351
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Baba H, Yonemitsu Y, Nakano T, Onimaru M, Miyazaki M, Ikeda Y, Sumiyoshi S, Ueda Y, Hasegawa M, Yoshino I, Maehara Y, Sueishi K. Cytoplasmic Expression and Extracellular Deposition of an Antiangiogenic Factor, Pigment Epithelium-Derived Factor, in Human Atherosclerotic Plaques. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005; 25:1938-44. [PMID: 15994443 DOI: 10.1161/01.atv.0000175759.78338.1e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Objective—
To assess the expression and distribution of a neurotrophic/antiangiogenic factor, pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF), related to angiogenesis that is a possibly key event during atherogenesis in human atherosclerotic plaques.
Methods and Results—
Twenty fresh aortic samples were used for reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), Western blot, and immunohistochemistry (IHC). In addition, 80 stocked paraffin blocks of coronary arteries from 40 autopsy cases were also used. IHC revealed divergent staining patterns for PEDF in both the aortas and the coronary arteries tested, ie, “cytoplasmic staining” or “extracellular deposition,” were observed, respectively. In the areas showing cytoplasmic staining, double PEDF was expressed in a majority of the foamy macrophages and in some smooth muscle cells, and the PEDF-positive cell frequency was positively correlated with that of microvessels in a cell-rich area in the coronary arteries (
P
<0.0001). Inversely, extracellular deposition of PEDF was seen in acellular areas and was negatively correlated with the number of microvessels (
P
=0.0003).
Conclusions—
These results suggest that PEDF may function as an antiangiogenic factor when it is deposited onto the extracellular matrix. Thus, PEDF may play a significant role in determining the balance of angiogenesis/ antiangiogenesis during atherogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiromitsu Baba
- Division of Pathophysiological and Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan
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352
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Nour N, Mayer G, Mort JS, Salvas A, Mbikay M, Morrison CJ, Overall CM, Seidah NG. The cysteine-rich domain of the secreted proprotein convertases PC5A and PACE4 functions as a cell surface anchor and interacts with tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases. Mol Biol Cell 2005; 16:5215-26. [PMID: 16135528 PMCID: PMC1266420 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e05-06-0504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The proprotein convertases PC5, PACE4 and furin contain a C-terminal cysteine-rich domain (CRD) of unknown function. We demonstrate that the CRD confers to PC5A and PACE4 properties to bind tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) and the cell surface. Confocal microscopy and biochemical analyses revealed that the CRD is essential for cell surface tethering of PC5A and PACE4 and that it colocalizes and coimmunoprecipitates with the full-length and C-terminal domain of TIMP-2. Surface-bound PC5A in TIMP-2 null fibroblasts was only observed upon coexpression with TIMP-2. In COS-1 cells, plasma membrane-associated PC5A can be displaced by heparin, suramin, or heparinases I and III and by competition with excess exogenous TIMP-2. Furthermore, PC5A and TIMP-2 are shown to be colocalized over the surface of enterocytes in the mouse duodenum and jejunum, as well as in liver sinusoids. In conclusion, the CRD of PC5A and PACE4 functions as a cell surface anchor favoring the processing of their cognate surface-anchored substrates, including endothelial lipase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Nour
- Laboratory of Biochemical Neuroendocrinology, Clinical Research Institute of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec H2W 1R7, Canada
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353
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Galm O, Suzuki H, Akiyama Y, Esteller M, Brock MV, Osieka R, Baylin SB, Herman JG. Inactivation of the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2 gene by promoter hypermethylation in lymphoid malignancies. Oncogene 2005; 24:4799-805. [PMID: 15870703 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1208599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2 (TIMP-2) is known to antagonize matrix metalloproteinase activity and to suppress tumor growth, angiogenesis, invasion and metastasis. We analysed the methylation status of the CpG island in the TIMP-2 promoter region by methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction (MSP) in hematopoietic cell lines. TIMP-2 promoter hypermethylation in the lymphoma cell line Raji and the leukemia cell line KG1a was associated with transcriptional repression. Treatment with the demethylating agent 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine resulted in TIMP-2 upregulation in both cell lines. TIMP-2 was expressed in the cell lines HL60, U266 and XG1, which carry an unmethylated promoter region. MSP analysis of primary patient samples revealed aberrant methylation of TIMP-2 in 33/90 (36.7%) cases of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL), but not in normal peripheral blood lymphocytes as well as in nonmalignant bone marrow and lymph nodes. The frequency of TIMP-2 methylation was slightly higher in aggressive NHL subtypes compared to those with an indolent subtype (38.6 versus 33.3%). In contrast, TIMP-2 was not hypermethylated in any of the 40 cases of acute myelogenous leukemia examined. We conclude that promoter hypermethylation of TIMP-2 is a novel epigenetic event in the pathogenesis of lymphoid malignancies and may contribute to a more aggressive NHL phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Galm
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, 1650 Orleans St, Baltimore, MD 21231, USA
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354
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Wu WT, Chen CN, Lin CI, Chen JH, Lee H. Lysophospholipids enhance matrix metalloproteinase-2 expression in human endothelial cells. Endocrinology 2005; 146:3387-400. [PMID: 15878967 DOI: 10.1210/en.2004-1654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) and sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) are both low-molecular-weight lysophospholipids, which promote cell proliferation, migration, and invasion via interaction with a family of specific G protein-coupled receptors. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are zinc-dependent proteolytic enzymes, which are involved in degradation of the extracellular matrix and play critical roles in endothelial cell migration and matrix remodeling during angiogenesis. Among these MMPs, MMP-2 is known to trigger cell migration. In our present study, we examined the effects of LPA and S1P on MMP-2 expression in human endothelial cells. We showed that LPA and S1P enhanced MMP-2 expression in mRNA, protein levels, and also enzymatic activity of cells of the EAhy926 human endothelial cell line. The enhancement effects occurred in concentration- and time-dependent manners. Results from real-time PCR, Western blots, and substrate gels indicated that these enhancement effects were mediated through MAPK kinase/ERK-, nuclear factor-kappaB-, and calcium influx-dependent pathways. Furthermore, we show that endothelial cell invasion of the gel was enhanced by lysophospholipids, and the induction could be prevented by an MMP inhibitor, GM6001. These observations suggest that LPA and S1P may play important roles in endothelial cell invasion by regulating the expression of MMP-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Ting Wu
- Institute of Zoology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan 10617, Republic of China
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355
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Fernández CA, Yan L, Louis G, Yang J, Kutok JL, Moses MA. The matrix metalloproteinase-9/neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin complex plays a role in breast tumor growth and is present in the urine of breast cancer patients. Clin Cancer Res 2005; 11:5390-5. [PMID: 16061852 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-04-2391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Having previously shown that the binding of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) to matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) protects this extracellular matrix remodeling enzyme from autodegradation, we hypothesized that the addition of NGAL to breast cancer cells, which do not express this protein but do express MMP-9, might result in a more aggressive phenotype in vivo. Based on our previous reports that MMPs can be detected in the urine of cancer patients, we also asked whether MMP-9/NGAL could be detected in the urine of breast cancer patients and whether it might be predictive of disease status. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Clones of MCF-7 human breast cancer cells differentially expressing NGAL were generated by stable transfection with human NGAL expression constructs. The established clones were then implanted s.c. in immunodeficient mice and tumor growth was monitored. In addition, we analyzed the urine of individuals with breast cancer and age-matched, sex-matched controls using gelatin zymography for the presence of MMP-9/NGAL. RESULTS Increased NGAL expression resulted in significant stimulation of tumor growth. Immunohistochemical analysis of MCF-7 tumors revealed that the NGAL-overexpressing ones exhibited increased growth rates that were accompanied by increased levels of MMP-9, increased angiogenesis, and an increase in the tumor cell proliferative fraction. In addition, MMP-9/NGAL complex was detected in 86.36% of the urine samples from breast cancer patients but not in those from healthy age and sex-matched controls. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest, for the first time, that NGAL may play an important role in breast cancer in vivo by protecting MMP-9 from degradation thereby enhancing its enzymatic activity and facilitating angiogenesis and tumor growth. Clinically, these data suggest that the urinary detection of MMP-9/NGAL may be useful in noninvasively predicting disease status of breast cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia A Fernández
- Vascular Biology Program and Department of Surgery, Children's Hospital Boston, MA, USA
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356
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Abstract
Remodeling of the extracellular matrix--regulated by the matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their endogenous inhibitors--is an important component of disease progression in many chronic disease states. Unchecked MMP activity can result in significant tissue damage, facilitate disease progression and is associated with host responses to pathologic injury, such as angiogenesis. The tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) have been shown to regulate MMP activity. However, recent findings demonstrate that an MMP-independent effect of TIMP-2 inhibits the mitogenic response of human microvascular endothelial cells to growth factors. This is the first demonstration of a cell-surface signaling receptor for a member of the TIMP family and suggests that TIMP-2 functions to regulate cellular responses to growth factors. These new findings are integrated in a comprehensive model of TIMP-2 function in tissue homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- William G Stetler-Stevenson
- Cell & Cancer Biology Branch, Vascular Biology Faculty, CCR, NCI, NIH, Bldg. 10, Room 2A33, MSC# 1500, 10 Center Dr., Bethesda, MD 20892-1500, USA.
