Mycobacterium tuberculosis RpfE promotes simultaneous Th1- and Th17-type T-cell immunity via TLR4-dependent maturation of dendritic cells

Novel fusion protein REA induces robust prime protection against tuberculosis in mice

While many novel candidates for tuberculosis vaccines are presently undergoing pre-clinical or clinical trials, none of them have been able to eliminate infection entirely. In this study, we engineered a potent chimeric protein vaccine candidate, Rv2299cD2D3-ESAT-6-Ag85B (REA), which induced Th1 and Th17 responses via dendritic cell maturation. REA-activated macrophages operated the killing mechanisms of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), such as phagosomal maturation and phagolysosome fusion, through the (PI3K)-p38 MAPK-Ca2+-NADPH oxidase pathway. Dendritic cells and macrophages activated by REA elicited synergistic anti-mycobacterial responses. Notably, REA-immunized mice suppressed MTB growth to undetectable levels at 16 weeks post-infection, which was supported by gross and pathologic findings and acid-fast staining of the lung tissues, and maintained antigen-specific multifunctional IFN-γ+IL-2+TNF-α CD4+ T and long-lasting T cells producing cytokines in the tissues. Our findings suggest that REA is an outstanding prime prophylactic vaccine candidate against tuberculosis.

Bioinformatics analysis to design a multi-epitope mRNA vaccine against S. agalactiae exploiting pathogenic proteins

Antibiotic resistance in bacterial pathogen infections is a growing global issue that occurs due to their adaptation to changing environmental conditions. Therefore, producing an efficient vaccine as an alternative approach can improve the immune system, eradicate related pathogens, and overcome this growing problem. Streptococcus agalactiae belongs to group B Streptococcus (GBS). Colonization of GBS during pregnancy is a significant risk factor for infants and young children. S. agalactiae infected population exhibits resistance to beta-lactams, including penicillin and the second-line antibiotics erythromycin and clindamycin. On the other hand, there are currently no commercial vaccines against this pathogen. Vaccination of pregnant women is a highly effective method to protect newborns and infants from S. agalactiae infection, and it has been identified as an urgent demand by the World Health Organization. This study employed various immunoinformatic tools to develop an effective vaccine that could trigger both humoral and cell-mediated immunity and prevent disease. For this purpose, three conserved antigenic proteins of the main pathogenic strains of S. agalactiae were utilized to predict CTL, HTL, and B-cell epitopes for producing an mRNA vaccine against different strains of S. agalactiae. The selected epitopes were fused using proper linkers. The Resuscitation promoting factor E (RpfE) sequence was incorporated in the designed vaccine construct as an adjuvant to boost its immune response. Different physicochemical characteristics of the final designed vaccine, modeling of the three-dimensional structure, molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation, and immunological response simulation were screened following vaccine administration in an in vivo model. Computational immune simulation data identified that IgG1, IgM, INF γ, IL-2, T helper, and B-cell populations increased significantly after vaccination. These findings suggested that the vaccine candidate may provide good protection against S. agalactiae infection. However, experimental and animal model studies are required for additional validation and implementation in human vaccination programs.

The implication of dendritic cells in lung diseases: Immunological role of toll-like receptor 4

The immune responses play a profound role in the progression of lung lesions in both infectious and non-infectious diseases. Dendritic cells, as the "frontline" immune cells responsible for antigen presentation, set up a bridge between innate and adaptive immunity in the course of these diseases. Among the receptors equipped in dendritic cells, Toll-like receptors are a group of specialized receptors as one type of pattern recognition receptors, capable of sensing environmental signals including invading pathogens and self-antigens. Toll-like receptor 4, a pivotal member of the Toll-like receptor family, was formerly recognized as a receptor sensitive to the outer membrane component lipopolysaccharide derived from Gram-negative bacteria, triggering the subsequent response. Moreover, its other essential roles in immune responses have drawn significant attention in the past decade. A better understanding of the implication of Toll-like receptor 4 in dendritic cells could contribute to the management of pulmonary diseases including pneumonia, pulmonary tuberculosis, asthma, acute lung injury, and lung cancer.

Advancing one health vaccination: In silico design and evaluation of a multi-epitope subunit vaccine against Nipah virus for cross-species immunization using immunoinformatics and molecular modeling

