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Loures FV, Stroeder H, Almeida I, Calich VLG. Paracoccidioides brasiliensis lipids modulate macrophage activity via Toll-dependent or independent mechanisms. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 66:58-70. [PMID: 22574780 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-695x.2012.00986.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2012] [Revised: 05/04/2012] [Accepted: 05/04/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The macrophages are the first host cells that interact with the fungus Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, but the main mechanisms that regulate this interaction are not well understood. Because the role played by P. brasiliensis lipids in macrophage activation was not previously investigated, we aimed to assess the influence of diverse lipid fractions from P. brasiliensis yeasts in this process. The possible participation of TLR2 and TLR4 signaling was also evaluated using TLR2- and TLR4-defective macrophages. Four lipid-rich fractions were studied as follows: F1, composed by membrane phospholipids and neutral lipids, F2 by glycolipids of short chain, F3a by membrane glycoproteins anchored by glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) groups, and F3b by glycolipids of long chain. All assayed lipid fractions were able to activate peritoneal macrophages and induce nitric oxide (NO) production. Importantly, the F1 and F3a fractions exerted opposite effects in the control of P. brasiliensis uptake and killing, but both fractions inhibited cytokines production. Furthermore, the increased NO production and expression of costimulatory molecules induced by F3a was shown to be TLR2 dependent although F1 used Toll-independent mechanisms. In conclusion, our work suggests that lipid components may play a role in the innate immunity against P. brasiliensis infection using Toll-dependent and independent mechanisms to control macrophage activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flávio V Loures
- Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil
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152
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Abstract
Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) on host cells detect pathogens to activate innate immunity which, in turn, initiates inflammatory and adaptive immune responses. Successful activation of PRRs is, therefore, critical to controlling infections and driving pathogen‐specific adaptive immunity, but overactivity of PRRs causes systemic inflammation, which is detrimental to the host. Here we review the PRR literature as it relates to horses and speculate on the role PRRs may play in sepsis and endotoxaemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- A H Werners
- Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology Academic Programme, School of Veterinary Medicine, St George's University, True Blue, Grenada, West Indies
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153
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Junqueira C, Guerrero AT, Galvão-Filho B, Andrade WA, Salgado APC, Cunha TM, Ropert C, Campos MA, Penido MLO, Mendonça-Previato L, Previato JO, Ritter G, Cunha FQ, Gazzinelli RT. Trypanosoma cruzi adjuvants potentiate T cell-mediated immunity induced by a NY-ESO-1 based antitumor vaccine. PLoS One 2012; 7:e36245. [PMID: 22567144 PMCID: PMC3342165 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunological adjuvants that induce T cell-mediate immunity (TCMI) with the least side effects are needed for the development of human vaccines. Glycoinositolphospholipids (GIPL) and CpGs oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG ODNs) derived from the protozoa parasite Trypanosoma cruzi induce potent pro-inflammatory reaction through activation of Toll-Like Receptor (TLR)4 and TLR9, respectively. Here, using mouse models, we tested the T. cruzi derived TLR agonists as immunological adjuvants in an antitumor vaccine. For comparison, we used well-established TLR agonists, such as the bacterial derived monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL), lipopeptide (Pam3Cys), and CpG ODN. All tested TLR agonists were comparable to induce antibody responses, whereas significant differences were noticed in their ability to elicit CD4(+) T and CD8(+) T cell responses. In particular, both GIPLs (GTH, and GY) and CpG ODNs (B344, B297 and B128) derived from T. cruzi elicited interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) production by CD4(+) T cells. On the other hand, the parasite derived CpG ODNs, but not GIPLs, elicited a potent IFN-γ response by CD8(+) T lymphocytes. The side effects were also evaluated by local pain (hypernociception). The intensity of hypernociception induced by vaccination was alleviated by administration of an analgesic drug without affecting protective immunity. Finally, the level of protective immunity against the NY-ESO-1 expressing melanoma was associated with the magnitude of both CD4(+) T and CD8(+) T cell responses elicited by a specific immunological adjuvant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Junqueira
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | | | - Bruno Galvão-Filho
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Warrison A. Andrade
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Ana Paula C. Salgado
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Thiago M. Cunha
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Catherine Ropert
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Marco Antônio Campos
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Marcus L. O. Penido
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Lúcia Mendonça-Previato
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - José Oswaldo Previato
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Gerd Ritter
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, New York Branch at Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Fernando Q. Cunha
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Ricardo T. Gazzinelli
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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154
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Reactive oxygen species-triggered trophoblast apoptosis is initiated by endoplasmic reticulum stress via activation of caspase-12, CHOP, and the JNK pathway in Toxoplasma gondii infection in mice. Infect Immun 2012; 80:2121-32. [PMID: 22473610 DOI: 10.1128/iai.06295-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnant women may result in abortion or in fetal teratogenesis; however, the underlying mechanisms are still unclear. In this paper, based on a murine model, we showed that maternal infection with RH strain T. gondii tachyzoites induced elevated production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), local oxidative stress, and subsequent apoptosis of placental trophoblasts. PCR array analysis of 84 oxidative stress-related genes demonstrated that 27 genes were upregulated at least 2-fold and that 9 genes were downregulated at least 2-fold in the T. gondii infection group compared with levels in the control group. The expression of NADPH oxidase 1 (Nox1) and glutathione peroxidase 6 (Gpx6) increased significantly, about 25-fold. The levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) increased significantly with T. gondii infection, and levels of glutathione (GSH) decreased rapidly. T. gondii infection increased the early expression of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) markers, followed by cleavage of caspase-12, activation of ASK1/JNK, and increased apoptosis of trophoblasts, both in vivo and in vitro. The apoptosis of trophoblasts, the activation of caspase-12 and the ASK1/JNK pathway, and the production of peroxides were dramatically inhibited by pretreatment with N-acetylcysteine (NAC). The upregulation of Nox1 was contact dependent and preceded the increase in levels of ERS markers and the activation of the proapoptosis cascade. Thus, we concluded that apoptosis in placental trophoblasts was initiated predominantly by ROS-mediated ERS via activation of caspase-12, CHOP, and the JNK pathway in acute T. gondii infection. Elevated ROS production is the central event in T. gondii-induced apoptosis of placental trophoblasts.
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155
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de Koning HD, Simon A, Zeeuwen PLJM, Schalkwijk J. Pattern recognition receptors in infectious skin diseases. Microbes Infect 2012; 14:881-93. [PMID: 22516809 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2012.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2011] [Revised: 03/15/2012] [Accepted: 03/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
During the last decade, multiple pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) have been identified. These are involved in the innate immune response against a plethora of pathogens. However, PRR functioning can also be detrimental, even during infections. This review discusses the current knowledge on PRRs that recognize dermatotropic pathogens, and potential therapeutical implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heleen D de Koning
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB, The Netherlands.
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156
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Toll-like receptors in leishmania infections: guardians or promoters? J Parasitol Res 2012; 2012:930257. [PMID: 22523644 PMCID: PMC3317170 DOI: 10.1155/2012/930257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2011] [Revised: 12/01/2011] [Accepted: 12/06/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Protozoa of the genus Leishmania cause a wide variety of pathologies ranging from self-healing skin lesions to visceral damage, depending on the parasite species. The outcome of infection depends on the quality of the adaptive immune response, which is determined by parasite factors and the host genetic background. Innate responses, resulting in the generation of mediators with anti-leishmanial activity, contribute to parasite control and help the development of efficient adaptive responses. Among those, the potential contribution of members of the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) family in the control of Leishmania infections started to be investigated about a decade ago. Although most studies appoint a protective role for TLRs, there is growing evidence that in some cases, TLRs facilitate infection. This review highlights recent advances in TLR function during Leishmania infections and discusses their potential role in restraining parasite growth versus yielding disease.
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157
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Kacerovsky M, Andrys C, Drahosova M, Musilova I, Hornychova H, Lesko D, Tosner J, Jacobsson B. Soluble Toll-like receptor 1 family members in the amniotic fluid of women with preterm prelabor rupture of the membranes. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2012; 25:1699-704. [DOI: 10.3109/14767058.2012.658463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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158
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Rodrigues MM, Oliveira AC, Bellio M. The Immune Response to Trypanosoma cruzi: Role of Toll-Like Receptors and Perspectives for Vaccine Development. J Parasitol Res 2012; 2012:507874. [PMID: 22496959 PMCID: PMC3306967 DOI: 10.1155/2012/507874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2011] [Accepted: 10/31/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In the past ten years, studies have shown the recognition of Trypanosoma cruzi-associated molecular patterns by members of the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family and demonstrated the crucial participation of different TLRs during the experimental infection with this parasite. In the present review, we will focus on the role of TLR-activated pathways in the modulation of both innate and acquired immune responses to T. cruzi infection, as well as discuss the state of the art of vaccine research and development against the causative agent of Chagas disease (or American trypanosomiasis).