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357
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Belting M, Ahamed J, Ruf W. Signaling of the Tissue Factor Coagulation Pathway in Angiogenesis and Cancer. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005; 25:1545-50. [PMID: 15905465 DOI: 10.1161/01.atv.0000171155.05809.bf] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Activation of coagulation precedes or coincides with angiogenesis in wound healing and postischemic tissue regeneration. Advanced cancer is associated with a hypercoagulable state, and tissue factor expression by cancer cells has received widespread attention because of its significant contribution to the pathogenesis of cancer progression and metastasis. Our recent work demonstrates that tissue factor-mediated cellular signaling is relevant to cancer angiogenesis. Here we review the molecular mechanisms of tissue factor pathways in angiogenesis and tumorigenesis with emphasis on the intriguing role for tissue factor cytoplasmic domain signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattias Belting
- Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N Torrey Pines Rd, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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358
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Primo L, Ferrandi C, Roca C, Marchiò S, di Blasio L, Alessio M, Bussolino F. Identification of CD36 molecular features required for its in vitro angiostatic activity. FASEB J 2005; 19:1713-5. [PMID: 16037098 DOI: 10.1096/fj.05-3697fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1), a natural inhibitor of angiogenesis, acts directly on endothelial cells (EC) via CD36 to inhibit their migration and morphogenesis induced by basic fibroblast growth factor. Here we show that CD36 triggered by TSP-1 inhibits in vitro angiogenesis stimulated by vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A). To demonstrate that the TSP-1 inhibitory signal was mediated by CD36, we transduced CD36 in CD36-deficient endothelial cells. Both TSP-1 and the agonist anti-CD36 mAb SMO, which mimics TSP-1 activity, reduced the VEGF-A165-induced migration and sprouting of CD36-ECs. To address the mechanisms by which CD36 may exert its angiostatic function, we investigated the functional components of the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail by site-directed mutagenesis. Our results indicate that C464, R467, and K469 of CD36 are required for the inhibitory activity of TSP-1. In contrast, point mutation of C466 did not alter TSP-1 ability to inhibit EC migration and sprouting. Moreover, we show that activation of CD36 by TSP-1 down-modulates the VEGF receptor-2 (VEGFR-2) and p38 mitogen-associated protein kinase phosphorylation induced by VEGF-A165, and this effect was specifically abolished by point mutation at C464. These results identify specific amino acids of the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail of CD36 crucial for the in vitro angiostatic activity of TSP-1 and extend our knowledge of regulation of VEGFR-2-mediated biological activities on ECs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Primo
- Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment, Candiolo, and School of Medicine, University of Torino, Italy.
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359
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Hornebeck W, Lambert E, Petitfrère E, Bernard P. Beneficial and detrimental influences of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) in tumor progression. Biochimie 2005; 87:377-83. [PMID: 15781325 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2004.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2004] [Accepted: 09/23/2004] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) is one representative of the natural matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitor family, encompassing four members. It inhibits all MMPs, except several MT-MMPs, and a disintegrin with a metalloproteinase domain (ADAM)-10 with Kis < nM. Unexpectedly, its upregulation was associated to poor clinical outcome for several cancer varieties. Such finding might be related to the growth-promoting and survival activities of TIMP-1 for normal and cancer cells. In most cases, such properties are MMP-independent and binding of TIMP-1 to an unknown receptor system can trigger JAK (or FAK)/PI3 kinase/Akt/bad-bclX2 (erythroid, myeloid, epithelial cell lines) or Ras/Raf1/FAK (osteosarcoma cell line) signaling pathways. The relationship between viral infection and TIMP-1 expression is here underlined. Thus, TIMP-1 might display a dual influence on tumor progression; either beneficial by inhibiting MMPs as MMP-9 and by impairing angiogenesis or detrimental by favoring cancer cells growth or survival. We consider that the proMMP-9/TIMP-1 balance is of critical importance in early events of tumor progression, and might show promise as diagnostic and prognostic marker of malignancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Hornebeck
- Center National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) UMR 6198, IFR53 Biomolecules, Faculties of Medicine and Sciences, Reims University, 51, rue Cognacq Jay, 51100 Reims, France.
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360
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Sounni NE, Noel A. Membrane type-matrix metalloproteinases and tumor progression. Biochimie 2005; 87:329-42. [PMID: 15781320 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2004.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2004] [Accepted: 07/16/2004] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of zinc endopeptidases that process growth factors, growth factor binding proteins, cell surface proteins, degrade extracellular matrix (ECM) components and thereby play a central role in tissue remodeling and tumor progression. Membrane-type matrix metalloproteinases (MT-MMPs) are a recently discovered subgroup of intrinsic plasma membrane proteins. Their functions have been extended from pericellular proteolysis and control of cell migration to cell signaling, control of cell proliferation and regulation of multiple stages of tumor progression including growth and angiogenesis. This review sheds light on the new functions of MT-MMPs and their inhibitors in tumor development and angiogenesis, and presents recent investigations that document their influence on various cell functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- N E Sounni
- Laboratory of Tumor and Development Biology, University of Liège, Sart-Tilman B23, B4000 Liège, Belgium
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361
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Abstract
Angiogenesis is the process by which new blood vessels are formed from preexisting vasculature. It is an essential feature of the female reproductive cycle, embryonic development and wound repair. Angiogenesis has also been identified as a causal or contributing factor in several pathologies, including cancer, where it is a rate-limiting step during tumor progression. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of soluble and membrane-anchored proteolytic enzymes that can degrade components of the extracellular matrix (ECM) as well as a growing number of modulators of cell function. Several of the MMPs, in particular the gelatinases and membrane-type 1 MMP (MT1-MMP), have been linked to angiogenesis. Potential roles for these proteases during the angiogenic process include degradation of the basement membrane and perivascular ECM components, unmasking of cryptic biologically relevant sites in ECM components, modulation of angiogenic factors and production of endogenous angiogenic inhibitors. This review brings together what is currently known about the functions of the MMPs and the closely related ADAM (a disintegrin and metalloproteinase domain) and ADAMTS (a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs) families in angiogenesis and considers how this information might be useful in manipulation of the angiogenic process, with a view to constraining tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeleine M Handsley
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom
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362
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Hofmann UB, Houben R, Bröcker EB, Becker JC. Role of matrix metalloproteinases in melanoma cell invasion. Biochimie 2005; 87:307-14. [PMID: 15781317 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2005.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2004] [Accepted: 01/20/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Cutaneous melanomas are notorious for their tendency to metastasize. Essential steps in this process are the degradation of basement membranes and remodeling of the extracellular matrix (ECM) by proteolytic enzymes such as matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which are regulated by their tissue inhibitors (TIMPs). An MMP expression is not restricted to tumor cells but is also found in stromal cells, indicating that stroma-derived proteases may contribute to melanoma progression. The MMPs have been shown to interact with a broad range of non-matrix proteins including adhesion molecules, growth factors and mediators of angiogenesis and apoptosis. In this review, we evaluate new insights into the interplay of MMPs and their molecular partners in melanoma progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uta B Hofmann
- Julius-Maximilians-University, Department of Dermatology, Josef-Schneider-Strasse, 2, 97080 Würzburg, Germany.