The resurgence of the Nipah virus (NiV) in 2023 has raised concerns for another potentially severe pandemic, given its history of high mortality from previous outbreaks. Unfortunately, no therapeutics and vaccines have been available for the virus. This study used immunoinformatics and molecular modeling to design and evaluate a multi-epitope subunit vaccine targeting NiV. The designed vaccine construct aims to stimulate immune responses in humans and two other intermediate animal hosts of the virus-swine and equine. Using several epitope prediction tools, ten peptides that induced B-lymphocyte responses, 17 peptides that induced cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) responses, and 12 peptides that induced helper T-lymphocyte (HTL) responses were mapped from nine NiV protein sequences. However, the CTL and HTL-inducing peptides were reduced to ten and eight, respectively, following molecular docking and dynamics. These screened peptides exhibited stability with 30 common major histocompatibility complex (MHC) receptors found in humans, swine, and equine. All peptides were linked using peptide linkers to form the multi-epitope construct and various adjuvants were tested to enhance its immunogenicity. The vaccine construct with resuscitation-promoting factor E (RpfE) adjuvant was selected as the final design based on its favorable physicochemical properties and superior immune response profile. Molecular docking was used to visualize the interaction of the vaccine to toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), while molecular dynamics confirmed the structural stability of this interaction. Physicochemical property evaluation and computational simulations showed that the designed vaccine construct exhibited favorable properties and elicited higher antibody titers than the six multi-epitope NiV vaccine designs available in the literature. Further in vivo and in vitro experiments are necessary to validate the immunogenicity conferred by the designed vaccine construct and its epitope components. This study demonstrates the capability of computational methodologies in rational vaccine design and highlights the potential of cross-species vaccination strategies for mitigating potential NiV threats.

The adjuvant BcfA activates antigen presenting cells through TLR4 and supports TFH and TH1 while attenuating TH2 gene programming

Introduction

Adjuvants added to subunit vaccines augment antigen-specific immune responses. One mechanism of adjuvant action is activation of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) on innate immune cells. Bordetella colonization factor A (BcfA); an outer membrane protein with adjuvant function, activates TH1/TH17-polarized immune responses to protein antigens from Bordetella pertussis and SARS CoV-2. Unlike other adjuvants, BcfA does not elicit a TH2 response.

Methods

To understand the mechanism of BcfA-driven TH1/TH17 vs. TH2 activation, we screened PRRs to identify pathways activated by BcfA. We then tested the role of this receptor in the BcfA-mediated activation of bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) using mice with germline deletion of TLR4 to quantify upregulation of costimulatory molecule expression and cytokine production in vitro and in vivo. Activity was also tested on human PBMCs.

Results

PRR screening showed that BcfA activates antigen presenting cells through murine TLR4. BcfA-treated WT BMDCs upregulated expression of the costimulatory molecules CD40, CD80, and CD86 and produced IL-6, IL-12/23 p40, and TNF-α while TLR4 KO BMDCs were not activated. Furthermore, human PBMCs stimulated with BcfA produced IL-6. BcfA-stimulated murine BMDCs also exhibited increased uptake of the antigen DQ-OVA, supporting a role for BcfA in improving antigen presentation to T cells. BcfA further activated APCs in murine lungs. Using an in vitro TH cell polarization system, we found that BcfA-stimulated BMDC supernatant supported TFH and TH1 while suppressing TH2 gene programming.

Conclusions

Overall, these data provide mechanistic understanding of how this novel adjuvant activates immune responses.

Immunogenicity and protective efficacy of RipA, a peptidoglycan hydrolase, against Mycobacterium tuberculosis Beijing outbreak strains

Given that individuals with latent tuberculosis (TB) infection represent the major reservoir of TB infection, latency-associated antigens may be promising options for development of improved multi-antigenic TB subunit vaccine. Thus, we selected RipA, a peptidoglycan hydrolase required for efficient cell division of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), as vaccine candidate. We found that RipA elicited activation of dendritic cells (DCs) by induction of phenotypic maturation, increased production of inflammatory cytokines, and prompt stimulation of MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways. In addition, RipA-treated DCs promoted Th1-polarzied immune responses of naïve CD4+ T cells with increased proliferation and activated T cells from Mtb-infected mice, which conferred enhanced control of mycobacterial growth inside macrophages. Moreover, mice immunized with RipA formulated in GLA-SE adjuvant displayed remarkable generation of Ag-specific polyfunctional CD4+ T cells in both lung and spleen. Following an either conventional or ultra-low dose aerosol challenges with 2 Mtb Beijing clinical strains, RipA/GLA-SE-immunization was not inferior to BCG by mediating protection as single Ag. Collectively, our findings highlighted that RipA could be a novel candidate as a component of multi-antigenic TB subunit vaccines.

BCG-booster vaccination with HSP90-ESAT-6-HspX-RipA multivalent subunit vaccine confers durable protection against hypervirulent Mtb in mice

The quest for effective and enhanced multiantigenic tuberculosis (TB) subunit vaccine necessitates the induction of a protective pathogen-specific immune response while circumventing detrimental inflammation within the lung milieu. In line with this goal, we engineered a modified iteration of the quadrivalent vaccine, namely HSP90-ESAT-6-HspX-RipA (HEHR), which was coupled with the TLR4 adjuvant, CIA09A. The ensuing formulation was subjected to comprehensive assessment to gauge its protective efficacy against the hypervirulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) Haarlem clinical strain M2, following a BCG-prime boost regimen. Regardless of vaccination route, both intramuscular and subcutaneous administration with the HEHR vaccine exhibited remarkable protective efficacy in significantly reducing the Mtb bacterial burden and pulmonary inflammation. This underscores its notably superior protective potential compared to the BCG vaccine alone or a former prototype, the HSP90-E6 subunit vaccine. In addition, this superior protective efficacy was confirmed when testing a tag-free version of the HEHR vaccine. Furthermore, the protective immune determinant, represented by durable antigen-specific CD4+IFN-γ+IL-17A+ T-cells expressing a CXCR3+KLRG1- cell surface phenotype in the lung, was robustly induced in HEHR-boosted mice at 12 weeks post-challenge. Collectively, our data suggest that the BCG-prime HEHR boost vaccine regimen conferred improved and long-term protection against hypervirulent Mtb strain with robust antigen-specific Th1/Th17 responses.