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauricio M. Rodrigues
- Centro de Terapia Celular e Molecular (CTCMol), Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), 04044-010 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Ana Carolina Oliveira
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Maria Bellio
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), CCS, Avenida Carlos Chagas Filho, 373 Bloco D, sala 35, Cidade Universitária, 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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159
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Trypanosoma cruzi activates cord blood myeloid dendritic cells independently of cell infection. Med Microbiol Immunol 2012; 201:287-96. [PMID: 22327272 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-012-0230-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2011] [Accepted: 01/25/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
We recently showed that T. cruzi parasites enhance expression of co-stimulatory surface molecules on cord blood myeloid dendritic cells (mDCs). This study aims to gain insight into the role of live parasites and intracellular infection in mDC activation using CSFE-labelled parasites. First, we observed that only a low proportion of mDCs was infected by T. cruzi after overnight culture of whole blood samples and trypomastigotes, as compared with monocytes and granulocytes. Cord blood mDCs were also less infected than their adult counterpart. Second, expression levels of HLA-DR and co-stimulatory molecules CD80, CD83 and CD86 were similar on infected and uninfected mDCs. Parasite lysate also triggered mDCs phenotypic maturation of both cord and adult blood cells, though in a lower extent than live parasites. These results strongly support a central role for extracellular trypomastigotes in activation of mDCs when parasites are incubated with whole blood cells. However, viability of trypomastigotes was not absolutely required for mDC activation.
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160
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Rezende-Oliveira K, Sarmento RR, Rodrigues Junior V. Production of cytokine and chemokines by human mononuclear cells and whole blood cells after infection with Trypanosoma cruzi. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2012; 45:45-50. [DOI: 10.1590/s0037-86822012000100009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2011] [Accepted: 09/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION: The innate immune response is the first mechanism of protection against Trypanosoma cruzi, and the interaction of inflammatory cells with parasite molecules may activate this response and modulate the adaptive immune system. This study aimed to analyze the levels of cytokines and chemokines synthesized by the whole blood cells (WBC) and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) of individuals seronegative for Chagas disease after interaction with live T. cruzi trypomastigotes. METHODS: IL-12, IL-10, TNF-α, TGF-β, CCL-5, CCL-2, CCL-3, and CXCL-9 were measured by ELISA. Nitrite was determined by the Griess method. RESULTS: IL-10 was produced at high levels by WBC compared with PBMC, even after incubation with live trypomastigotes. Production of TNF-α by both PBMC and WBC was significantly higher after stimulation with trypomastigotes. Only PBMC produced significantly higher levels of IL-12 after parasite stimulation. Stimulation of cultures with trypomastigotes induced an increase of CXCL-9 levels produced by WBC. Nitrite levels produced by PBMC increased after the addition of parasites to the culture. CONCLUSIONS: Surface molecules of T. cruzi may induce the production of cytokines and chemokines by cells of the innate immune system through the activation of specific receptors not evaluated in this experiment. The ability to induce IL-12 and TNF-α contributes to shift the adaptive response towards a Th1 profile.
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161
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Nakayasu ES, Sobreira TJP, Torres R, Ganiko L, Oliveira PSL, Marques AF, Almeida IC. Improved proteomic approach for the discovery of potential vaccine targets in Trypanosoma cruzi. J Proteome Res 2012; 11:237-46. [PMID: 22115061 PMCID: PMC3253764 DOI: 10.1021/pr200806s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, is a devastating parasitic infection affecting millions of people. Although many efforts have been made for the development of immunotherapies, there is no available vaccine against this deadly infection. One major hurdle for the rational approach to develop a T. cruzi vaccine is the limited information about the proteins produced by different phylogenetic lineages, strains, and stages of the parasite. Here, we have adapted a 1D nanoHPLC system to perform online 2D LC-MS/MS, using the autosampler to inject the eluting salt solutions in the first dimension separation. The application of this methodology for the proteomic analysis of the infective trypomastigote stage of T. cruzi led to the identification of 1448 nonredundant proteins. Furthermore, about 14% of the identified sequences comprise surface proteins, most of them glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored and related to parasite pathogenesis. Immunoinformatic analysis revealed thousands of potential peptides with predicted high-binding affinity for major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and II molecules. The high diversity of proteins expressed on the trypomastigote surface may have many implications for host-cell invasion and immunoevasion mechanisms triggered by the parasite. Finally, we performed a rational approach to filter potential T-cell epitopes that could be further tested and validated for development of a Chagas disease vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernesto S. Nakayasu
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W. University Ave., El Paso TX, 79902, USA
| | - Tiago J. P. Sobreira
- National Laboratory for Biosciences (LNBio), National Center for Research in Energy and Materials, Campinas, SP 13083-970, Brazil
| | - Rafael Torres
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W. University Ave., El Paso TX, 79902, USA
| | - Luciane Ganiko
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W. University Ave., El Paso TX, 79902, USA
| | - Paulo S. L. Oliveira
- National Laboratory for Biosciences (LNBio), National Center for Research in Energy and Materials, Campinas, SP 13083-970, Brazil
| | - Alexandre F. Marques
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W. University Ave., El Paso TX, 79902, USA
| | - Igor C. Almeida
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W. University Ave., El Paso TX, 79902, USA
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162
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Machado FS, Tyler KM, Brant F, Esper L, Teixeira MM, Tanowitz HB. Pathogenesis of Chagas disease: time to move on. Front Biosci (Elite Ed) 2012; 4:1743-58. [PMID: 22201990 DOI: 10.2741/495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiologic agent of Chagas disease. The contributions of parasite and immune system for disease pathogenesis remain unresolved and controversial. The possibility that Chagas disease was an autoimmune progression triggered by T. cruzi infection led some to question the benefit of treating chronically T. cruzi-infected persons with drugs. Furthermore, it provided the rationale for not investing in research aimed at a vaccine which might carry a risk of inducing autoimmunity or exacerbating inflammation. This viewpoint was adopted by cash-strapped health systems in the developing economies where the disease is endemic and has been repeatedly challenged by researchers and clinicians in recent years and there is now a considerable body of evidence and broad consensus that parasite persistence is requisite for pathogenesis and that antiparasitic immunity can be protective against T. cruzi pathogenesis without eliciting autoimmune pathology. Thus, treatment of chronically infected patients is likely to yield positive outcomes and efforts to understand immunity and vaccine development should be recognized as a priority area of research for Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiana S Machado
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
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163
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Figueiredo RT, Carneiro LAM, Bozza MT. Fungal surface and innate immune recognition of filamentous fungi. Front Microbiol 2011; 2:248. [PMID: 22194732 PMCID: PMC3242297 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2011.00248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2011] [Accepted: 11/23/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The innate immune system performs specific detection of molecules from infectious agents through pattern recognition receptors. This recognition triggers inflammatory responses and activation of microbicidal mechanisms by leukocytes. Infections caused by filamentous fungi have increased in incidence and represent an important cause of mortality and morbidity especially in individuals with immunosuppression. This review will discuss the innate immune recognition of filamentous fungi molecules and its importance to infection control and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo T Figueiredo
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas/Pólo de Xerém, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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164
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Roffê E, Rothfuchs AG, Santiago HC, Marino APMP, Ribeiro-Gomes FL, Eckhaus M, Antonelli LRV, Murphy PM. IL-10 limits parasite burden and protects against fatal myocarditis in a mouse model of Trypanosoma cruzi infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 188:649-60. [PMID: 22156594 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1003845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Chagas' disease is a zoonosis prevalent in Latin America that is caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi. The immunopathogenesis of cardiomyopathy, the main clinical problem in Chagas' disease, has been extensively studied but is still poorly understood. In this study, we systematically compared clinical, microbiologic, pathologic, immunologic, and molecular parameters in two mouse models with opposite susceptibility to acute myocarditis caused by the myotropic Colombiana strain of T. cruzi: C3H/HeSnJ (100% mortality, uncontrolled parasitism) and C57BL/6J (<10% mortality, controlled parasitism). T. cruzi induced differential polarization of immunoregulatory cytokine mRNA expression in the hearts of C57BL/6J versus C3H/HeSnJ mice; however, most differences were small. The difference in IL-10 expression was exceptional (C57BL/6J 8.7-fold greater than C3H/HeSnJ). Consistent with this, hearts from infected C57BL/6J mice, but not C3H/HeSnJ mice, had a high frequency of total IL-10-producing CD8(+) T cells and both CD4(+) and CD8(+) subsets of IFN-γ(+)IL-10(+) double-producing T cells. Furthermore, T. cruzi infection of IL-10(-/-) C57BL/6J mice phenocopied fatal infection in wild-type C3H/HeSnJ mice with complete loss of parasite control. Adoptive transfer experiments indicated that T cells were a source of protective IL-10. Thus, in this system, IL-10 production by T cells promotes T. cruzi control and protection from fatal acute myocarditis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ester Roffê
- Molecular Signaling Section, Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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165