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363
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Abstract
Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels, is required for many pathologic processes, including invasive tumor growth as well as physiologic organ/tissue maintenance. Angiogenesis during development and adulthood is likely regulated by a balance between endogenous proangiogenic and antiangiogenic factors. It is speculated that tumor growth requires disruption of such balance; thus, the angiogenic switch must be turned "on" for cancer progression. If the angiogenic switch needs to be turned on to facilitate the tumor growth, the question remains as to what the physiologic status of this switch is in the adult human body; is it "off," with inhibitors outweighing the stimulators, or maintained at a fine "balance," keeping the proangiogenic properties of many factors at a delicate "activity" balance with endogenous inhibitors of angiogenesis. The physiologic status of this balance is important to understand as it might determine an individual's predisposition to turn the switch on during pathologic events dependent on angiogenesis. Conceivably, if the physiologic angiogenesis balance in human population exists somewhere between off and even balance, an individual's capacity and rate to turn the switch on might reflect their normal physiologic angiogenic status. In this regard, although extensive knowledge has been gained in our understanding of endogenous growth factors that stimulate angiogenesis, the activities associated with endogenous inhibitors are poorly understood. In this review, we will present an overview of the knowledge gained in studies related to the identification and characterization of 27 different endogenous inhibitors of angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pia Nyberg
- Center for Matrix Biology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
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364
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Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are matrix-degrading enzymes involved in diverse homeostatic and pathological processes. Several MMPs are expressed within the CNS and serve important normal and pathological functions during development and adulthood. An early and major pathological effect of MMP activity after cerebral ischemia is opening of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). More recent work demonstrates emerging roles for MMPs and their natural inhibitors, tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs), in the regulation of neuronal cell death. In addition, MMPs and TIMPs are likely to play important roles during the repair phases of cerebral ischemia, particularly during angiogenesis and reestablishment of cerebral blood flow. This review attempts to elucidate how MMPs and TIMPs may provide detrimental or beneficial actions during the injury and repair processes after cerebral ischemia. These processes will have important implications for therapies using MMP inhibitors in stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee Anna Cunningham
- Departments of Neurosciences and Neurology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico
| | - Monica Wetzel
- Departments of Neurosciences and Neurology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico
| | - Gary A Rosenberg
- Departments of Neurosciences and Neurology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico
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365
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Kassim SY, Fu X, Liles WC, Shapiro SD, Parks WC, Heinecke JW. NADPH oxidase restrains the matrix metalloproteinase activity of macrophages. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:30201-5. [PMID: 15983040 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m503292200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) regulate numerous functions in normal and disease processes; thus, irreversibly blocking their activity is a key step in regulating MMP catalysis. We previously showed in vitro that oxidizing intermediates generated by phagocytes inactivate MMPs by modifying specific amino acids. To assess whether this mechanism operates in vivo, we focused on MMP-12, a macrophage-specific MMP known to mediate emphysema in mouse models. We found that mice lacking gp91(phox), a phagocyte-specific component of the NADPH oxidase, developed extensive, spontaneous emphysematous destruction of their peripheral air spaces, whereas mice deficient in both NADPH oxidase and MMP-12 were protected from spontaneous emphysema. Although gp91(phox)-null and wild-type macrophages produced equivalent levels of MMP-12 protein, the oxidant-deficient cells had greater MMP-12 activity than wild-type macrophages. These findings indicate that reactive intermediates provide a physiological mechanism to protect tissues from excessive macrophage-mediated damage during inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Y Kassim
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
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366
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Abstract
Angiogenesis is a crucial event in tumour growth, since the growth of tumour cells depends on the supply of essentials such as oxygen and nutrients. Therefore, suppression of angiogenesis is expected to show potent therapeutic effects on various cancers. Additionally, this 'antiangiogenic therapy' is thought not only to eradicate primary tumour cells, but also suppress tumour metastases through disruption of haematogenous metastatic pathways. Tumour dormancy therapy does not aim to disrupt newly formed angiogenic vessels but aims to inhibit further formation of neovessels through inhibiting certain processes of angiogenesis. This raises a question of whether or not these antiangiogenic agents bring complete cure of tumours as complete cut-off of oxygen and nutrients is not expected by the treatment with these agents. This paper will review a novel antiangiogenic therapy, antineovascular therapy (ANET). ANET is categorised in antiangiogenic therapy but is different from tumour dormancy therapy using conventional angiogenic inhibitors: ANET aims to disrupt neovessels rather than to inhibit neovessel formation. ANET is based on the fact that angiogenic endothelial cells are growing cells and would be effectively damaged by cytotoxic agents when the agents are effectively delivered to the neovessels. The complete eradication of angiogenic endothelial cells may cause complete cut-off of essential supplies to the tumour cells and lead to indirect but strong cytotoxicity instead of cytostasis caused by the inhibition of angiogenesis. For the purpose of ANET, an angiogenic vasculature-targeting probe has been developed, by which cytotoxic anticancer agents are actively delivered to the angiogenic endothelial cells by using drug delivery system (DDS) technology. Another way to damage newly formed vessels by cytotoxic agents is achieved by metronomic-dosing chemotherapy. This chemotherapy shifts the target of chemotherapeutic agents from tumour cells to angiogenic endothelial cells by selective dosing schedule. Similarly, the shift of target from tumour cells to angiogenic endothelial cells enhanced therapeutic efficacy of cancer photo-dynamic therapy (PDT): in this antiangiogenic PDT, photosensitizers are delivered more to neovessel endothelial cells than to tumour cells. These therapeutic strategies would be clinically applied in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kosuke Shimizu
- University of Shizouka, Department of Medical Biochemistry and COE Programme in the 21st Century, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Japan
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367
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Cantemir V, Cai DH, Reedy MV, Brauer PR. Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 (TIMP-2) expression during cardiac neural crest cell migration and its role in proMMP-2 activation. Dev Dyn 2005; 231:709-19. [PMID: 15497141 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.20171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are important mediators of neural crest (NC) cell migration. Here, we examine the distribution of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP) -2 and TIMP-3 and test whether manipulating TIMP levels alters chicken cardiac NC cell migration. TIMP-2 mRNA is expressed at stage 11 in the neural epithelium and only in migrating cardiac NC cells. TIMP-3 mRNA is expressed only in the notochord at stage 8 and later in the outflow tract myocardium. Exogenous TIMP-2 increases NC motility in vitro at low concentrations but has no effect when concentrations are increased. In vitro, NC cells express membrane type-1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP) and TIMP-2 and they secrete and activate proMMP-2. Antisense TIMP-2 oligonucleotides block proMMP-2 activation, decrease NC cell migration from explants, and perturb NC morphogenesis in ovo. Because TIMP-2 is required for activation of proMMP-2 by MT1-MMP, this finding suggests TIMP-2 expression by cardiac NC cells initiates proMMP-2 activation important for their migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Cantemir