Immunoinformatics-guided approach for designing a pan-proteome multi-epitope subunit vaccine against African swine fever virus

Despite being identified over a hundred years ago, there is still no commercially available vaccine for the highly contagious and deadly African swine fever virus (ASFV). This study used immunoinformatics for the rapid and inexpensive designing of a safe and effective multi-epitope subunit vaccine for ASFV. A total of 18,858 proteins from 100 well-annotated ASFV proteomes were screened using various computational tools to identify potential epitopes, or peptides capable of triggering an immune response in swine. Proteins from genotypes I and II were prioritized for their involvement in the recent global ASFV outbreaks. The screened epitopes exhibited promising qualities that positioned them as effective components of the ASFV vaccine. They demonstrated antigenicity, immunogenicity, and cytokine-inducing properties indicating their ability to induce potent immune responses. They have strong binding affinities to multiple swine allele receptors suggesting a high likelihood of yielding more amplified responses. Moreover, they were non-allergenic and non-toxic, a crucial prerequisite for ensuring safety and minimizing any potential adverse effects when the vaccine is processed within the host. Integrated with an immunogenic 50S ribosomal protein adjuvant and linkers, the epitopes formed a 364-amino acid multi-epitope subunit vaccine. The ASFV vaccine construct exhibited notable immunogenicity in immune simulation and molecular docking analyses, and stable profiles in secondary and tertiary structure assessments. Moreover, this study designed an optimized codon for efficient translation of the ASFV vaccine construct into the Escherichia coli K-12 expression system using the pET28a(+) vector. Overall, both sequence and structural evaluations suggested the potential of the ASFV vaccine construct as a candidate for controlling and eradicating outbreaks caused by the pathogen.

Development and immunological evaluation of an mRNA-based vaccine targeting Naegleria fowleri for the treatment of primary amoebic meningoencephalitis

More than 95% of patients fall victim to primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), a fatal disease attacking the central nervous system. Naegleria fowleri, a brain-eating microorganism, is PAM's most well-known pathogenic ameboflagellate. Despite the use of antibiotics, the fatality rate continues to rise as no clinical trials have been conducted against this disease. To address this, we mined the UniProt database for pathogenic proteins and selected assumed epitopes to create an mRNA-based vaccine. We identified thirty B-cell and T-cell epitopes for the vaccine candidate. These epitopes, secretion boosters, subcellular trafficking structures, and linkers were used to construct the vaccine candidate. Through predictive modeling and confirmation via the Ramachandran plot (with a quality factor of 92.22), we assessed secondary and 3D structures. The adjuvant RpfE was incorporated to enhance the vaccine construct's immunogenicity (GRAVY index: 0.394, instability index: 38.99, antigenicity: 0.8). The theoretical model of immunological simulations indicated favorable responses from both innate and adaptive immune cells, with memory cells expected to remain active for up to 350 days post-vaccination, while the antigen was eliminated from the body within 24 h. Notably, strong interactions were observed between the vaccine construct and TLR-4 (- 11.9 kcal/mol) and TLR-3 (- 18.2 kcal/mol).

Engineering and design of promising T-cell-based multi-epitope vaccine candidates against leishmaniasis

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is a very common parasitic infection in subtropical areas worldwide. Throughout decades, there have been challenges in vaccine design and vaccination against CL. The present study introduced novel T-cell-based vaccine candidates containing IFN-γ Inducing epitopic fragments from Leishmania major (L. major) glycoprotein 46 (gp46), cathepsin L-like and B-like proteases, histone H2A, glucose-regulated protein 78 (grp78) and stress-inducible protein 1 (STI-1). For this aim, top-ranked human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-specific, IFN-γ Inducing, antigenic, CD4+ and CD8+ binders were highlighted. Four vaccine candidates were generated using different spacers (AAY, GPGPG, GDGDG) and adjuvants (RS-09 peptide, human IFN-γ, a combination of both, Mycobacterium tuberculosis Resuscitation promoting factor E (RpfE)). Based on the immune simulation profile, those with RS-09 peptide (Leish-App) and RpfE (Leish-Rpf) elicited robust immune responses and their tertiary structure were further refined. Also, molecular docking of the selected vaccine models with the human toll-like receptor 4 showed proper interactions, particularly for Leish-App, for which molecular dynamics simulations showed a stable connection with TLR-4. Upon codon optimization, both models were finally ligated into the pET28a( +) vector. In conclusion, two potent multi-epitope vaccine candidates were designed against CL and evaluated using comprehensive in silico methods, while further wet experiments are, also, recommended.