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Pellegrini A, Guiñazu N, Giordanengo L, Cano RC, Gea S. The role of Toll-like receptors and adaptive immunity in the development of protective or pathological immune response triggered by the Trypanosoma cruzi protozoan. Future Microbiol 2011; 6:1521-33. [DOI: 10.2217/fmb.11.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the causal agent of Chagas disease, is an intracellular protozoan parasite that predominantly invades macrophages and cardiomyocytes, leading to persistent infection. Several members of the Toll-like receptor family are crucial for innate immunity to infection and are involved in maintaining tissue homeostasis. This review focuses on recent experimental findings of the innate and adaptive immune response in controlling the parasite and/or in generating heart and liver tissue injury. We also describe the importance of the host’s genetic background in the outcome of the disease and emphasize the importance of studying the response to specific parasite antigens. Understanding the dual participation of the immune response may contribute to the design of new therapies for Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Pellegrini
- Inmunología, Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, CIBICI-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Ciudad Universitaria, Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende S/N, Córdoba, 5000, Argentina
| | - Natalia Guiñazu
- Inmunología, Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, CIBICI-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Ciudad Universitaria, Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende S/N, Córdoba, 5000, Argentina
| | - Laura Giordanengo
- Inmunología, Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, CIBICI-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Ciudad Universitaria, Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende S/N, Córdoba, 5000, Argentina
| | - Roxana Carolina Cano
- Inmunología, Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, CIBICI-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Ciudad Universitaria, Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende S/N, Córdoba, 5000, Argentina
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166
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de Amorim IFG, da Silva SM, Figueiredo MM, Moura EP, de Castro RS, de Souza Lima TK, de Figueiredo Gontijo N, Michalick MSM, Gollob KJ, Tafuri WL. Toll receptors type-2 and CR3 expression of canine monocytes and its correlation with immunohistochemistry and xenodiagnosis in visceral leishmaniasis. PLoS One 2011; 6:e27679. [PMID: 22140456 PMCID: PMC3227600 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0027679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2011] [Accepted: 10/21/2011] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate TLR2 expression in peripheral blood monocytes from dogs naturally infected with Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum to determine whether it correlates with CD11b/CD18 (CR3) expression, and to evaluate the potential of dogs as sources of infection using phlebotomine xenodiagnosis. Forty eight dogs were serologically diagnosed with L. infantum infection by indirect immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT) and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Parasitological exams from bone-marrow aspirates were positive by PCR analysis. All dogs were clinical defined as symptomatic. Ear skin tissue samples were obtained for immunohistochemistry (IHQ) analysis. The potential of these dogs as a source of infection using phlebotomine xenodiagnosis (XENO) was evaluated. Flow cytometry was carried out on peripheral blood mononuclear cells using superficial receptors including CD14, CD11b, TLR2 and MHCII. IHQ ear skin tissue parasite load and XENO where done where we found a strict correlation (r = 0.5373). Dogs with higher expression of MFI of CD11b inside CD14 monocytes were represented by dogs without parasite ear tissue load that were unable to infect phlebotomines (IHQ⁻/XENO⁻). Dogs with lower expression of MFI of CD11b inside CD14 monocytes were represented by dogs with parasite ear tissue load and able to infect phlebotomines (IHQ⁺/XENO⁺) (p = 0,0032). Comparable results were obtained for MFI of MHCII (p = 0.0054). In addition, considering the population frequency of CD11b⁺TLR2⁺ and CD11b⁺MHCII⁺, higher values were obtained from dogs with IHQ⁻/XENO⁻ than dogs with IHQ⁺/XENO⁺ (p = 0.01; p = 0.0048, respectively). These data, together with the TLR2 and NO assays results (CD11b⁺TLR2⁺ and NO with higher values for dogs with IHQ⁻/XENO⁻ than dogs with IHQ⁺/XENO⁺, led to the conclusion that IHQ⁻/XENO⁻ dogs are more resistant or could modulate the cellular immune response essential for Leishmania tissue clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sydnei Magno da Silva
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Minas Gerais, Brasil
| | - Maria Marta Figueiredo
- Departamento de Patologia Geral, Escola de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Minas Gerais, Brasil
| | - Eliane Perlatto Moura
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Escola de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Minas Gerais, Brasil
| | - Rodrigo Soares de Castro
- Departamento de Patologia Geral, Escola de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Minas Gerais, Brasil
| | - Tatjana Keesen de Souza Lima
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Minas Gerais, Brasil
| | - Nelder de Figueiredo Gontijo
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Minas Gerais, Brasil
| | | | - Kenneth John Gollob
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Minas Gerais, Brasil
| | - Wagner Luiz Tafuri
- Departamento de Patologia Geral, Escola de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Minas Gerais, Brasil
- * E-mail:
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167
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Trypanosoma cruzi as an effective cancer antigen delivery vector. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:19695-700. [PMID: 22114198 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1110030108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the main challenges in cancer research is the development of vaccines that induce effective and long-lived protective immunity against tumors. Significant progress has been made in identifying members of the cancer testis antigen family as potential vaccine candidates. However, an ideal form for antigen delivery that induces robust and sustainable antigen-specific T-cell responses, and in particular of CD8(+) T lymphocytes, remains to be developed. Here we report the use of a recombinant nonpathogenic clone of Trypanosoma cruzi as a vaccine vector to induce vigorous and long-term T cell-mediated immunity. The rationale for using the highly attenuated T. cruzi clone was (i) the ability of the parasite to persist in host tissues and therefore to induce a long-term antigen-specific immune response; (ii) the existence of intrinsic parasite agonists for Toll-like receptors and consequent induction of highly polarized T helper cell type 1 responses; and (iii) the parasite replication in the host cell cytoplasm, leading to direct antigen presentation through the endogenous pathway and consequent induction of antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells. Importantly, we found that parasites expressing a cancer testis antigen (NY-ESO-1) were able to elicit human antigen-specific T-cell responses in vitro and solid protection against melanoma in a mouse model. Furthermore, in a therapeutic protocol, the parasites expressing NY-ESO-1 delayed the rate of tumor development in mice. We conclude that the T. cruzi vector is highly efficient in inducing T cell-mediated immunity and protection against cancer cells. More broadly, this strategy could be used to elicit a long-term T cell-mediated immunity and used for prophylaxis or therapy of chronic infectious diseases.
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168
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Amin DN, Vodnala SK, Masocha W, Sun B, Kristensson K, Rottenberg ME. Distinct Toll-like receptor signals regulate cerebral parasite load and interferon α/β and tumor necrosis factor α-dependent T-cell infiltration in the brains of Trypanosoma brucei-infected mice. J Infect Dis 2011; 205:320-32. [PMID: 22116836 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jir734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The penetration of T cells and trypanosomes into the brain parenchyma is a major pathogenetic event in African trypanosomiasis. METHODS The role of innate immune responses in the penetration of T cells and Trypanosoma brucei brucei into the brain was studied in knockout mice by using double immunofluorescent staining and real-time polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS We demonstrate that Toll-like receptor (TLR)-MyD88-mediated signaling is required for T-cell and parasite penetration into the brain and microglial activation, besides controlling parasitemia and antigen-specific T-cell activation. Among different TLR-deficient mice studied, TLR9 mediated parasitemia control and T-cell penetration into the brain. TLR-MyD88 signals increased levels of interferon (IFN) β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α transcripts in the brains of infected mice and both TNF-α and IFN-α/β, receptors promoted T-cell and trypanosoma infiltration into the brain parenchyma. Both resident and infiltrating inflammatory cells in the brain controlled parasite densities in a TLR2- and TLR9-MyD88-mediated manner. However, neither IFN-α/β nor TNF-α contributed to parasite control in the brain. CONCLUSIONS Our data indicate that innate immune TLR signals stimulate the expression of TNF-α and IFN-α/β that initiate brain invasion of T cells and trypanosomes, and control T. brucei brucei load in the brain by molecules distinct from these.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Ndem Amin
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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169
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Host cell signalling and leishmania mechanisms of evasion. J Trop Med 2011; 2012:819512. [PMID: 22131998 PMCID: PMC3216306 DOI: 10.1155/2012/819512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2011] [Accepted: 08/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmania parasites are able to secure their survival and propagation within their host by altering signalling pathways involved in the ability of macrophages to kill pathogens or to engage adaptive immune system. An important step in this immune evasion process is the activation of host protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 by Leishmania. SHP-1 has been shown to directly inactivate JAK2 and Erk1/2 and to play a role in the negative regulation of several transcription factors involved in macrophage activation. These signalling alterations contribute to the inactivation of critical macrophage functions (e.g., Nitric oxide, IL-12, and TNF-α). Additionally, to interfere with IFN-γ receptor signalling, Leishmania also alters several LPS-mediated responses. Recent findings from our laboratory revealed a pivotal role for SHP-1 in the inhibition of TLR-induced macrophage activation through binding to and inactivating IL-1-receptor-associated kinase 1 (IRAK-1). Furthermore, we identified the binding site as an evolutionarily conserved ITIM-like motif, which we named kinase tyrosine-based inhibitory motif (KTIM). Collectively, a better understanding of the evasion mechanisms utilized by Leishmania parasite could help to develop more efficient antileishmanial therapies in the near future.