- Department of Biomedical Science, Creighton University, Omaha, Nebraska 68178, USA
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368
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Björklund M, Koivunen E. Gelatinase-mediated migration and invasion of cancer cells. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2005; 1755:37-69. [PMID: 15907591 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2005.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 264] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2004] [Revised: 03/23/2005] [Accepted: 03/24/2005] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The matrix metalloproteinases(MMP)-2 and -9, also known as the gelatinases have been long recognized as major contributors to the proteolytic degradation of extracellular matrix during tumor invasion. In the recent years, a plethora of non-matrix proteins have also been identified as gelatinase substrates thus significantly broadening our understanding of these enzymes as proteolytic executors and regulators in various physiological and pathological states including embryonic growth and development, angiogenesis and tumor progression, inflammation, infective diseases, degenerative diseases of the brain and vascular diseases. Although the effect of broad-spectrum inhibitors of MMPs in the treatment of cancer has been disappointing in clinical trials, novel mechanisms of gelatinase inhibition have been now identified. Inhibition of the association of the gelatinases with cell-surface integrins appears to offer highly specific means to target these enzymes without inhibiting their catalytic activity in multiple cell types including endothelial cells, tumor cells and leukocytes. Here, we review the multiple functions of the gelatinases in cancer, and especially their role in the tumor cell migration and invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikael Björklund
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, P.O. B 56 (Viikinkaari 5D), University of Helsinki, Finland
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369
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Gallicchio M, Mitola S, Valdembri D, Fantozzi R, Varnum B, Avanzi GC, Bussolino F. Inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2–mediated endothelial cell activation by Axl tyrosine kinase receptor. Blood 2005; 105:1970-6. [PMID: 15507525 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2004-04-1469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractGAS6, the product of a growth arrest specific (GAS) gene, is the ligand of the tyrosine kinase receptor Axl. GAS6 and Axl are both expressed in endothelial cells, where they are involved in many processes such as leukocyte transmigration through capillaries and neointima formation in injured vessels. Here, we show that Axl stimulation by GAS6 results in inhibition of the ligand-dependent activation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) receptor 2 and the consequent activation of an angiogenic program in vascular endothelial cells. GAS6 inhibits chemotaxis of endothelial cells stimulated by VEGF-A isoforms, but not that triggered by fibroblast growth factor-2 or hepatocyte growth factor. Furthermore, it inhibits endothelial cell morphogenesis on Matrigel and VEGF-A–dependent vascularization of chick chorion allantoid membrane. GAS6 activates the tyrosine phosphatase SHP-2 (SH2 domain-containing tyrosine phosphatase 2), which is instrumental in the negative feedback exerted by Axl on VEGF-A activities. A dominant-negative SHP-2 mutant, in which Cys 459 is substituted by Ser, reverted the effect of GAS6 on stimulation of VEGF receptor 2 and endothelial chemotaxis triggered by VEGF-A. These studies provide the first demonstration of a cross talk between Axl and VEGF receptor 2 and add new information on the regulation of VEGF-A activities during tissue vascularization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margherita Gallicchio
- Department of Anatomy, Pharmacology and Forensic Medicine, University of Turin, C. so Massimo D'azeglio 52, 10100 Torino, Italy.
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370
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Oh J, Seo DW, Diaz T, Wei B, Ward Y, Ray JM, Morioka Y, Shi S, Kitayama H, Takahashi C, Noda M, Stetler-Stevenson WG. Tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase 2 inhibits endothelial cell migration through increased expression of RECK. Cancer Res 2005; 64:9062-9. [PMID: 15604273 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-04-1981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The antiangiogenic function of the tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) has been attributed to their matrix metalloproteinase inhibitory activity. Here we demonstrate that TIMP-1 but not Ala+TIMP-1 inhibits both basal and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-stimulated migration of human microvascular endothelial cells (hMVECs), suggesting that this effect is dependent on direct inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity. In contrast, TIMP-2 and mutant Ala+TIMP-2, which is devoid of MMP inhibitory activity, block hMVEC migration in response to VEGF-A stimulation. TIMP-2 and Ala+TIMP-2 also suppress basal hMVEC migration via a time-dependent mechanism mediated by enhanced expression of RECK, a membrane-anchored MMP inhibitor, which, in turn, inhibits cell migration. TIMP-2 treatment of hMVECs increases the association of Crk with C3G, resulting in enhanced Rap1 activation. hMVECs stably expressing Rap1 have increased RECK expression and display reduced cell migration compared with those expressing inactive Rap1(38N). RECK-null murine embryo fibroblasts fail to demonstrate TIMP-2-mediated decrease in cell migration despite activation of Rap1. TIMP-2-induced RECK decreases cell-associated MMP activity. Anti-RECK antibody increases MMP activity and reverses the TIMP-2-mediated reduction in cell migration. The effects of TIMP-2 on RECK expression and cell migration were confirmed in A2058 melanoma cells. These results suggest that TIMP-2 can inhibit cell migration via several distinct mechanisms. First, TIMP-2 can inhibit cell migration after VEGF stimulation by direct inhibition of MMP activity induced in response to VEGF stimulation. Secondly, TIMP-2 can disrupt VEGF signaling required for initiation of hMVEC migration. Third, TIMP-2 can enhance expression of RECK via Rap1 signaling resulting in an indirect, time-dependent inhibition of endothelial cell migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junseo Oh
- National Cancer Institute, Center for Cancer Research, Cell and Cancer Biology Branch, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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371
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Zeng H, Briske-Anderson M. Prolonged butyrate treatment inhibits the migration and invasion potential of HT1080 tumor cells. J Nutr 2005; 135:291-5. [PMID: 15671229 DOI: 10.1093/jn/135.2.291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Butyrate, a normal constituent of the colonic luminal contents, is produced by the bacterial fermentation of dietary fibers and resistant starches. It has been hypothesized that butyrate may inhibit the invasion of tumor cells. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of butyrate treatment on the growth, migration, and invasion characteristics of tumor HT1080 cells. HT1080 cells cultured in the presence of 0.5 and 1 mmol/L butyrate for 14 d exhibited an increase in the G(1) and G(2) fractions with a concomitant drop in the S-phase, thus showing slower cell growth. Interestingly, 0.5 and 1 mmol/L butyrate inhibited the migration and invasion rate of the tumor cells compared with the untreated (control) cells. The protein and mRNA levels of the tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) and TIMP-2 were significantly increased in HT1080 cells cultured with 0.5 and 1 mmol/L butyrate. Enzymatic activities and the mRNA level of the latent forms of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP), pro-MMP-2 and pro-MMP-9, were also increased in HT1080 cells cultured with 0.5 and 1 mmol/L butyrate. In contrast, the active form of MMP-2 was detectable by zymographic analysis in control but not butyrate-conditioned media. Collectively, these results demonstrate that prolonged and low-dose butyrate treatment increases both prometastasis MMP-2, -9 and antimetastasis TIMP-1, -2 expression, and the net effect of these increases is the inhibition of pro-MMP-2 activation and of tumor cell migration/invasion potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huawei Zeng
- Agricultural Research Service, Grand Forks Human Nutrition Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Grand Forks, ND 58202-9034, USA.