Harnessing host-pathogen interactions for innovative drug discovery and host-directed therapeutics to tackle tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is a highly contagious bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), which has been ranked as the second leading cause of death worldwide from a single infectious agent. As an intracellular pathogen, Mtb has well adapted to the phagocytic host microenvironment, influencing diverse host processes such as gene expression, trafficking, metabolism, and signaling pathways of the host to its advantage. These responses are the result of dynamic interactions of the bacteria with the host cell signaling pathways, whereby the bacteria attenuate the host cellular processes for their survival. Specific host genes and the mechanisms involved in the entry and subsequent stabilization of M. tuberculosis intracellularly have been identified in various genetic and chemical screens recently. The present understanding of the co-evolution of Mtb and macrophage system presented us the new possibilities for exploring host-directed therapeutics (HDT). Here, we discuss the host-pathogen interaction for Mtb, including the pathways adapted by Mtb to escape immunity. The review sheds light on different host-directed therapies (HDTs) such as repurposed drugs and vitamins, along with their targets such as granuloma, autophagy, extracellular matrix, lipids, and cytokines, among others. The article also examines the available clinical data on these drug molecules. In conclusion, the review presents a perspective on the current knowledge in the field of HDTs and the need for additional research to overcome the challenges associated HDTs.

Role of pattern recognition receptors in sensing Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Mycobacterium tuberculosis is one of the major invasive intracellular pathogens causing most deaths by a single infectious agent. The interaction between host immune cells and this pathogen is the focal point of the disease, Tuberculosis. Host immune cells not only mount the protective action against this pathogen but also serve as the primary niche for growth. Thus, recognition of this pathogen by host immune cells and following signaling cascades are key dictators of the disease state. Immune cells, mainly belonging to myeloid cell lineage, recognize a wide variety of Mycobacterium tuberculosis ligands ranging from carbohydrate and lipids to proteins to nucleic acids by different membrane-bound and soluble pattern recognition receptors. Simultaneous interaction between different host receptors and pathogen ligands leads to immune-inflammatory response as well as contributes to virulence. This review summarizes the contribution of pattern recognition receptors of host immune cells in recognizing Mycobacterium tuberculosis and subsequent initiation of signaling pathways to provide the molecular insight of the specific Mtb ligands interacting with specific PRR, key adaptor molecules of the downstream signaling pathways and the resultant effector functions which will aid in identifying novel drug targets, and developing novel drugs and adjuvants.

Multi-epitope vaccine against drug-resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: a proteome-wide subtraction and immunoinformatics approach

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is the causative agent of tuberculosis, one of the most deadly infections in humans. The emergence of multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant Mtb strains presents a global challenge. Mtb has shown resistance to many frontline antibiotics, including rifampicin, kanamycin, isoniazid, and capreomycin. The only licensed vaccine, Bacille Calmette-Guerin, does not efficiently protect against adult pulmonary tuberculosis. Therefore, it is urgently necessary to develop new vaccines to prevent infections caused by these strains. We used a subtractive proteomics approach on 23 virulent Mtb strains and identified a conserved membrane protein (MmpL4, NP_214964.1) as both a potential drug target and vaccine candidate. MmpL4 is a non-homologous essential protein in the host and is involved in the pathogen-specific pathway. Furthermore, MmpL4 shows no homology with anti-targets and has limited homology to human gut microflora, potentially reducing the likelihood of adverse effects and cross-reactivity if therapeutics specific to this protein are developed. Subsequently, we constructed a highly soluble, safe, antigenic, and stable multi-subunit vaccine from the MmpL4 protein using immunoinformatics. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed the stability of the vaccine-bound Toll-like receptor-4 complex on a nanosecond scale, and immune simulations indicated strong primary and secondary immune responses in the host. Therefore, our study identifies a new target that could expedite the design of effective therapeutics, and the designed vaccine should be validated. Future directions include an extensive molecular interaction analysis, in silico cloning, wet-lab experiments, and evaluation and comparison of the designed candidate as both a DNA vaccine and protein vaccine.

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid-Derived Lipid Mediators as Potential Biomarkers for Leprosy Among Individuals with Asymptomatic Mycobacterium leprae Infection