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170
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Lysophosphatidylcholine: A Novel Modulator of Trypanosoma cruzi Transmission. J Parasitol Res 2011; 2012:625838. [PMID: 22132309 PMCID: PMC3206328 DOI: 10.1155/2012/625838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2011] [Revised: 07/29/2011] [Accepted: 09/12/2011] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysophosphatidylcholine is a bioactive lipid that regulates a large number of cellular processes and is especially present during the deposition and infiltration of inflammatory cells and deposition of atheromatous plaque. Such molecule is also present in saliva and feces of the hematophagous organism Rhodnius prolixus, a triatominae bug vector of Chagas disease. We have recently demonstrated that LPC is a modulator of Trypanosoma cruzi transmission. It acts as a powerful chemoattractant for inflammatory cells at the site of the insect bite, which will provide a concentrated population of cells available for parasite infection. Also, LPC increases macrophage intracellular calcium concentrations that ultimately enhance parasite invasion. Finally, LPC inhibits NO production by macrophages stimulated by live T. cruzi, and thus interferes with the immune system of the vertebrate host. In the present paper, we discuss the main signaling mechanisms that are likely used by such molecule and their eventual use as targets to block parasite transmission and the pathogenesis of Chagas disease.
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171
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Terrazas CA, Huitron E, Vazquez A, Juarez I, Camacho GM, Calleja EA, Rodriguez-Sosa M. MIF synergizes with Trypanosoma cruzi antigens to promote efficient dendritic cell maturation and IL-12 production via p38 MAPK. Int J Biol Sci 2011; 7:1298-310. [PMID: 22110382 PMCID: PMC3221366 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.7.1298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2011] [Accepted: 10/01/2011] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) has been found to be involved in host resistance to several parasitic infections. To determine the mechanisms of the MIF-dependent responses to Trypanosoma cruzi, we investigated host resistance in MIF-/- mice (on the BALB/c background) during an intraperitoneal infection. We focused on the potential involvement of MIF in dendritic cell (DC) maturation and cytokine production. Following a challenge with 5 x 103T. cruzi parasites, wild type (WT) mice developed a strong IL-12 response and adequate maturation of the draining mesenteric lymph node DCs and were resistant to infection. In contrast, similarly infected MIF-/- mice mounted a weak IL-12 response, displayed immature DCs in the early phases of infection and rapidly succumbed to T. cruzi infection. The lack of maturation and IL-12 production by the DCs in response to total T. cruzi antigen (TcAg) was confirmed by in vitro studies. These effects were reversed following treatment with recombinant MIF. Interestingly, TcAg-stimulated bone marrow-derived DCs from both WT and MIF-/- mice had increased ERK1/2 MAPK phosphorylation. In contrast, p38 phosphorylation was only upregulated in WT DCs. Reconstitution of MIF to MIF-/- DCs upregulated p38 phosphorylation. The MIF-p38 pathway affected MHC-II and CD86 expression as well as IL-12 production. These findings demonstrate that the MIF-induced early DC maturation and IL-12 production mediates resistance to T. cruzi infection, probably by activating the p38 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cesar A Terrazas
- Unidad de Biomedicina, Facultad de Estudios Superiores-Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México-UNAM, C. P. 54090 Estado de México, Mexico
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172
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Toll-like receptor-2 and interleukin-6 mediate cardiomyocyte protection from apoptosis during Trypanosoma cruzi murine infection. Med Microbiol Immunol 2011; 201:145-55. [DOI: 10.1007/s00430-011-0216-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2011] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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173
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Feng Y, Chao W. Toll-like receptors and myocardial inflammation. Int J Inflam 2011; 2011:170352. [PMID: 21977329 PMCID: PMC3182762 DOI: 10.4061/2011/170352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2011] [Revised: 05/24/2011] [Accepted: 06/12/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a member of the innate immune system. TLRs detect invading pathogens through the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) recognition and play an essential role in the host defense. TLRs can also sense a large number of endogenous molecules with the damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) that are produced under various injurious conditions. Animal studies of the last decade have demonstrated that TLR signaling contributes to the pathogenesis of the critical cardiac conditions, where myocardial inflammation plays a prominent role, such as ischemic myocardial injury, myocarditis, and septic cardiomyopathy. This paper reviews the animal data on (1) TLRs, TLR ligands, and the signal transduction system and (2) the important role of TLR signaling in these critical cardiac conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Feng
- Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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174
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Kakutani R, Adachi Y, Takata H, Kuriki T, Ohno N. Essential role of Toll-like receptor 2 in macrophage activation by glycogen. Glycobiology 2011; 22:146-59. [DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwr122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
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175
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Aoki MP, Carrera-Silva EA, Cuervo H, Fresno M, Gironès N, Gea S. Nonimmune Cells Contribute to Crosstalk between Immune Cells and Inflammatory Mediators in the Innate Response to Trypanosoma cruzi Infection. J Parasitol Res 2011; 2012:737324. [PMID: 21869919 PMCID: PMC3159004 DOI: 10.1155/2012/737324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2011] [Accepted: 06/19/2011] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Chagas myocarditis, which is caused by infection with the intracellular parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, remains the major infectious heart disease worldwide. Innate recognition through toll-like receptors (TLRs) on immune cells has not only been revealed to be critical for defense against T. cruzi but has also been involved in triggering the pathology. Subsequent studies revealed that this parasite activates nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain- (NOD-)like receptors and several particular transcription factors in TLR-independent manner. In addition to professional immune cells, T. cruzi infects and resides in different parenchyma cells. The innate receptors in nonimmune target tissues could also have an impact on host response. Thus, the outcome of the myocarditis or the inflamed liver relies on an intricate network of inflammatory mediators and signals given by immune and nonimmune cells. In this paper, we discuss the evidence of innate immunity to the parasite developed by the host, with emphasis on the crosstalk between immune and nonimmune cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Pilar Aoki
- Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Centro de Investigaciones en Bioquímica Clínica e Inmunología (CIBICI), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba 5000, Argentina
| | - Eugenio Antonio Carrera-Silva
- Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Centro de Investigaciones en Bioquímica Clínica e Inmunología (CIBICI), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba 5000, Argentina
- Department of Immunobiology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Henar Cuervo
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), Cantoblanco, Madrid 28049, Spain
| | - Manuel Fresno
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), Cantoblanco, Madrid 28049, Spain
| | - Núria Gironès
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), Cantoblanco, Madrid 28049, Spain
| | - Susana Gea
- Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Centro de Investigaciones en Bioquímica Clínica e Inmunología (CIBICI), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba 5000, Argentina
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Caetano BC, Carmo BB, Melo MB, Cerny A, dos Santos SL, Bartholomeu DC, Golenbock DT, Gazzinelli RT. Requirement of UNC93B1 reveals a critical role for TLR7 in host resistance to primary infection with Trypanosoma cruzi. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 187:1903-11. [PMID: 21753151 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1003911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
UNC93B1 associates with TLR3, 7, and 9, mediating their translocation from the endoplasmic reticulum to the endolysosome, thus allowing proper activation by microbial nucleic acids. We found that the triple-deficient 3d mice, which lack functional UNC93B1 as well as functional endosomal TLRs, are highly susceptible to infection with Trypanosoma cruzi. The enhanced parasitemia and mortality in 3d animals were associated with impaired proinflammatory response, including reduced levels of IL-12p40 and IFN-γ. Importantly, the phenotype of 3d mice was intermediary between MyD88(-/-) (highly susceptible) and TLR9(-/-) (moderately susceptible), indicating the involvement of an additional UN93B1-dependent TLR(s) on host resistance to T. cruzi. Hence, our experiments also revealed that TLR7 is a critical innate immune receptor involved in recognition of parasite RNA, induction of IL-12p40 by dendritic cells, and consequent IFN-γ by T lymphocytes. Furthermore, we show that upon T. cruzi infection, triple TLR3/7/9(-/-) mice had similar phenotype than 3d mice. These data imply that the nucleic acid-sensing TLRs are critical determinants of host resistance to primary infection with T. cruzi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Braulia C Caetano