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372
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Liu XW, Taube ME, Jung KK, Dong Z, Lee YJ, Roshy S, Sloane BF, Fridman R, Kim HRC. Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinase-1 Protects Human Breast Epithelial Cells from Extrinsic Cell Death: A Potential Oncogenic Activity of Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinase-1. Cancer Res 2005. [DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.898.65.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) inhibit matrix metalloproteinases and some members of a disintegrin and metalloproteinase domain (ADAM) family. In addition, recent studies unveiled novel functions of TIMPs in the regulation of apoptosis. TIMP-1 inhibits intrinsic apoptosis by inducing TIMP-1 specific cell survival pathways involving focal adhesion kinase (FAK). TIMP-3, however, was shown to enhance extrinsic cell death by inhibiting the shedding of the cell surface death receptors mediated by tumor necrosis factor-α converting enzymes (TACE/ADAM-17). Here, we examined whether TIMP-1, an inhibitor of some of the ADAM family members, enhances the tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)–induced extrinsic apoptotic pathway. Surprisingly, we found that TIMP-1 effectively protects human breast epithelial cells from TRAIL-induced apoptosis, demonstrating opposite roles of TIMP-1 and TIMP-3 for the regulation of extrinsic apoptosis. TIMP-1 inhibition of TRAIL-induced apoptosis does not depend on its ability to inhibit matrix metalloproteinases or ADAM activities and is unrelated to its ability to stabilize active or decoy death receptors. Importantly, inhibition of PI 3-kinase signaling by wortmannin and down-regulation of FAK expression using siRNA significantly diminish TIMP-1 protection of human breast epithelial cells against TRAIL-induced extrinsic apoptosis. In addition, the in vitro three-dimensional culture studies showed that TIMP-1 inhibits lumen formation and apoptosis during morphogenesis of MCF10A acini. Taken together, these studies suggest that TIMP-1 may exert oncogenic activity in breast cancer through inhibition of both intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis involving the FAK survival signal transduction pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Yong J. Lee
- 3Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Stefanie Roshy
- 2Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, Michigan; and
| | - Bonnie F. Sloane
- 2Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, Michigan; and
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373
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Akahane T, Akahane M, Shah A, Connor CM, Thorgeirsson UP. TIMP-1 inhibits microvascular endothelial cell migration by MMP-dependent and MMP-independent mechanisms. Exp Cell Res 2005; 301:158-67. [PMID: 15530852 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2004.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2004] [Revised: 08/03/2004] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
It was reported over a decade ago that tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 (TIMP-1) suppresses angiogenesis in experimental models but the mechanism is still incompletely understood. This in vitro study focused on the molecular basis of TIMP-1-mediated inhibition of endothelial cell (EC) migration, a key step in the angiogenic process. Both recombinant human TIMP-1 and the synthetic MMP inhibitors, GM6001 and MMP-2-MMP-9 Inhibitor III, suppressed migration of human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HDMVEC) in a dose-dependent fashion. The MMP-dependent inhibition of migration was associated with increased expression of the junctional adhesion proteins, VE-cadherin and PECAM-1, and VE-cadherin accumulation at cell-cell junctions. TIMP-1 also caused MMP-independent dephosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) (pY397) and paxillin, which was associated with reduced number of F-actin stress fibers and focal adhesions. Moreover, TIMP-1 stimulated expression of PTEN that has been shown to reduce phosphorylation of FAK and inhibit cell migration. Our data suggest that TIMP-1 inhibits HDMVEC migration through MMP-dependent stimulation of VE-cadherin and MMP-independent stimulation of PTEN with subsequent dephosphorylation of FAK and cytoskeletal remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takemi Akahane
- Laboratory of Cellular Carcinogenesis and Tumor Promotion, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255, USA
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374
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Kang HA, Kang WK, Go SM, Rezaee A, Krishna SH, Rhee SK, Kim JY. Characteristics ofSaccharomyces cerevisiae gal1? andgal1?hxk2? mutants expressing recombinant proteins from theGAL promoter. Biotechnol Bioeng 2005; 89:619-29. [PMID: 15696522 DOI: 10.1002/bit.20240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Galactose can be used not only as an inducer of the GAL promoters, but also as a carbon source by Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which makes recombinant fermentation processes that use GAL promoters complicated and expensive. To overcome this problem during the cultivation of the recombinant strain expressing human serum albumin (HSA) from the GAL10 promoter, a gal1 Delta mutant strain was constructed and its induction kinetics investigated. As expected, the gal1 Delta strain did not use galactose, and showed high levels of HSA expression, even at extremely low galactose concentrations (0.05-0.1 g/L). However, the gal1 Delta strain produced much more ethanol, in a complex medium containing glucose, than the GAL1 strain. To improve the physiological properties of the gal1 Delta mutant strain as a host for heterologous protein production, a null mutation of either MIG1 or HXK2 was introduced into the gal1 Delta mutant strain, generating gal1 Delta mig1 Delta and gal1 Delta hxk2 Delta double strains. The gal1 Delta hxk2 Delta strain showed a decreased rate of ethanol synthesis, with an accelerated rate of ethanol consumption, compared to the gal1 Delta strain, whereas the gal1 Delta mig1 Delta strain showed similar patterns to the gal1 Delta strain. Furthermore, the gal1 Delta hxk2 Delta strain secreted much more recombinant proteins (HSA and HSA fusion proteins) than the other strains. The results suggest that the gal1 Delta hxk2 Delta strain would be useful for the large-scale production of heterologous proteins from the GAL10 promoter in S. cerevisiae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Ah Kang
- Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejeon 305-333, Korea
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375
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Lee YK, So IS, Lee SC, Lee JH, Lee CW, Kim WM, Park MK, Lee ST, Park DY, Shin DY, Park CU, Kim YS. Suppression of distant pulmonary metastasis of MDA-MB 435 human breast carcinoma established in mammary fat pads of nude mice by retroviral-mediated TIMP-2 gene transfer. J Gene Med 2005; 7:145-57. [PMID: 15546163 DOI: 10.1002/jgm.645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous studies have shown that TIMP-2 overexpression is a useful therapeutic tool for inhibiting tumor growth and invasion in animals. However, it has not been reported whether genetic manipulation for TIMP-2 overexpression can induce an inhibitory effect on spontaneous metastasis from the primary tumor site to other organs such as lungs or lymph nodes in an animal model. METHODS The present studies describe the effects of retrovirus-mediated TIMP-2 gene transfer into human breast cancer cell lines on the in vitro invasion of the tumor cells or the in vivo growth in nude mouse. Here we also used retroviral-mediated TIMP-2 overexpression by intratumoral injection for suppression of metastasis in human breast carcinoma established in the mammary fat pad of nude mice. RESULTS As expected, overexpression of TIMP-2 inhibited matrix metalloprotenase (MMP) activity and invasion of the tumor cells. Also, the growth rate of tumors grafted with the breast cancer cells transduced with the retrovirus vector encoding TIMP-2 cDNA was significantly slower than the growth rate of tumors grafted with the breast cancer cells transduced with a control retrovirus vector. Furthermore, single intratumoral injection of the TIMP-2 retrovirus-producing cells into human breast tumor tissue established in mammary fat pads of nude mice showed a dramatic decrease in size and number of lung metastatic tumors. CONCLUSIONS Retrovirus-mediated TIMP-2 gene transfer into human breast cancer cells is able to down-regulate invasion and show that tumor-derived angiogenesis is reduced. In this model, retroviral-mediated transduction of TIMP-2 cDNA into a limited population of human tumor cells inhibits tumor growth and prevents distant pulmonary metastasis. These results indicate that it may not be necessary to deliver and express these genes in every single tumor cell as long as the level of expression in a limited number of transduced cells is sufficient to prevent the excessive breakdown of the extracellular matrix.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antineoplastic Agents/metabolism
- Antineoplastic Agents/therapeutic use
- Blotting, Western
- Breast Neoplasms/pathology
- Carcinoma, Ductal, Breast/blood supply
- Carcinoma, Ductal, Breast/secondary
- Carcinoma, Ductal, Breast/therapy
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Proliferation
- Extracellular Matrix/metabolism
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Gene Transfer Techniques
- Genetic Therapy/methods
- Genetic Vectors/genetics
- Humans
- Hylobates
- Immunohistochemistry
- Lung Neoplasms/blood supply
- Lung Neoplasms/secondary
- Lung Neoplasms/therapy
- Matrix Metalloproteinases, Membrane-Associated
- Metalloendopeptidases/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Nude
- Neoplasm Invasiveness/prevention & control
- Neovascularization, Pathologic/genetics
- Neovascularization, Pathologic/therapy
- Retroviridae
- Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinase-2/genetics
- Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinase-2/metabolism
- Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinase-2/therapeutic use
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Kwan Lee
- Laboratory of Retroviruses and Gene Therapy, Indang Institute of Molecular Biology, Inje University, Seoul 100-032, Korea
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376
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Ren JG, Jie C, Talbot C. How PEDF prevents angiogenesis: a hypothesized pathway. Med Hypotheses 2005; 64:74-8. [PMID: 15533615 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2004.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2004] [Accepted: 05/18/2004] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) is a multiple functional protein, coded by the serine proteinase inhibitor, clade F, member 1 (SERPINF1) gene, which has both anti-angiogenic activity and neurotrophic activity at the same time. Its antiangiogenic activity in the mammalian eye is the most potent known at this time. However, the mechanism(s) by which PEDF works in vivo is still uncertain. Some observations suggest that PEDF can simultaneously inhibit the migration and proliferation induced by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and then further inhibits angiogenesis by interacting with specific cell surface receptors, but no such receptor has been reported to date. Here we propose a hypothesis that PEDF exerts its function by binding with intergrins. Intergrin can therefore serve as the receptor of PEDF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Guo Ren
- Department of Pathology, Brighman and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Thorn 530, 75 Francis Street, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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377
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Zucker S, Doshi K, Cao J. Measurement of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMP) in blood and urine: potential clinical applications. Adv Clin Chem 2004; 38:37-85. [PMID: 15521188 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2423(04)38002-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stanley Zucker
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Northport, New York 11768, USA
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378
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Abstract
Extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules and growth factors have a crucial role in the signalling that controls cell behaviour during development. Integrins, which are cell-surface receptors for ECM molecules, and growth factor receptors cooperate with each other to regulate this signalling by several mechanisms. In particular, direct interactions between the integrin and growth factor receptors themselves, which often occur within a single macromolecular complex, amplify signalling by mechanisms that include posttranslational modifications and integrin shape changes that are related to activation. As a result, growth factor concentrations in the physiological range, which are too low to initiate signalling alone, do so in the presence of the ECM, enabling integrins to control the time and space of growth factor signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles ffrench-Constant
- Departments of Pathology and Medical Genetics, and Cambridge Centre for Brain Repair, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK.