Intra-household contacts (HCs) of leprosy patients are at increased risk of infection by Mycobacterium leprae and about ∼5-10% will develop active disease. A prognostic tool to identify HCs with the greatest risk of progressing to active disease would enhance early leprosy diagnosis and optimize prophylactic intervention. Previous metabolomics studies suggest that host lipid mediators derived from ω-3 and ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are potential biomarkers for leprosy. In this study, we investigated retrospective sera of leprosy HCs by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and enzyme-linked immunoassay to determine whether circulating levels of ω-3 and ω-6 PUFA metabolites were altered in HCs that developed leprosy (HCDL) in comparison to those that did not (HCNDL). Sera were collected from HCs at the time of index case diagnosis and before clinical signs/symptoms of leprosy. Our findings showed that HCDL sera exhibited a distinct metabolic profile in comparison to HCDNL. Specifically, arachidonic acid, leukotriene B4, 11-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid, prostaglandin D2, and lipoxin A4 were elevated in HCDL. In contrast, prostaglandin E2 levels were reduced in HCDL. The ω-3 PUFAs, docosahexaenoic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, and the docosahexaenoic acid-derived resolvin D1 and maresin-1 were also elevated in HCDL individuals compared to HCNDL. Principal component analyses provided further evidence that lipid mediators could serve as an early biomarker for progression to active leprosy. A logistic model identified resolvin D1 and D2, and prostaglandin D2 as having the greatest potential for early detection of HCs that will manifest leprosy.

Antibacterial peptides-loaded bioactive materials for the treatment of bone infection

Bacterial bone infection in open fractures is an urgent problem to solve in orthopedics. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), as a part of innate immune defense, have good biocompatibility. Their antibacterial mechanism and therapeutic application against bacteria have been widely studied. Compared with traditional antibiotics, AMPs do not easily cause bacterial resistance and can be a reliable substitute for antibiotics in the future. Therefore, various physical and chemical strategies have been developed for the combined application of AMPs and bioactive materials to infected sites, which are conducive to maintaining the local stability of AMPs, reducing many complications, and facilitating bone infection resolution. This review explored the molecular structure, function, and direct and indirect antibacterial mechanisms of AMPs, introduced two important AMPs (LL-37 and β-defensins) in bone tissues, and reviewed advanced AMP loading strategies and different bioactive materials. Finally, the latest progress and future development of AMPs-loaded bioactive materials for the promotion of bone infection repair were discussed. This study provided a theoretical basis and application strategy for the treatment of bone infection with AMP-loaded bioactive materials.

A Structural View at Vaccine Development against M. tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is still the leading global cause of death from an infectious bacterial agent. Limiting tuberculosis epidemic spread is therefore an urgent global public health priority. As stated by the WHO, to stop the spread of the disease we need a new vaccine, with better coverage than the current Mycobacterium bovis BCG vaccine. This vaccine was first used in 1921 and, since then, there are still no new licensed tuberculosis vaccines. However, there is extremely active research in the field, with a steep acceleration in the past decades, due to the advance of technologies and more rational vaccine design strategies. This review aims to gather latest updates in vaccine development in the various clinical phases and to underline the contribution of Structural Vaccinology (SV) to the development of safer and effective antigens. In particular, SV and the development of vaccine adjuvants is making the use of subunit vaccines, which are the safest albeit the less antigenic ones, an achievable goal. Indeed, subunit vaccines overcome safety concerns but need to be rationally re-engineered to enhance their immunostimulating effects. The larger availability of antigen structural information as well as a better understanding of the complex host immune response to TB infection is a strong premise for a further acceleration of TB vaccine development.

Predictors for pulmonary artery involvement in Takayasu arteritis and its cluster analysis

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the clinical characteristics and the site of pulmonary involvement in Takayasu arteritis (TAK) patients with pulmonary artery involvement (PAI).

METHODS

We retrospectively investigated data of 141 TAK patients. The clinical and image data of the patients with and without PAI were analyzed and compared. The patients were followed up. The major outcome was all-cause mortality. The minor outcome was exacerbation or new occurrence of PAI, which leads to disease progression events.

RESULTS

For the 141 TAK patients considered, PAI was detected in 65 (46.1%) patients. TAK patients with PAI had a significantly higher cumulative incidence of events than those without PAI (P < 0.001). The frequencies of the following were significantly higher in TAK with PAI than those in TAK without PAI: disease duration [median 96 months (IQR: 24-174) vs. median 42 months (IQR: 6-120); P = 0.012], hemoptysis (10.8% vs. 1.32%; P = 0.040), oppression in the chest (40.0% vs. 21.1%; P = 0.014), fever (23.1% vs. 9.21%; P = 0.024), Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection (21.5% vs. 6.57%; P = 0.010), pulmonary hypertension (PAH) (21.5% vs. 2.6%; P < 0.001), pulmonary infarction (41.5% vs. 0%; P < 0.001), and hypoxemia (18.5% vs. 1.3%; P < 0.001). Multivariate logistic regression analysis of data of TAK patients with symptom presentation showed that oppression in the chest (OR: 2.304; 95% CI: 1.024-5.183; P = 0.044) and thoracic aorta involvement (OR: 2.819; 95% CI: 1.165-6.833; P = 0.022) were associated with PAI. The cluster analysis performed for data of TAK patients with PAI revealed that the cluster characterized as the upper lobe of the right lung (Cluster1) had the worst prognosis.

CONCLUSION

In TAK, PAI is associated with thoracic aorta involvement. In TAK patients with PAI, the involvement of the upper lobe of the right lung is characterized with the worst prognosis.

