peer Exclusion: Links to Internalizing Problems in Early Adolescence

This study examines the moderating effect of both branches of the autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic) on associations between peer exclusion and internalizing behaviors. Young adolescents (N = 68) self-reported their perceptions of peer exclusion and internalizing problems and participated in stress-inducing public speaking tasks. Skin conductance and respiratory sinus arrhythmia were assessed at baseline (skin conductance baseline, SCLB; respiratory sinus arrhythmia baseline, RSAB) and during the challenge task to provide measures of physiological reactivity (skin conductance reactivity, SCLR; respiratory sinus arrhythmia reactivity, delta RSA). Youth with high delta RSA (low vagal suppression) had higher levels of internalizing problems when they perceived more peer exclusion in their social environments. The combination of low SCLR and high delta RSA (reciprocal parasympathetic) predicted higher levels of internalizing problems, whereas the combination of high SCLR and high delta RSA (coactivation) predicted lower levels of internalizing problems. The association between peer exclusion and youth internalizing problems was not moderated by ANS reactivity profiles which reflected combinations of SCLR and delta RSA.

Social Media Use and Depressive Symptoms-A Longitudinal Study from Early to Late Adolescence

An increasing number of studies have addressed how adolescents’ social media use is associated with depressive symptoms. However, few studies have examined whether these links occur longitudinally across adolescence when examined at the individual level of development. This study investigated the within-person effects between active social media use and depressive symptoms using a five-wave longitudinal dataset gathered from 2891 Finnish adolescents (42.7% male, age range 13–19 years). Sensitivity analysis was conducted, adjusting for gender and family financial status. The results indicate that depressive symptoms predicted small increases in active social media use during both early and late adolescence, whereas no evidence of the reverse relationship was found. Yet, the associations were very small, statistically weak, and somewhat inconsistent over time. The results provide support for the growing notion that the previously reported direct links between social media use and depressive symptoms might be exaggerated. Based on these findings, we suggest that the impact of social media on adolescents’ well-being should be approached through methodological assumptions that focus on individual-level development.

Higher Socioeconomic Status Predicts Less Risk of Depression in Adolescence: Serial Mediating Roles of Social Support and Optimism

Family socioeconomic status (SES) is known to have a powerful influence on adolescent depression. However, the mechanisms underlying this association are unclear. Here, we explore this issue by testing the potential mediating roles of social support (interpersonal resource) and optimism (intrapersonal resource), based on the predictions of the reserve capacity model (RCM). Participants were 652 adolescents [age range: 11-20 years old, M age = 14.55 years, SD = 1.82; 338 boys (51.80%)] from two junior and two senior high schools in Wuhan, China. They completed questionnaires measuring family SES, perceived social support, optimism, and depression. Results showed, as predicted, (1) SES negatively predicted adolescent depression; (2) social support and optimism serially mediated the relations between SES and depression, consistent with the predictions by the RCM. Specifically, higher SES predicted greater social support and increased optimism, which in turn contributed to reduced depression. The implications of these data to the prevention and interventions of adolescent depression were discussed.

Changes in the depression gender gap from 1992 to 2014: Cohort effects and mediation by gendered social position

The depression gap (i.e., higher rates of depression among women than men) represents an important mental health disparity in the US. Differences in gendered social position (i.e., the roles, responsibilities, and opportunities available to women and men), which have been changing since the mid-20th Century may contribute to this gender gap. The present study examined the evidence for a changing depression gap across birth cohorts and tested the extent to which any changes over time were mediated by changes in relative social position between women and men. Data were from the National Longitudinal Surveys. The depression gap was defined as differences in mean CESD scores for women vs. men. The analytic sample included 13,666 respondents interviewed from 1992 to 2014. Hierarchical mixed models estimated the magnitude of the gender depression gap over time, its association with 10-year birth cohort (range: 1957-1994), and whether any variation was mediated by ratios among women relative to men of obtaining a college degree, being employed full-time, and the average number of hours spent doing housework per week, three indicators of gendered social position. There was a linear decrease in the depression gap by 0.18 points across birth cohort (95% CI = -0.26, -0.10). The results of the mediation analysis estimated that an increasing ratio of college degree attainment mediated 39% of the gender depression gap across cohorts (95% CI = 0.18, 0.78). There was no evidence of mediation due to changing employment or housework ratios. These findings partially support the hypothesis that the depression gap is changing over time and is meaningfully related to the social environment. Understanding the social causes of the depression gap can illuminate the fundamental processes through which depression disparities may be perpetuated or attenuated over time and may aid in the identification of strategies to reduce them.

Investigation of the Trend in Adolescent Mental Health and its Related Social Factors: A Multi-Year Cross-Sectional Study For 13 Years

We aimed to investigate the mental health change and associated social correlates in adolescents in terms of depression, suicidal ideation, and suicidal attempt. In total, 978,079 students (12–18 years old, 7th–12th grade) participated in the survey for 13 years (2006–2018) by a multiple-year cross-sectional design (not a repeat measure for smaller group). Mental health outcome variables were assessed using self-report surveys with the independent variables of sex, age, economic status, school achievement, and parental educational level. Korean social indices of income inequality (Gini index, higher scores representing greater economic inequity with score range of 0–1), education (national proportion of tertiary education attainment), and actual suicides were investigated together as related social factors. The prevalence of depressive episodes, suicidal ideation, and suicidal attempt markedly dropped by 34.6%, 42.2%, and 48.3%, respectively. Moreover, the Gini index (from 0.314 in 2008 to 0.295 in 2015) and proportion of tertiary education (from 82.1% in 2006 to 69.7% in 2018) showed a decreasing tendency. These indices and adolescent mental health outcomes highly correlated with each other (Pearson’s r between Gini index and depressive episode = 0.789, suicidal ideation = 0.724, and suicidal attempt = 0.740; Pearson’s r between proportion of tertiary education and depressive episode = 0.930, suicidal ideation = 0.809, and suicidal attempt = 0.851). Adolescent mental health has improved in the last 13 years in Korea, and improvements in social inequality (decreased Gini index) and lessened burden of academic competition (decreased national proportion of tertiary education) were significantly associated with the improvement of adolescent’s mental health. However, the impact of parental educational level on children’s mental health was relatively minimal, compared with the impact of economic inequality and academic burden. Further studies are needed to reveal the underlying mechanism for the association between adolescent mental health and sociodemographic factors to save adolescents from psychological distress.

Attachment to Parents and Peers and Adolescent Mental Health: The Mediating Role of Alexithymia

The current research aims to study the mediating role of alexithymia on the relationship between attachment to parents and peers and mental health problems in a sample of 242 non-referred adolescents. Participants completed the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment, the Toronto Alexithymia Scale, and the Symptom Check List-90-R. Mediation analysis shows that alexithymia fully mediates the relations between attachment to peers and mental health problems in both adolescent males and females. Findings suggest the importance to identify promptly vulnerabilities and risks in order to create prevention and intervention programs aimed to foster positive attachment experiences and to support emotional regulation.