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379
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Chun TH, Sabeh F, Ota I, Murphy H, McDonagh KT, Holmbeck K, Birkedal-Hansen H, Allen ED, Weiss SJ. MT1-MMP-dependent neovessel formation within the confines of the three-dimensional extracellular matrix. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 167:757-67. [PMID: 15545316 PMCID: PMC2172577 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.200405001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 250] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
During angiogenesis, endothelial cells initiate a tissue-invasive program within an interstitial matrix comprised largely of type I collagen. Extracellular matrix–degradative enzymes, including the matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) MMP-2 and MMP-9, are thought to play key roles in angiogenesis by binding to docking sites on the cell surface after activation by plasmin- and/or membrane-type (MT) 1-MMP–dependent processes. To identify proteinases critical to neovessel formation, an ex vivo model of angiogenesis has been established wherein tissue explants from gene-targeted mice are embedded within a three-dimensional, type I collagen matrix. Unexpectedly, neither MMP-2, MMP-9, their cognate cell-surface receptors (i.e., β3 integrin and CD44), nor plasminogen are essential for collagenolytic activity, endothelial cell invasion, or neovessel formation. Instead, the membrane-anchored MMP, MT1-MMP, confers endothelial cells with the ability to express invasive and tubulogenic activity in a collagen-rich milieu, in vitro or in vivo, where it plays an indispensable role in driving neovessel formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae-Hwa Chun
- Division of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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380
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Haviernik P, Lahoda C, Bradley HL, Hawley TS, Ramezani A, Hawley RG, Stetler-Stevenson M, Stetler-Stevenson WG, Bunting KD. Tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase-1 overexpression in M1 myeloblasts impairs IL-6-induced differentiation. Oncogene 2004; 23:9212-9. [PMID: 15516987 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1208096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The balance between matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) and tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase (TIMP) is important for extracellular matrix interactions of hematopoietic cells. MMP-independent growth modulating activity for TIMP-1 on B lymphocytes and erythroid progenitors has also been described, but a role for TIMP-1 in myelomonocytic differentiation has not been previously reported. In this study, we demonstrate that TIMP-1 overexpression impairs differentiation of the myeloblastic M1 cell line following interleukin (IL)-6 stimulation. We generated retroviral vectors coexpressing human TIMP-1 and the green fluorescent protein (GFP) and stably transduced murine M1 myeloid cells. TIMP-1 expressing cells showed a large reduction in IL-6-induced macrophage differentiation in vitro that was reversible with a specific monoclonal antibody. The differentiation delay in M1/TIMP-1 cells was also specifically reversible by pharmacologic phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3-K) inhibition. Additionally, overexpression of a TIMP-1/GFP fusion protein also impaired M1 differentiation and this protein was localized to the cell surface, consistent with an autocrine receptor-mediated mechanism. Surprisingly, TIMP-1 transduced cells had a selective advantage for growth in IL-6, indicating that functional effects on growth and differentiation of M1 cells were primarily through an autocrine mechanism. Intrinsic TIMP-1 expression in myeloid leukemia cells might thus impact upon survival or differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Haviernik
- Hematopoiesis Department, American Red Cross, Jerome H Holland Laboratory for the Biomedical Sciences, Rockville, MD 20855, USA
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381
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Piwnica D, Touraine P, Struman I, Tabruyn S, Bolbach G, Clapp C, Martial JA, Kelly PA, Goffin V. Cathepsin D Processes Human Prolactin into Multiple 16K-Like N-Terminal Fragments: Study of Their Antiangiogenic Properties and Physiological Relevance. Mol Endocrinol 2004; 18:2522-42. [PMID: 15192082 DOI: 10.1210/me.2004-0200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
16K prolactin (PRL) is the name given to the 16-kDa N-terminal fragment obtained by proteolysis of rat PRL by tissue extracts or cell lysates, in which cathepsin D was identified as the candidate protease. Based on its antiangiogenic activity, 16K PRL is potentially a physiological inhibitor of tumor growth. Full-length human PRL (hPRL) was reported to be resistant to cathepsin D, suggesting that antiangiogenic 16K PRL may be physiologically irrelevant in humans. In this study, we show that hPRL can be cleaved by cathepsin D or mammary cell extracts under the same conditions as described earlier for rat PRL, although with lower efficiency. In contrast to the rat hormone, hPRL proteolysis generates three 16K-like fragments, which were identified by N-terminal sequencing and mass spectrometry as corresponding to amino acids 1-132 (15 kDa), 1-147 (16.5 kDa), and 1-150 (17 kDa). Biochemical and mutagenetic studies showed that the species-specific digestion pattern is due to subtle differences in primary and tertiary structures of rat and human hormones. The antiangiogenic activity of N-terminal hPRL fragments was assessed by the inhibition of growth factor-induced thymidine uptake and MAPK activation in bovine umbilical endothelial cells. Finally, an N-terminal hPRL fragment comigrating with the proteolytic 17-kDa fragment was identified in human pituitary adenomas, suggesting that the physiological relevance of antiangiogenic N-terminal hPRL fragments needs to be reevaluated in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Piwnica
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) Unit 584, Hormone Targets, Faculté de Médecine Necker, 75730, Paris Cedex 15, France
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382
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Parks WC, Wilson CL, López-Boado YS. Matrix metalloproteinases as modulators of inflammation and innate immunity. Nat Rev Immunol 2004; 4:617-29. [PMID: 15286728 DOI: 10.1038/nri1418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1359] [Impact Index Per Article: 68.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- William C Parks
- University of Washington, Harborview Medical Center, Department of Medicine, Box 359640, 325 9th Avenue, Seattle, Washington 98104, USA.