Identification of potential candidate vaccines against Mycobacterium ulcerans based on the major facilitator superfamily transporter protein

Buruli ulcer is a neglected tropical disease that is characterized by non-fatal lesion development. The causative agent is Mycobacterium ulcerans (M. ulcerans). There are no known vectors or transmission methods, preventing the development of control methods. There are effective diagnostic techniques and treatment routines; however, several socioeconomic factors may limit patients' abilities to receive these treatments. The Bacillus Calmette-Guérin vaccine developed against tuberculosis has shown limited efficacy, and no conventionally designed vaccines have passed clinical trials. This study aimed to generate a multi-epitope vaccine against M. ulcerans from the major facilitator superfamily transporter protein using an immunoinformatics approach. Twelve M. ulcerans genome assemblies were analyzed, resulting in the identification of 11 CD8+ and 7 CD4+ T-cell epitopes and 2 B-cell epitopes. These conserved epitopes were computationally predicted to be antigenic, immunogenic, non-allergenic, and non-toxic. The CD4+ T-cell epitopes were capable of inducing interferon-gamma and interleukin-4. They successfully bound to their respective human leukocyte antigens alleles in in silico docking studies. The expected global population coverage of the T-cell epitopes and their restricted human leukocyte antigens alleles was 99.90%. The population coverage of endemic regions ranged from 99.99% (Papua New Guinea) to 21.81% (Liberia). Two vaccine constructs were generated using the Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 agonists, LprG and RpfE, respectively. Both constructs were antigenic, non-allergenic, non-toxic, thermostable, basic, and hydrophilic. The DNA sequences of the vaccine constructs underwent optimization and were successfully in-silico cloned with the pET-28a(+) plasmid. The vaccine constructs were successfully docked to their respective toll-like receptors. Molecular dynamics simulations were carried out to analyze the binding interactions within the complex. The generated binding energies indicate the stability of both complexes. The constructs generated in this study display severable favorable properties, with construct one displaying a greater range of favorable properties. However, further analysis and laboratory validation are required.

Rational design of a novel multi-epitope peptide-based vaccine against Onchocerca volvulus using transmembrane proteins

Almost a decade ago, it was recognized that the global elimination of onchocerciasis by 2030 will not be feasible without, at least, an effective prophylactic and/or therapeutic vaccine to complement chemotherapy and vector control strategies. Recent advances in computational immunology (immunoinformatics) have seen the design of novel multi-epitope onchocerciasis vaccine candidates which are however yet to be evaluated in clinical settings. Still, continued research to increase the pool of vaccine candidates, and therefore the chance of success in a clinical trial remains imperative. Here, we designed a multi-epitope vaccine candidate by assembling peptides from 14 O. volvulus (Ov) proteins using an immunoinformatics approach. An initial 126 Ov proteins, retrieved from the Wormbase database, and at least 90% similar to orthologs in related nematode species of economic importance, were screened for localization, presence of transmembrane domain, and antigenicity using different web servers. From the 14 proteins retained after the screening, 26 MHC-1 and MHC-II (T-cell) epitopes, and linear B-lymphocytes epitopes were predicted and merged using suitable linkers. The Mycobacterium tuberculosis Resuscitation-promoting factor E (RPFE_MYCTU), which is an agonist of TLR4, was then added to the N-terminal of the vaccine candidate as a built-in adjuvant. Immune simulation analyses predicted strong B-cell and IFN-γ based immune responses which are necessary for protection against O. volvulus infection. Protein-protein docking and molecular dynamic simulation predicted stable interactions between the 3D structure of the vaccine candidate and human TLR4. These results show that the designed vaccine candidate has the potential to stimulate both humoral and cellular immune responses and should therefore be subject to further laboratory investigation.

Protein-Based Adjuvants for Vaccines as Immunomodulators of the Innate and Adaptive Immune Response: Current Knowledge, Challenges, and Future Opportunities

New-generation vaccines, formulated with subunits or nucleic acids, are less immunogenic than classical vaccines formulated with live-attenuated or inactivated pathogens. This difference has led to an intensified search for additional potent vaccine adjuvants that meet safety and efficacy criteria and confer long-term protection. This review provides an overview of protein-based adjuvants (PBAs) obtained from different organisms, including bacteria, mollusks, plants, and humans. Notably, despite structural differences, all PBAs show significant immunostimulatory properties, eliciting B-cell- and T-cell-mediated immune responses to administered antigens, providing advantages over many currently adopted adjuvant approaches. Furthermore, PBAs are natural biocompatible and biodegradable substances that induce minimal reactogenicity and toxicity and interact with innate immune receptors, enhancing their endocytosis and modulating subsequent adaptive immune responses. We propose that PBAs can contribute to the development of vaccines against complex pathogens, including intracellular pathogens such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, those with complex life cycles such as Plasmodium falciparum, those that induce host immune dysfunction such as HIV, those that target immunocompromised individuals such as fungi, those with a latent disease phase such as Herpes, those that are antigenically variable such as SARS-CoV-2 and those that undergo continuous evolution, to reduce the likelihood of outbreaks.