- Division of Infectious Disease and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
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177
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Pinto AMT, Sales PCM, Camargos ERS, Silva AM. Tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-mediated NF-κB activation facilitates cellular invasion of non-professional phagocytic epithelial cell lines by Trypanosoma cruzi. Cell Microbiol 2011; 13:1518-29. [PMID: 21749603 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2011.01636.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
At the site of infection, pro-inflammatory cytokines locally produced by macrophages infected with Trypanosoma cruzi can activate surrounding non-professional phagocytes such as fibroblasts, epithelial and endothelial cells, which can be further invaded by the parasite. The effect of secreted soluble factors on the invasion of these cells remains, however, to be established. We show here that two epithelial cell lines become significantly susceptible to the infection by the Y strain of T. cruzi after tumour necrosis factor (TNF) treatment. The increase in the invasion was correlated with the increasing concentration of recombinant TNF added to cultures of HEK293T or LLC-MK2 cells. Supernatants taken from PMA-differentiated human monocytes infected with T. cruzi also increased the permissiveness of epithelial cells to subsequent infection with the parasite, which was inhibited by a TNF monoclonal antibody. Furthermore, the permissiveness induced by TNF was inhibited by TPCK, and led to significant decrease in the number of intracellular parasites, providing evidence that activation of NF-κB induced by TNF favours the invasion of the epithelial cell lines by T. cruzi through yet an unidentified mechanism. Our data indicate that soluble factors released from macrophages early in the infection favours T. cruzi invasion of non-professional phagocytic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea M T Pinto
- Departamento de Morfologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antonio Carlos, 6627 - ICB, UFMG, 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
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178
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Zhang Q, Feng X, Nie W, Golenbock DT, Mayanja-Kizza H, Tzipori S, Feng H. MyD88-dependent pathway is essential for the innate immunity to Enterocytozoon bieneusi. Parasite Immunol 2011; 33:217-25. [PMID: 21204848 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2010.01269.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Enterocytozoon bieneusi is clinically the most significant microsporidian parasite associated with persistent diarrhoea, wasting and cholangitis in 30-50% of individuals with HIV/AIDS, as well as in malnutritional children and in the recipients of immunosuppressive therapy. However, the host immune responses to E. bieneusi have not been investigated until recently because of lack of sources of spores, cell culture system and animal models. In this study, we purified spores from heavily infected human or monkey faeces by serial salt-Percoll-sucrose-iodixanol centrifugation, and the purity of spores was confirmed by FACS and scanning electron microscopy. Exposure of dendritic cells to E. bieneusi spores induced the upregulation of the surface markers and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The cytokine production was independent of toll-like receptor 4, but MyD88 dependent, because dendritic cells from MyD88 knockout mice failed to secrete these pro-inflammatory cytokines, whereas dendritic cells from C3H/HeJ (a toll-like receptor 4 mutant) were activated by E. bieneusi and secreted these cytokines. Furthermore, MyD88-deficient mice were susceptible to E. bieneusi infection, in contrast to wild-type mice that resisted the infection. Collectively, the data demonstrate innate recognition of E. bieneusi by dendritic cells and the importance of MyD88-dependent signalling in resisting infection in a murine challenge model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q Zhang
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, MA 01536, USA
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Abstract
Intracellular parasitism has arisen only a few times during the long ancestry of protozoan parasites including in diverse groups such as microsporidians, kinetoplastids, and apicomplexans. Strategies used to gain entry differ widely from injection (e.g. microsporidians), active penetration of the host cell (e.g. Toxoplasma), recruitment of lysosomes to a plasma membrane wound (e.g. Trypanosoma cruzi), to host cell-mediated phagocytosis (e.g. Leishmania). The resulting range of intracellular niches is equally diverse ranging from cytosolic (e.g. T. cruzi) to residing within a non-fusigenic vacuole (e.g. Toxoplasma, Encephalitozoon) or a modified phagolysosome (e.g. Leishmania). These lifestyle choices influence access to nutrients, interaction with host cell signaling pathways, and detection by pathogen recognition systems. As such, intracellular life requires a repertoire of adaptations to assure entry-exit from the cell, as well as to thwart innate immune mechanisms and prevent clearance. Elucidating these pathways at the cellular and molecular level may identify key steps that can be targeted to reduce parasite survival or augment immunologic responses and thereby prevent disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63100, USA.
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180
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Li YW, Luo XC, Dan XM, Huang XZ, Qiao W, Zhong ZP, Li AX. Orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides) TLR2, MyD88 and IL-1β involved in anti-Cryptocaryon irritans response. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 30:1230-1240. [PMID: 21540114 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2011.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2010] [Revised: 04/18/2011] [Accepted: 04/19/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Cryptocaryon irritans is one of the most important ectoparasites of marine fish, and can have a devastating effect on aquacultured fish populations. The role of TLR signaling pathways in anti-parasitic immune responses is poorly understood in fish. In this paper, we first cloned Epinephelus coioides MyD88 full-length cDNA (EcMyD88) and its respective gene. The open reading frame (ORF) of cDNA is 873bp encoding 291 amino acid residues. Similar to other species, the EcMyD88 gene contains of five conserved exons and four diverse introns. The constitutive expression of EcMyD88 was detected in the gill, trunk kidney, head kidney, spleen, and heart in high concentrations, while the skin, brain, liver, and muscles contained much lower titers, indicating that EcMyD88 may play a crucial role in host innate immunologic surveillance. To identify the potential role of TLR pathways in fish anti-C. irritans immune responses, we chose three important molecules involved in anti-parasite responses, TLR2, MyD88 and IL-1β to indicate TLR pathway's signal-in, signal transduction, and signal-out functions, respectively. The expression profile of these three genes was detected in grouper infected by C. irritans. Results showed these molecules each experience significant changes within the skin, gill (two infected mucosal sites), head kidney and spleen (two systematic immune organs) after C. irritans infection. These findings indicate the TLR signaling pathway may play an important role in host defense against C. irritans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Wei Li
- Key Laboratory for Aquatic Products Safety of Ministry of Education/State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, The School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang West Street, Haizhu District, Guangzhou 510275, Guangdong Province, PR China
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Nogueira-Machado JA, Volpe CMDO, Veloso CA, Chaves MM. HMGB1, TLR and RAGE: a functional tripod that leads to diabetic inflammation. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2011; 15:1023-35. [DOI: 10.1517/14728222.2011.575360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Abstract
Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) in innate immune cells play a pivotal role in the first line of host defense system. PRRs recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) or danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) to initiate and regulate innate and adaptive immune responses. PRRs include Toll-like receptors (TLRs), RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs) and NOD-like receptors (NLRs), which have their own features in ligand recognition and cellular location. Activated PRRs deliver signals to adaptor molecules (MyD88, TRIF, MAL/TIRAP, TRAM, IPS-1) which act as important messengers to activate downstream kinases (IKK complex, MAPKs, TBK1, RIP-1) and transcription factors (NF-κB, AP-1, IRF3), which produce effecter molecules including cytokines, chemokines, inflammatory enzymes, and type I interferones. Since excessive PRR activation is closely linked to the development of chronic inflammatory diseases, the role of intrinsic and extrinsic regulators in the prevention of over- or unnecessary activation of PRRs has been widely studied. Intracellular regulators include MyD88s, SOCS1, TOLLIP, A20, and CYLD. Extrinsic regulators have also been identified with their molecular targets in PRR signaling pathways. TLR dimerization has been suggested as an inhibitory target for small molecules such as curcumin, cinnamaldehyde, and sulforaphane. TBK1 kinase can be a target for certain flavonoids such as EGCG, luteolin, quercetin, chrysin, and eriodictyol to regulate TRIF-dependent TLR pathways. This review focuses on the features of PRR signaling pathways and the therapeutic targets of intrinsic and extrinsic regulators in order to provide beneficial strategies for controlling the activity of PRRs and the related inflammatory diseases and immune disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunshil Jeong
- School of Life Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Korea.