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383
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Feldman AL, Stetler-Stevenson WG, Costouros NG, Knezevic V, Baibakov G, Alexander HR, Lorang D, Hewitt SM, Seo DW, Miller MS, O'Connor S, Libutti SK. Modulation of tumor-host interactions, angiogenesis, and tumor growth by tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 2 via a novel mechanism. Cancer Res 2004; 64:4481-6. [PMID: 15231657 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-03-2929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Solid tumors depend on angiogenesis for sustained growth. Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 2 (TIMP-2) is an angiogenesis inhibitor initially characterized for its ability to block matrix metalloproteinases; however, recent data suggest that the antiangiogenic action of TIMP-2 may rely on matrix metalloproteinase-independent mechanisms. The aim of this study was to identify molecular pathways involved in the effects of TIMP-2 on processes dependent on tumor-host interactions such as angiogenesis. Using in vitro cell culture and a syngeneic murine tumor model, we compared the effects of TIMP-2 overexpression on gene expression profiles in vitro to those observed in vivo. Validating these findings by real-time quantitative PCR and layered protein scanning, we identified up-regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase 1 as an effector of the antiangiogenic function of TIMP-2. Up-regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase 1 in tumors overexpressing TIMP-2 leads to dephosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and inhibition of tumor growth and angiogenesis. Phosphatase activity appears important in regulating tumor angiogenesis, offering a promising direction for the identification of novel molecular targets and antiangiogenic compounds for the treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew L Feldman
- Metabolism Section, Surgery Branch, Laboratory of Pathology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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384
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Abstract
Alpha3beta1 integrin has been considered to be a mysterious adhesion molecule due to the pleiotropy in its ligand-binding specificity. However, recent studies have identified laminin isoforms as high-affinity ligands for this integrin, and demonstrated that alpha3beta1 integrin plays a number of essential roles in development and differentiation, mainly by mediating the establishment and maintenance of epithelial tissues. Furthermore, alpha3beta1 integrin is also implicated in many other biological phenomena, including cell growth and apoptosis, angiogenesis and neural functions. This integrin receptor forms complexes with various other membrane proteins, such as the transmembrane-4 superfamily proteins (tetraspanins), cytoskeletal proteins and signaling molecules. Recently, lines of evidence have been reported showing that complex formation regulates integrin functions in cell adhesion and migration, signal transduction across cell membranes, and cytoskeletal organization. In addition to these roles in physiological processes, alpha3beta1 integrin performs crucial functions in various pathological processes, especially in wound healing, tumor invasion and metastasis, and infection by pathogenic microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsutomu Tsuji
- Department of Microbiology, Hoshi University School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8501, Japan.
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385
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Dorfleutner A, Hintermann E, Tarui T, Takada Y, Ruf W. Cross-talk of integrin alpha3beta1 and tissue factor in cell migration. Mol Biol Cell 2004; 15:4416-25. [PMID: 15254262 PMCID: PMC519137 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e03-09-0640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In cancer and angiogenesis, coagulation-independent roles of tissue factor (TF) in cell migration are incompletely understood. Immobilized anti-TF extracellular domain antibodies induce cell spreading, but this phenomenon is epitope specific and is not induced by anti-TF 5G9. Spreading on anti-TF is beta1 integrin-dependent, indicating functional interactions of the TF extracellular domain 5G9 epitope (a presumed integrin-binding site) and integrins. Recombinant TF extracellular domain supports adhesion of cells expressing alphavbeta3 or certain beta1 integrin heterodimers (alpha3beta1, alpha4beta1, alpha5beta1, alpha6beta1, alpha9beta1) and adhesion is blocked by specific anti-integrin antibodies or mutations in the integrin ligand-binding site. Although several studies have linked TF to cell migration, we here demonstrate that TF specifically regulates alpha3beta1-dependent migration on laminin 5. Expression of TF suppresses alpha3beta1-dependent migration, but only when the TF cytoplasmic domain is not phosphorylated. Suppression of migration can be reversed by 5G9, presumably by disrupting integrin interaction, or by the protease ligand VIIa, known to induce PAR-2-dependent phosphorylation of TF. In both cases, release of alpha3beta1 inhibition is prevented by mutation of critical phosphorylation sites in the TF cytoplasmic domain. Thus, TF influences integrin-mediated migration through cooperative intra- and extracellular interactions and phosphorylation regulates TF's function in cell motility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Dorfleutner
- Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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386
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The purpose of this review is not to provide an extensive overview of well-established mechanisms of angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis but rather to highlight several recent key studies that constituted a significant conceptual or medical advancement to the field during the past year or so. The authors apologize for their inability, because of space restrictions, to reference all other relevant work of the past or previous years. RECENT FINDINGS In 1993, fewer than 400 studies on angiogenesis were published. During the past year alone, more than 4000 angiogenesis studies were reported, making angiogenesis one of the most rapidly growing fields. Moreover, the first studies on lymphangiogenesis were published only a couple of years ago. A milestone in the field in the past year has been the first successful report that the angiogenesis inhibitor bevacizumab (Avastin), an antibody against vascular endothelial growth factor, prolonged the survival of colorectal and renal cancer patients in phase 3 clinical trials. This remarkable achievement provides great promise and hope for the future development of therapeutic strategies to inhibit or stimulate angiogenesis. SUMMARY The intensive search for antiangiogenic and proangiogenic mechanisms during the past decade is starting to translate into clinical promise. Further discovery of novel pathways and concepts in angiogenesis may lead to the optimization and refinement of current strategies to improve the clinical benefit and therapeutic safety for a vast number of patients with angiogenesis-related disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aernout Luttun
- Center for Transgene Technology and Gene Therapy, Flanders Interuniversity Institute for Biotechnology, Leuven, Belgium
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387
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Ahn SM, Jeong SJ, Kim YS, Sohn Y, Moon A. Retroviral delivery of TIMP-2 inhibits H-ras-induced migration and invasion in MCF10A human breast epithelial cells. Cancer Lett 2004; 207:49-57. [PMID: 15050733 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2003.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2003] [Revised: 11/21/2003] [Accepted: 11/24/2003] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) play important roles in invasion, metastasis and angiogenesis in various cell types. Tissue inhibitor of metalloprotease (TIMP)-2, an endogenous inhibitor of MMP-2, has been shown to inhibit invasion and metastasis. We have previously shown that MMP-2 is responsible for the H-ras-induced invasive and migrative phenotypes in MCF10A human breast epithelial cells. Here, we investigated the effect of TIMP-2 overexpression on migration and invasion in H-ras MCF10A cells. Human TIMP-2 gene was effectively introduced into H-ras MCF10A cells by retrovirus-mediated gene delivery. TIMP-2 overexpression mediated by retrovirus significantly inhibited migration as well as invasion of H-ras MCF10A cells in a dose-dependent manner. We also show the antiangiogenic effect of TIMP-2 gene delivery. Taken together, our study shows that retrovirus-mediated delivery of TIMP-2 efficiently inhibits metastatic progression of ras-transformed human breast epithelial cells, suggesting a potential use of the TIMP-2 gene therapy for the treatment of breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seong-Min Ahn
- College of Pharmacy, Duksung Women's University, Seoul 132-714, South Korea
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388
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Naranatt PP, Krishnan HH, Svojanovsky SR, Bloomer C, Mathur S, Chandran B. Host gene induction and transcriptional reprogramming in Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV/HHV-8)-infected endothelial, fibroblast, and B cells: insights into modulation events early during infection. Cancer Res 2004; 64:72-84. [PMID: 14729610 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-03-2767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV/HHV-8) is etiologically linked to the endothelial tumor Kaposi's sarcoma and with two lymphoproliferatve disorders, primary effusion lymphoma and multicentric Castleman's disease. HHV-8 infects a variety of target cells both in vivo and in vitro, binds to the in vitro target cells via cell surface heparan sulfate, and uses the alpha(3)beta(1) integrin as one of the entry receptors. Within minutes of infection, HHV-8 induced the integrin-mediated signaling pathways and morphological changes in the target cells (S. M. Akula et al., Cell, 108: 407-419, 2002; P. P. Naranatt et al., J. Virol., 77: 1524-1539, 2003). As an initial step toward understanding the role of host genes in HHV-8 infection and pathogenesis, modulation of host cell gene expression immediately after infection was examined. To reflect HHV-8's broad cellular tropism, mRNAs collected at 2 and 4 h after infection of primary human endothelial [human adult dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HMVECd)] and foreskin fibroblast [human foreskin fibroblast (HFF)] cells and human B cell line (BJAB) were analyzed by oligonucleotide array with approximately 22,000 human transcripts. With a criteria of >2-fold gene induction as significant, approximately 1.72% of the genes were differentially expressed, of which, 154 genes were shared by at least two cells and 33 genes shared by all three cells. HHV-8-induced transcriptional profiles in the endothelial and fibroblast cells were closely similar, with substantial differences in the B cells. In contrast to the antiapoptotic regulators induced in HMVECd and HFF cells, proapoptotic regulators were induced in the B cells. A robust increase in the expression of IFN-induced genes suggestive of innate immune response induction was observed in HMVECd and HFF cells, whereas there was a total lack of immunity related protein inductions in B cells. These striking cell type-specific behaviors suggest that HHV-8-induced host cell gene modulation events in B cells may be different compared with the adherent endothelial and fibroblast target cells. Functional clustering of modulated genes identified several host molecules hitherto unknown to HHV-8 infection. These results indicate that early during infection, HHV-8 reprograms the host transcriptional machinery regulating a variety of cellular processes including apoptosis, transcription, cell cycle regulation, signaling, inflammatory response, and angiogenesis, all of which may play important roles in the biology and pathogenesis of HHV-8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pramod P Naranatt
- Department of Microbiology, Molecular Genetics and Immunology, Bioinformatics Core, and Microarray Core, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66160, USA
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389
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Bellon G, Martiny L, Robinet A. Matrix metalloproteinases and matrikines in angiogenesis. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2004; 49:203-20. [PMID: 15036261 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2003.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/30/2003] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Neoangiogenesis, the formation of new blood capillaries from pre-existing vessels, plays an important role in a number of physiological and pathological processes, particularly in tumor growth and metastasis. Extracellular proteolysis by matrix metalloproteinases or other neutral proteinases is an absolute requirement for initiating tumor invasion and angiogenesis. Cryptic segments or pre-existing domains within larger proteins, most of them belonging to the extracellular matrix, can be exposed by conformational changes and/or generated by partial enzymatic hydrolysis. They can positively or negatively regulate important functions of endothelial cells including adhesion, migration, proliferation, cell survival and cell-cell interactions. Such regulations by cryptic segments and proteolytic fragments led to the concept of matricryptins and matrikines, respectively. Matrix metalloproteinases and matrikines in conjunction with other pro- or anti-angiogenic factors might act in concert at any step of the angiogenesis process. A number of matrikines have been identified as potent anti-angiogenic factors, which could provide a new alternative to anti-proteolytic strategies for the development of anti-angiogenic therapeutic molecules aimed at inhibiting tumor growth and metastasis. Some of them are currently being investigated in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georges Bellon
- FRE 2534 CNRS, Faculty of Medicine, IFR-53 "Biomolécules", University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51 rue Cognacq Jay, 51095 Reims Cedex, France.