Pathological and protective roles of dendritic cells in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection: Interaction between host immune responses and pathogen evasion

Dendritic cells (DCs) are principal defense components that play multifactorial roles in translating innate immune responses to adaptive immunity in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infections. The heterogeneous nature of DC subsets follows their altered functions by interacting with other immune cells, Mtb, and its products, enhancing host defense mechanisms or facilitating pathogen evasion. Thus, a better understanding of the immune responses initiated, promoted, and amplified or inhibited by DCs in Mtb infection is an essential step in developing anti-tuberculosis (TB) control measures, such as host-directed adjunctive therapy and anti-TB vaccines. This review summarizes the recent advances in salient DC subsets, including their phenotypic classification, cytokine profiles, functional alterations according to disease stages and environments, and consequent TB outcomes. A comprehensive overview of the role of DCs from various perspectives enables a deeper understanding of TB pathogenesis and could be useful in developing DC-based vaccines and immunotherapies.

A structural vaccinology approach for in silico designing of a potential self-assembled nanovaccine against Leishmania infantum

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) remains a major public health problem across 98 countries. To date, VL has no effective drug. Vaccines, as the most successful breakthroughs in medicine, can promise an effective strategy to fight various diseases. More recently, self-assembled peptide nanoparticles (SAPNs) have attracted considerable attention in the field of vaccine design due to their multivalency. In this study, a SAPN nanovaccine was designed using various immunoinformatics methods. High-ranked epitopes were chosen from a number of antigens, including Leishmania-specific hypothetical protein (LiHy), Leishmania-specific antigenic protein (LSAP), histone H1, and sterol 24-c-methyltransferase (SMT). To facilitate the oligomerization process, pentameric and trimeric coiled-coil domains were employed. RpfE, a resuscitation-promoting factor of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, was added to induce strong immune responses. Pentameric and trimeric coiled-coil domains as well as eight immunodominant epitopes from antigenic proteins of Leishmania infantum, the causative agent of VL, were joined together using appropriate linkers. High-quality 3D structure of monomeric and oligomeric structures followed by refinement and validation processes demonstrated that the designed nanovaccine could be considered to be a promising medication against the parasite; however, experimental validation is essential to confirm the effectiveness of the nanovaccine.

Novel In Silico mRNA vaccine design exploiting proteins of M. tuberculosis that modulates host immune responses by inducing epigenetic modifications

Tuberculosis is an airborne infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. BCG is the only approved vaccine. However, it has limited global efficacy. Pathogens could affect the transcription of host genes, especially the ones related to the immune system, by inducing epigenetic modifications. Many proteins of M. tuberculosis were found to affect the host's epigenome. Nine proteins were exploited in this study to predict epitopes to develop an mRNA vaccine against tuberculosis. Many immunoinformatics tools were employed to construct this vaccine to elicit cellular and humoral immunity. We performed molecular docking between selected epitopes and their corresponding MHC alleles. Thirty epitopes, an adjuvant TLR4 agonist RpfE, constructs for subcellular trafficking, secretion booster, and specific linkers were combined to develop the vaccine. This proposed construct was tested to cover 99.38% of the population. Moreover, it was tested to be effective and safe. An in silico immune simulation of the vaccine was also performed to validate our hypothesis. It also underwent codon optimization to ensure mRNA's efficient translation once it reaches the cytosol of a human host. Furthermore, secondary and tertiary structures of the vaccine peptide were predicted and docked against TLR-4 and TLR-3.Molecular dynamics simulation was performed to validate the stability of the binding complex. It was found that this proposed construction can be a promising vaccine against tuberculosis. Hence, our proposed construct is ready for wet-lab experiments to approve its efficacy.

Designing a therapeutic and prophylactic candidate vaccine against human papillomavirus through vaccinomics approaches

OBJECTIVE

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the main cause of cervical cancer, the 4^th prominent cause of death in women globally. Previous vaccine development projects have led to several approved prophylactic vaccines available commercially, all of which are made using major capsid-based (L1). Administration of minor capsid protein (L2) gave rise to the second generation investigational prophylactic HPV vaccines, none of which are approved yet due to low immunogenicity provided by the L2 capsid protein. On the other hand, post-translation proteins, E6 and E7, have been utilized to develop experimental therapeutic vaccines. Here, in silico designing of a therapeutic and prophylactic vaccine against HPV16 is performed.

METHODS

In this study, several immunoinformatic and computational tools were administered to identify and design a vaccine construct with dual prophylactic and therapeutic applications consisting of several epitope regions on L2, E6, and E7 proteins of HPV16.

RESULTS

Immunodominant epitope regions (aa 12-23 and 78-78 of L2 protein, aa 11-27 of E6 protein, and aa 70-89 of E7 protein) were employed, which offered adequate immunogenicity to induce immune responses. Resuscitation-promoting factors (RpfB and RpfE) of Mycobacterium tuberculosis were integrated in two separate constructs as TLR4 agonists to act as vaccine adjuvants. Following physiochemical and structural evaluations carried out by various bioinformatics tools, the designed constructs were modeled and validated, resulting in two 3D structures. Molecular docking and molecular dynamic simulations suggested stable ligand-receptor interactions between the designed construct and TLR4.