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183
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Alvarez MN, Peluffo G, Piacenza L, Radi R. Intraphagosomal peroxynitrite as a macrophage-derived cytotoxin against internalized Trypanosoma cruzi: consequences for oxidative killing and role of microbial peroxiredoxins in infectivity. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:6627-40. [PMID: 21098483 PMCID: PMC3057850 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.167247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2010] [Revised: 11/22/2010] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophage-derived radicals generated by the NADPH oxidase complex and inducible nitric-oxide synthase (iNOS) participate in cytotoxic mechanisms against microorganisms. Nitric oxide ((•)NO) plays a central role in the control of acute infection by Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease, and we have proposed that much of its action relies on macrophage-derived peroxynitrite (ONOO(-) + ONOOH) formation, a strong oxidant arising from the reaction of (•)NO with superoxide radical (O(2)(-)). Herein, we have shown that internalization of T. cruzi trypomastigotes by macrophages triggers the assembly of the NADPH oxidase complex to yield O(2)(-) during a 60-90-min period. This does not interfere with IFN-γ-dependent iNOS induction and a sustained (•)NO production (∼24 h). The major mechanism for infection control via reactive species formation occurred when (•)NO and O(2)() were produced simultaneously, generating intraphagosomal peroxynitrite levels compatible with microbial killing. Moreover, biochemical and ultrastructural analysis confirmed cellular oxidative damage and morphological disruption in internalized parasites. Overexpression of cytosolic tryparedoxin peroxidase in T. cruzi neutralized macrophage-derived peroxynitrite-dependent cytotoxicity to parasites and favored the infection in an animal model. Collectively, the data provide, for the first time, direct support for the action of peroxynitrite as an intraphagosomal cytotoxin against pathogens and the premise that microbial peroxiredoxins facilitate infectivity via decomposition of macrophage-derived peroxynitrite.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Noel Alvarez
- From the Departamento de Bioquímica and Center for Free Radical and Biomedical Research, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11800, Uruguay
| | - Gonzalo Peluffo
- From the Departamento de Bioquímica and Center for Free Radical and Biomedical Research, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11800, Uruguay
| | - Lucía Piacenza
- From the Departamento de Bioquímica and Center for Free Radical and Biomedical Research, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11800, Uruguay
| | - Rafael Radi
- From the Departamento de Bioquímica and Center for Free Radical and Biomedical Research, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11800, Uruguay
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184
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Abstract
NF-κB was first discovered and characterized 25 years ago as a key regulator of inducible gene expression in the immune system. Thus, it is not surprising that the clearest biological role of NF-κB is in the development and function of the immune system. Both innate and adaptive immune responses as well as the development and maintenance of the cells and tissues that comprise the immune system are, at multiple steps, under the control of the NF-κB family of transcription factors. Although this is a well-studied area of NF-κB research, new and significant findings continue to accumulate. This review will focus on these areas of recent progress while also providing a broad overview of the roles of NF-κB in mammalian immunobiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew S Hayden
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
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185
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DosReis GA. Evasion of immune responses by Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease. Braz J Med Biol Res 2011; 44:84-90. [PMID: 21243314 DOI: 10.1590/s0100-879x2011007500005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2010] [Accepted: 01/03/2011] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Infection with the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi leads to Chagas disease, which affects millions of people in Latin America. Infection with T. cruzi cannot be eliminated by the immune system. A better understanding of immune evasion mechanisms is required in order to develop more effective vaccines. During the acute phase, parasites replicate extensively and release immunomodulatory molecules that delay parasite-specific responses mediated by T cells. This immune evasion allows the parasite to spread in the host. In the chronic phase, parasite evasion relies on its replication strategy of hijacking the TGF-β signaling pathway involved in inflammation and tissue regeneration. In this article, the mechanisms of immune evasion described for T. cruzi are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- G A DosReis
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
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186
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Guerra CS, Silva RMM, Carvalho LOP, Calabrese KDS, Bozza PT, Côrte-Real S. Histopathological analysis of initial cellular response in TLR-2 deficient mice experimentally infected by Leishmania (L.) amazonensis. Int J Exp Pathol 2010; 91:451-9. [PMID: 20586817 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2613.2010.00717.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Tegumentary leishmaniasis is an important public health problem in several countries. The capacity of the Leishmania species, at the initial moments of the infection, to invade and survive inside the host cells involves the interaction of surface molecules that are crucial in determining the evolution of the disease. Using C57BL/6 wild-type and TLR-2(-/-) mice infected with L. (L.) amazonensis, we demonstrated that TLR-2(-/-) mice presented eosinophilic granuloma in the ear dermis, different from C57BL/6 wild-type mice that presented a cellular profile characterized mainly by mononuclear cell infiltrates, besides neutrophils and eosinophils, during the two first week of infection. When the parasite load was evaluated, we found that the absence of TLR-2 lead to a significant reduction of the infection in deficient mice, when compared with C57BL/6 mice which were more susceptible to the infection. Using TLR-2 deficient mice, it was possible to show that the absence of this receptor determined the reduction of the parasite load and the recruitment of inflammatory cells during the two first weeks after L. (L.) amazonensis infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila Silva Guerra
- Laboratory of Structural Biology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ - Rio de Janeiro/RJ-Brazil
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187
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Ribeiro CMS, Pontes MJSL, Bird S, Chadzinska M, Scheer M, Verburg-van Kemenade BML, Savelkoul HFJ, Wiegertjes GF. Trypanosomiasis-induced Th17-like immune responses in carp. PLoS One 2010; 5:e13012. [PMID: 20885956 PMCID: PMC2946394 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2010] [Accepted: 08/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In mammalian vertebrates, the cytokine interleukin (IL)-12 consists of a heterodimer between p35 and p40 subunits whereas interleukin-23 is formed by a heterodimer between p19 and p40 subunits. During an immune response, the balance between IL-12 and IL-23 can depend on the nature of the pathogen associated molecular pattern (PAMP) recognized by, for example TLR2, leading to a preferential production of IL-23. IL-23 production promotes a Th17-mediated immune response characterized by the production of IL-17A/F and several chemokines, important for neutrophil recruitment and activation. For the cold blooded vertebrate common carp, only the IL-12 subunits have been described so far. Methodology/Principal Findings Common carp is the natural host of two protozoan parasites: Trypanoplasma borreli and Trypanosoma carassii. We found that these parasites negatively affect p35 and p40a gene expression in carp. Transfection studies of HEK293 and carp macrophages show that T. carassii-derived PAMPs are agonists of carp TLR2, promoting p19 and p40c gene expression. The two protozoan parasites induce different immune responses as assessed by gene expression and histological studies. During T. carassii infections, in particular, we observed a propensity to induce p19 and p40c gene expression, suggestive of the formation of IL-23. Infections with T. borreli and T. carassii lead to an increase of IFN-γ2 gene expression whereas IL-17A/F2 gene expression was only observed during T. carasssii infections. The moderate increase in the number of splenic macrophages during T. borreli infection contrasts the marked increase in the number of splenic neutrophilic granulocytes during T. carassii infection, along with an increased gene expression of metalloproteinase-9 and chemokines. Conclusion/Significance This is the first study that provides evidence for a Th17-like immune response in fish in response to infection with a protozoan parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla M. S. Ribeiro
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Maria J. S. L. Pontes
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Steve Bird
- School of Biological Sciences, Scottish Fish Immunology Research Centre, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Magdalena Chadzinska
- Department of Evolutionary Immunobiology, Institute of Zoology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Marleen Scheer
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Huub F. J. Savelkoul
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Geert F. Wiegertjes
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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188
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Lima GK, Zolini GP, Mansur DS, Freire Lima BH, Wischhoff U, Astigarraga RG, Dias MF, das Graças Almeida Silva M, Béla SR, do Valle Antonelli LR, Arantes RM, Gazzinelli RT, Báfica A, Kroon EG, Campos MA. Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 and TLR9 expressed in trigeminal ganglia are critical to viral control during herpes simplex virus 1 infection. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2010; 177:2433-45. [PMID: 20864677 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2010.100121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) is a neurotropic DNA virus that is responsible for several clinical manifestations in humans, including encephalitis. HSV-1 triggers toll-like receptors (TLRs), which elicit cytokine production. Viral multiplication and cytokine expression in C57BL/6 wild-type (WT) mice infected with HSV-1 were evaluated. Virus was found in the trigeminal ganglia (TG), but not in the brains of animals without signs of encephalitis, between 2 and 6 days postinfection (d.p.i.). Cytokine expression in the TG peaked at 5 d.p.i. TLR9-/- and TLR2/9-/- mice were more susceptible to the virus, with 60% and 100% mortality, respectively, as opposed to 10% in the WT and TLR2-/- mice. Increased levels of both CXCL10/IP-10 and CCL2/MCP-1, as well as reduced levels of interferon-γ and interleukin 1-β transcripts, measured in both the TG and brains at 5 d.p.i., and the presence of virus in the brain were correlated with total mortality in TLR2/9-/- mice. Cytokine alterations in TLR2/9-/- mice coincided with histopathological changes in their brains, which did not occur in WT and TLR2-/- mice and occurred only slightly in TLR9-/- mouse brain. Increased cellularity, macrophages, CD8 T cells producing interferon-γ, and expression levels of TLR2 and TLR9 were detected in the TG of WT-infected mice. We hypothesize that HSV-1 infection is controlled by TLR-dependent immune responses in the TG, which prevent HSV-1 encephalitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graciela Kunrath Lima
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Laboratório de Imunopatologia, CPqRR/FIOCRUZ. Av. Augusto de Lima, 1715. CEP: 30.190-002 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
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189
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The endless race between Trypanosoma cruzi and host immunity: lessons for and beyond Chagas disease. Expert Rev Mol Med 2010; 12:e29. [PMID: 20840799 DOI: 10.1017/s1462399410001560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Infection with the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, the agent of Chagas disease, is characterised by a variable clinical course - from symptomless cases to severe chronic disease with cardiac and/or gastrointestinal involvement. The variability in disease outcome has been attributed to host responses as well as parasite heterogeneity. In this article, we review studies indicating the importance of immune responses as key determinants of host resistance to T. cruzi infection and the pathogenesis of Chagas disease. Particular attention is given to recent studies defining the role of cognate innate immune receptors and immunodominant CD8+ T cells that recognise parasite components - both crucial for host-parasite interaction and disease outcome. In light of these studies we speculate about parasite strategies that induce a strong and long-lasting T-cell-mediated immunity but at the same time allow persistence of the parasite in the vertebrate host. We also discuss what we have learned from these studies for increasing our understanding of Chagas pathogenesis and for the design of new strategies to prevent the development of Chagas disease. Finally, we highlight recent studies employing a genetically engineered attenuated T. cruzi strain as a vaccine shuttle that elicits potent T cell responses specific to a tumour antigen and protective immunity against a syngeneic melanoma cell line.