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390
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Pufe T, Lemke A, Kurz B, Petersen W, Tillmann B, Grodzinsky AJ, Mentlein R. Mechanical overload induces VEGF in cartilage discs via hypoxia-inducible factor. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2004; 164:185-92. [PMID: 14695332 PMCID: PMC1602231 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)63109-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) is not only one of the most important angiogenesis factors, but is involved also in inflammatory processes. Recent studies have shown that VEGF as well as its receptor VEGFR-2 are expressed on osteoarthritic chondrocytes, but not on normal adult chondrocytes. Since mechanical overload is one of the causative factors for osteoarthritis, we studied its effect on VEGF expression on bovine cartilage disks that were compressed once with a strain of 50% and a strain rate of 1/second. Under these conditions, control disks (without pressure) were completely negative for VEGF expression as evidenced by immunocytochemical stainings as well as by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) measurements. In contrast, 4 days after mechanical overload, the cartilage disks were positive in both detection methods. In addition, after mechanical overload chondrocytes were strongly immunopositive for hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha (HIF-1alpha), the limiting protein of the dimeric transcription factor HIF-1 that is known to induce VEGF expression. Furthermore, the matrix metalloproteases MMP-1, MMP-3, and MMP-13, could be easily detected in pressure-treated disks by immunohistochemistry whereas staining in controls was low or undetectable. The tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMP-1 and -2) could be detected in controls but not in samples treated with mechanical overload. To prove that increased MMP or decreased TIMP expression could be a result of the autocrine action of VEGF on chondrocytes, we repeated the experiments in the presence of a specific inhibitor for the kinase activity of the VEGFR-2. This inhibitor was effective to reduce mechanically induced MMP-1, -3, and -13 immunostaining and to restore TIMP expression. Taking together, these findings indicate that VEGF is induced in chondrocytes by mechanical overload and mediates destructive processes in osteoarthritis as an autocrine factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Pufe
- Department of Anatomy, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
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391
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Crocker SJ, Pagenstecher A, Campbell IL. The TIMPs tango with MMPs and more in the central nervous system. J Neurosci Res 2004; 75:1-11. [PMID: 14689443 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.10836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of zinc-dependent extracellular proteases that have been implicated in CNS development and disease. Crucial homeostatic regulation of MMPs is mediated through the expression and actions of the tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). Although the TIMPs are recognized inhibitors of the MMPs, recent studies have revealed that these proteins also can exhibit biological activities that are distinct from their interactions with or inhibition of the MMPs. With our understanding of the roles of the TIMPs in the CNS continuously emerging, this review examines the current state of knowledge regarding the multifarious and novel functions of this family of proteins, with particular attention to their increasing potential in the development, plasticity, and pathology of the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J Crocker
- Department of Neuropharmacology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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392
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Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are enzymes with metal ion-dependent activity that degrade extracellular matrix (ECM) glycoproteins. MMPs play a vital role in various biological processes, such as embryogenesis, tissue remodeling, angiogenesis, and wound healing, and in certain disease processes, for example, metastasis of cancer cells. Following their activation, MMPs are believed to modulate both cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, which in turn regulate cellular differentiation, migration, proliferation, and cell survival. Being involved in pericellular proteolysis, they maintain a gradient of ECM proteins by balancing ECM synthesis and degradation. Such a balance is critical for various mammalian developmental processes during embryonic life and also for the homeostasis of various organs and reparative processes in later life. During the past two decades the role of MMPs in the morphogenesis of various organs, including that of the metanephros, has been investigated extensively. Mammalian nephrogenesis comprises a series of intricate events characterized by a sustained remodeling and turnover of ECM, suggesting a potential role of MMPs in renal development. Conceivably, reciprocal inductive epithelial-mesenchymal interactions that take place at the very commencement of nephrogenesis are modulated by a number of ECM proteins. Their expression, especially at the epithelial-mesenchymal interface, are critical for metanephric development, and such a strategic expression is likely to be modified by a number of different macromolecules that exhibit spatiotemporal and stage-specific expression. Among them the most suitable candidate that could exert such a control would be MMPs. This review addresses the current status of our understanding of the functions and the role of MMPs in renal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian S Haas
- Department of Pathology, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
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393
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394
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Abstract
Tumor angiogenesis affords new targets for cancer therapy, since inhibition of angiogenesis suppresses tumor growth by cutting out the supply of oxygen and nutrients. Anti-angiogenic therapy is thought to be free of the severe side effects that are usually seen with cytotoxic anticancer drugs. Furthermore, anti-angiogenic therapy is thought not only to eradicate primary tumor tissues, but also to suppress tumor metastases. However, it is uncertain whether this therapy causes tumor regression because it inhibits only angiogenic events. Recently, a novel anti-angiogenic therapy called anti-neovascular therapy (ANET) has become notable. This therapy inflicts indirect lethal damage on tumor cells by damaging newly formed blood vessels using anti-cancer drugs targeting the angiogenic vasculature, since cytotoxic anti-cancer drugs cause damage to proliferating neovascular endothelial cells as well as tumor cells. Moreover, neovascular endothelial cells would not be expected to acquire drug-resistance. Traditional chemotherapy, which directly targets tumor cells, has potential problems such as low specificity and severe side effects. On the contrary, in ANET, severe side effects may be suppressed, since traditional anti-cancer agents are delivered to the neovessels by DDS technology. Besides the usage of DDS technology, anti-neovascular scheduling of chemotherapy, or metronomic-dosing chemotherapy, has also been attempted in which anti-cancer drugs are administered on a schedule to damage neovessels. In this review, we describe traditional anti-angiogenic therapy and ANET. We also discuss anti-angiogenic cancer photodynamic therapy (PDT), since PDT is clinically applied to treat age-related macular degeneration (AMD), in which uncontrolled angiogenesis occurs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kosuke Shimizu
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Shizuoka School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Japan
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395
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