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190
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Debierre-Grockiego F, Niehus S, Coddeville B, Elass E, Poirier F, Weingart R, Schmidt RR, Mazurier J, Guérardel Y, Schwarz RT. Binding of Toxoplasma gondii glycosylphosphatidylinositols to galectin-3 is required for their recognition by macrophages. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:32744-32750. [PMID: 20729207 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.137588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We showed that the production of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α by macrophages in response to Toxoplasma gondii glycosylphosphatidylinositols (GPIs) requires the expression of both Toll-like receptors TLR2 and TLR4, but not of their co-receptor CD14. Galectin-3 is a β-galactoside-binding protein with immune-regulatory effects, which associates with TLR2. We demonstrate here by using the surface plasmon resonance method that the GPIs of T. gondii bind to human galectin-3 with strong affinity and in a dose-dependent manner. The use of a synthetic glycan and of the lipid moiety cleaved from the GPIs shows that both parts are involved in the interaction with galectin-3. GPIs of T. gondii also bind to galectin-1 but with a lower affinity and only through the lipid moiety. At the cellular level, the production of TNF-α induced by T. gondii GPIs in macrophages depends on the expression of galectin-3 but not of galectin-1. This study is the first identification of a galectin-3 ligand of T. gondii origin, and galectin-3 might be a co-receptor presenting the GPIs to the TLRs on macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Françoise Debierre-Grockiego
- From the Institut für Virologie, AG Parasitologie, Philipps University, Marburg D-35043, Germany; Unité Mixte de Recherche Université-Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique 0483 Immunologie Parasitaire, Vaccinologie et Biothérapies Anti-infectieuses, Unité de Formation de Recherche Sciences Pharmaceutiques, 31 Avenue Monge, F-37200 Tours, France.
| | - Sebastian Niehus
- From the Institut für Virologie, AG Parasitologie, Philipps University, Marburg D-35043, Germany
| | - Bernadette Coddeville
- CNRS-Unité Mixte de Recherche 8576, Unit of Structural and Functional Glycobiology, Institut Fédératif de Recherche 147, Université Lille Nord de France, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Elisabeth Elass
- CNRS-Unité Mixte de Recherche 8576, Unit of Structural and Functional Glycobiology, Institut Fédératif de Recherche 147, Université Lille Nord de France, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Françoise Poirier
- Laboratoire de Génétique et Développement des Mammifères, Institut Jacques Monod, Paris F-75013, France
| | - Ralf Weingart
- Fachbereich Chemie, University of Konstanz, Konstanz D-78457, Germany
| | - Richard R Schmidt
- Fachbereich Chemie, University of Konstanz, Konstanz D-78457, Germany
| | - Joël Mazurier
- CNRS-Unité Mixte de Recherche 8576, Unit of Structural and Functional Glycobiology, Institut Fédératif de Recherche 147, Université Lille Nord de France, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Yann Guérardel
- CNRS-Unité Mixte de Recherche 8576, Unit of Structural and Functional Glycobiology, Institut Fédératif de Recherche 147, Université Lille Nord de France, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Ralph T Schwarz
- From the Institut für Virologie, AG Parasitologie, Philipps University, Marburg D-35043, Germany; CNRS-Unité Mixte de Recherche 8576, Unit of Structural and Functional Glycobiology, Institut Fédératif de Recherche 147, Université Lille Nord de France, F-59000 Lille, France
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191
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Soares MBP, de Lima RS, Rocha LL, Vasconcelos JF, Rogatto SR, dos Santos RR, Iacobas S, Goldenberg RC, Iacobas DA, Tanowitz HB, de Carvalho ACC, Spray DC. Gene expression changes associated with myocarditis and fibrosis in hearts of mice with chronic chagasic cardiomyopathy. J Infect Dis 2010; 202:416-26. [PMID: 20565256 PMCID: PMC2897928 DOI: 10.1086/653481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic chagasic cardiomyopathy is a leading cause of heart failure in Latin American countries. About 30% of Trypanosoma cruzi-infected individuals develop this severe symptomatic form of the disease, characterized by intense inflammatory response accompanied by fibrosis in the heart. We performed an extensive microarray analysis of hearts from a mouse model of this disease and identified significant alterations in expression of approximately 12% of the sampled genes. Extensive up-regulations were associated with immune-inflammatory responses (chemokines, adhesion molecules, cathepsins, and major histocompatibility complex molecules) and fibrosis (extracellular matrix components, lysyl oxidase, and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1). Our results indicate potentially relevant factors involved in the pathogenesis of the disease that may provide new therapeutic targets in chronic Chagas disease.
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192
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Debierre-Grockiego F. Glycolipids are potential targets for protozoan parasite diseases. Trends Parasitol 2010; 26:404-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2010.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2009] [Revised: 04/06/2010] [Accepted: 04/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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193
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Review on Trypanosoma cruzi: Host Cell Interaction. Int J Cell Biol 2010; 2010. [PMID: 20811486 PMCID: PMC2926652 DOI: 10.1155/2010/295394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2010] [Revised: 05/11/2010] [Accepted: 06/04/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas' disease, which affects a large number of individuals in Central and South America, is transmitted to vertebrate hosts by blood-sucking insects. This protozoan is an obligate intracellular parasite. The infective forms of the parasite are metacyclic and bloodstream trypomastigote and amastigote. Metacyclic trypomastigotes are released with the feces of the insect while amastigotes and bloodstream trypomastigotes are released from the infected host cells of the vertebrate host after a complex intracellular life cycle. The recognition between parasite and mammalian host cell involves numerous molecules present in both cell types. Here, we present a brief review of the interaction between Trypanosoma cruzi and its host cells, mainly emphasizing the mechanisms and molecules that participate in the T. cruzi invasion process of the mammalian cells.
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194
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Kayama H, Takeda K. The innate immune response to Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Microbes Infect 2010; 12:511-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2010.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2010] [Accepted: 03/17/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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195
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Central role of extracellular signal-regulated kinase and Toll-like receptor 4 in IL-10 production in regulatory dendritic cells induced by Trypanosoma cruzi. Mol Immunol 2010; 47:1981-8. [PMID: 20537708 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2010.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2010] [Revised: 04/23/2010] [Accepted: 04/23/2010] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Several Trypanosoma cruzi molecules that stimulate macrophages activity were described as Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) ligands. Besides, the models of dendritic cells (DC) are poorly characterised. We have previously demonstrated that live-trypomastigotes (Tp) plus lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induce DC with tolerogenic properties that produce high levels of interleukin (IL)-10 and an impaired capacity to induce lymphoproliferation. Here, we show that the regulatory phenotype was observed with heat-killed trypomastigotes (Tphk) stimulation, ruling out DC infection. T. cruzi induced a particular DC activation state increasing LPS-activation of extracellular regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 and signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 3. Inhibition of ERK down-regulated IL-10 production and restored DC stimulatory capacity, showing the importance of this pathway in the DC modulation. A recent work shows that signalling via TLR4 and TLR2 induces a synergism in anti-inflammatory cytokine production in murine DC. Upon TLR2 and TLR4 stimulation using Pam(3)Cys or LPS and Tphk in DC from TLR2 knock out (KO) or TLR4-mutant mice, we showed that high levels of IL-10 were independent of TLR2 but associated with TLR4 and NF-kappaB signallization. Although sialic acid has been described as a molecule responsible of DC inhibition, we determine that it is not associated with T. cruzi-IL-10 modulatory response. In conclusion, all these findings demonstrate a key role of ERK and TLR4 in association with NF-kappaB in IL-10 modulation induced by T. cruzi and suggest that this regulatory effect involves parasite-DC interactions not described yet.
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196
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Oliveira AC, de Alencar BC, Tzelepis F, Klezewsky W, da Silva RN, Neves FS, Cavalcanti GS, Boscardin S, Nunes MP, Santiago MF, Nóbrega A, Rodrigues MM, Bellio M. Impaired innate immunity in Tlr4(-/-) mice but preserved CD8+ T cell responses against Trypanosoma cruzi in Tlr4-, Tlr2-, Tlr9- or Myd88-deficient mice. PLoS Pathog 2010; 6:e1000870. [PMID: 20442858 PMCID: PMC2861687 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2009] [Accepted: 03/23/2010] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The murine model of T. cruzi infection has provided compelling evidence that development of host resistance against intracellular protozoans critically depends on the activation of members of the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family via the MyD88 adaptor molecule. However, the possibility that TLR/MyD88 signaling pathways also control the induction of immunoprotective CD8+ T cell-mediated effector functions has not been investigated to date. We addressed this question by measuring the frequencies of IFN-γ secreting CD8+ T cells specific for H-2Kb-restricted immunodominant peptides as well as the in vivo Ag-specific cytotoxic response in infected animals that are deficient either in TLR2, TLR4, TLR9 or MyD88 signaling pathways. Strikingly, we found that T. cruzi-infected Tlr2−/−, Tlr4−/−, Tlr9−/− or Myd88−/− mice generated both specific cytotoxic responses and IFN-γ secreting CD8+ T cells at levels comparable to WT mice, although the frequency of IFN-γ+CD4+ cells was diminished in infected Myd88−/− mice. We also analyzed the efficiency of TLR4-driven immune responses against T. cruzi using TLR4-deficient mice on the C57BL genetic background (B6 and B10). Our studies demonstrated that TLR4 signaling is required for optimal production of IFN-γ, TNF-α and nitric oxide (NO) in the spleen of infected animals and, as a consequence, Tlr4−/− mice display higher parasitemia levels. Collectively, our results indicate that TLR4, as well as previously shown for TLR2, TLR9 and MyD88, contributes to the innate immune response and, consequently, resistance in the acute phase of infection, although each of these pathways is not individually essential for the generation of class I-restricted responses against T. cruzi. Innate and acquired immune responses are triggered during infection with T. cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas' disease, and are critical for host survival. Parasite burden is usually controlled by the time the adaptive response becomes operational. Nevertheless, T. cruzi manages to subsist within intracellular niches and establishes a chronic infection, leading to the development of cardiomyopathy in approximately one-third of infected individuals. Recently, Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have been shown to recognize T. cruzi molecules and mice lacking MyD88, the key adaptor for most TLRs, are extremely susceptible to infection. Although TLRs are known to link innate and adaptive responses, their role in the establishment of crucial effector mechanisms mediated by CD8+ T cells during T. cruzi infection has not yet been determined. We analyzed the induction of IFN-γ and cytotoxic activity in vivo in TLR2-, TLR4-, TLR9- or MyD88-deficient mice during infection, and found intact responses compared to WT mice. We also demonstrated that TLR4 is required for optimal production of inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide and, consequently, for a better control of parasitemia levels. Understanding how TLR activation leads to resistance to infection might contribute to the development of better strategies to improve immune responses against this pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana-Carolina Oliveira
- Instituto de Microbiologia Prof. Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Bruna C. de Alencar
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Terapia Gênica (CINTERGEN), Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Fanny Tzelepis
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Terapia Gênica (CINTERGEN), Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Weberton Klezewsky
- Instituto de Microbiologia Prof. Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Raquel N. da Silva
- Instituto de Microbiologia Prof. Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Fabieni S. Neves
- Instituto de Microbiologia Prof. Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Gisele S. Cavalcanti
- Instituto de Microbiologia Prof. Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Silvia Boscardin
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marise P. Nunes
- Instituto Osvaldo Cruz (IOC/FIOCRUZ) Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Marcelo F. Santiago
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Alberto Nóbrega
- Instituto de Microbiologia Prof. Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Maurício M. Rodrigues
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Terapia Gênica (CINTERGEN), Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria Bellio
- Instituto de Microbiologia Prof. Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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197
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Optimal CD8 T-cell response against Encephalitozoon cuniculi is mediated by Toll-like receptor 4 upregulation by dendritic cells. Infect Immun 2010; 78:3097-102. [PMID: 20421379 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00181-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
CD8+ T-cell immunity has been shown to play an important role in the protective immune response against Encephalitozoon cuniculi. Although earlier studies suggest that dendritic cells (DC) are important for the induction of this response, the factors responsible for initiation of the dendritic cell response against this pathogen have not been evaluated. In the current study, we demonstrate that E. cuniculi infection causes strong Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-dependent dendritic cell activation and a blockade of this molecule reduces the ability of DC to prime an antigen-specific CD8+ T-cell response. Pretreatment of DC with anti-TLR4 antibody causes a defect in both in vitro and in vivo CD8+ T-cell priming. These findings, for the first time, emphasize the contribution of TLR4 in the induction of CD8+ T-cell immunity against E. cuniculi infection.
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198
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Debierre-Grockiego F, Schwarz RT. Immunological reactions in response to apicomplexan glycosylphosphatidylinositols. Glycobiology 2010; 20:801-11. [PMID: 20378610 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwq038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Apicomplexan protozoa are a phylum of parasites that includes pathogens such as Plasmodium, the causative agent of the most severe form of malaria responsible for almost 1 million deaths per year and Toxoplasma gondii causing toxoplasmosis, a disease leading to cerebral meningitis in immunocompromised individuals or to abortion in farm animals or in women that are infected for the first time during pregnancy. The initial immune reactions developed by the host are similar in response to an infection with Plasmodium and Toxoplasma in the sense that the same cells of the innate immune system are stimulated to produce inflammatory cytokines. The glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor is the major carbohydrate modification in parasite proteins and the GPIs are essential for parasite survival. Two immediate GPI precursors with the structures ethanolamine phosphate-6(Manalpha1-2)Manalpha1-2Manalpha1-6Manalpha1-4GlcN-PI and ethanolamine phosphate-6Manalpha1-2Manalpha1-6Man-alpha1-4-GlcN-PI are synthesized by P. falciparum. Two main structures are synthesized by T. gondii: ethanolamine phosphate-6Manalpha1-2Manalpha1-6(GalNAcbeta1-4)Manalpha1-4GlcN-PI and ethanolamine phosphate-6Manalpha1-2Manalpha1-6(Glcalpha1-4GalNAcbeta1-4)Manalpha1-4GlcN-PI. This review describes the biosynthesis of the apicomplexan GPIs and their role in the activation of the host immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Françoise Debierre-Grockiego
- UMR Université-INRA 0483, Immunologie Parasitaire Vaccinologie et Biothérapies anti-infectieuses, UFR Sciences Pharmaceutiques, 31 avenue Monge, 37200 Tours, France
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199
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Bettiol E, Carapau D, Galan-Rodriguez C, Ocaña-Morgner C, Rodriguez A. Dual effect of Plasmodium-infected erythrocytes on dendritic cell maturation. Malar J 2010; 9:64. [PMID: 20193084 PMCID: PMC2842284 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-9-64] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2009] [Accepted: 03/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Infection with Plasmodium is the cause of malaria, a disease characterized by a high inflammatory response in the blood. Dendritic cells (DC) participate in both adaptive and innate immune responses, influencing the generation of inflammatory responses. DC can be activated through different receptors, which recognize specific molecules in microbes and induce the maturation of DC. Methods Using Plasmodium yoelii, a rodent malaria model, the effect of Plasmodium-infected erythrocytes on DC maturation and TLR responses have been analysed. Results It was found that intact erythrocytes infected with P. yoelii do not induce maturation of DC unless they are lysed, suggesting that accessibility of parasite inflammatory molecules to their receptors is a key issue in the activation of DC by P. yoelii. This activation is independent of MyD88. It was also observed that pre-incubation of DC with intact P. yoelii-infected erythrocytes inhibits the maturation response of DC to other TLR stimuli. The inhibition of maturation of DC is reversible, parasite-specific and increases with the stage of parasite development, with complete inhibition induced by schizonts (mature infected erythrocytes). Plasmodium yoelii-infected erythrocytes induce a broad inhibitory effect rendering DC non-responsive to ligands for TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, TLR5, TLR7 and TLR9. Conclusions Despite the presence of inflammatory molecules within Plasmodium-infected erythrocytes, which are probably responsible for DC maturation induced by lysates, intact Plasmodium-infected erythrocytes induce a general inhibition of TLR responsiveness in DC. The observed effect on DC could play an important role in the pathology and suboptimal immune response observed during the disease. These results help to explain why immune functions are altered during malaria, and provide a system for the identification of a parasite-derived broad inhibitor of TLR-mediated signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Bettiol
- Department of Medical Parasitology, New York University School of Medicine, 341 East 25th street, New York, NY 10010, USA
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200
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Modulation of dendritic cell responses by parasites: a common strategy to survive. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010; 2010:357106. [PMID: 20204070 PMCID: PMC2829630 DOI: 10.1155/2010/357106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2009] [Accepted: 11/18/2009] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasitic infections are one of the most important causes of morbidity and mortality in our planet and the immune responses triggered by these organisms are critical to determine their outcome. Dendritic cells are key elements for the development of immunity against parasites; they control the responses required to eliminate these pathogens while maintaining host homeostasis. However, there is evidence showing that parasites can influence and regulate dendritic cell function in order to promote a more permissive environment for their survival. In this review we will focus on the strategies protozoan and helminth parasites have developed to interfere with dendritic cell activities as well as in the possible mechanisms involved.
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