CONCLUSION

Ultimately, this study led to suggest the designed construct as a potential vaccine candidate with both prophylactic and therapeutic applications against HPV by promoting Th1, Th2, CTL, and B cell immune responses, which should be further confirmed in experimental studies.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis RpfE-Induced Prostaglandin E2 in Dendritic Cells Induces Th1/Th17 Cell Differentiation

Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is an important biological mediator involved in the defense against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection. Currently, there are no reports on the mycobacterial components that regulate PGE2 production. Previously, we have reported that RpfE-treated dendritic cells (DCs) effectively expanded the Th1 and Th17 cell responses simultaneously; however, the mechanism underlying Th1 and Th17 cell differentiation is unclear. Here, we show that PGE2 produced by RpfE-activated DCs via the MAPK and cyclooxygenase 2 signaling pathways induces Th1 and Th17 cell responses mainly via the EP4 receptor. Furthermore, mice administered intranasally with PGE2 displayed RpfE-induced antigen-specific Th1 and Th17 responses with a significant reduction in bacterial load in the lungs. Furthermore, the addition of optimal PGE2 amount to IL-2-IL-6-IL-23p19-IL-1β was essential for promoting differentiation into Th1/Th17 cells with strong bactericidal activity. These results suggest that RpfE-matured DCs produce PGE2 that induces Th1 and Th17 cell differentiation with potent anti-mycobacterial activity.

An immunoinformatics approach to design a multi-epitope vaccine against Mycobacterium tuberculosis exploiting secreted exosome proteins

Tuberculosis is one the oldest known affliction of mankind caused by the pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Till date, there is no absolute single treatment available to deal with the pathogen, which has acquired a great potential to develop drug resistance rapidly. BCG is the only anti-tuberculosis vaccine available till date which displays limited global efficacy due to genetic variation and concurrent pathogen infections. Extracellular vesicles or exosomes vesicle (EVs) lie at the frontier cellular talk between pathogen and the host, and therefore play a significant role in establishing pathogenesis. In the present study, an in-silico approach has been adopted to construct a multi-epitope vaccine from selected immunogenic EVs proteins to elicit a cellular as well as a humoral immune response. Our designed vaccine has wide population coverage and can effectively compensate for the genetic variation among different populations. For maximum efficacy and minimum adverse effects possibilities the antigenic, non-allergenic and non-toxic B-cell, HTL and CTL epitopes from experimentally proven EVs proteins were selected for the vaccine construct. TLR4 agonist RpfE served as an adjuvant for the vaccine construct. The vaccine construct structure was modelled, refined and docked on TLR4 immune receptor. The designed vaccine construct displayed safe usage and exhibits a high probability to elicit the critical immune regulators, like B cells, T-cells and memory cells as displayed by the in-silico immunization assays. Therefore, it can be further corroborated using in vitro and in vivo assays to fulfil the global need for a more efficacious anti-tuberculosis vaccine.

IgE-activated mast cells enhance TLR4-mediated antigen-specific CD4+ T cell responses

Mast cells are potent mediators of allergy and asthma, yet their role in regulating adaptive immunity remains ambiguous. On the surface of mast cells, the crosslinking of IgE bound to FcεRI by a specific antigen recognized by that IgE triggers the release of immune mediators such as histamine and cytokines capable of activating other immune cells; however, little is known about the mast cell contribution to the induction of endogenous, antigen-specific CD4⁺ T cells. Here we examined the effects of specific mast cell activation in vivo on the initiation of an antigen-specific CD4⁺ T cell response. While CD4⁺ T cells were not enhanced by FcεRI stimulation alone, their activation was synergistically enhanced when FcεRI activation was combined with TLR4 stimulation. This enhanced activation was dependent on global TLR4 stimulation but appeared to be less dependent on mast cell expressed TLR4. This study provides important new evidence to support the role of mast cells as mediators of the antigen-specific adaptive immune response.

Identification and in silico functional prediction of lineage-specific SNPs distributed in DosR-related proteins and resuscitation-promoting factor proteins of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

One-third of the world population is infected by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which may persist in the latent or dormant state. Bacteria can shift to dormancy when encountering harsh conditions such as low oxygen, nutrient starvation, high acidity and host immune defenses. Genes related to the dormancy survival regulator (DosR) regulon are responsible for the inhibition of aerobic respiration and replication, which is required to enter dormancy. Conversely, resuscitation-promoting factor (rpf) proteins participate in reactivation from dormancy and the development of active tuberculosis (TB). Many DosR regulon and rpf proteins are immunodominant T cell antigens that are highly expressed in latent TB infection. They could serve as TB vaccine candidates and be used for diagnostic development. We explored the genetic polymorphisms of 50 DosR-related genes and 5 rpf genes among 1,170 previously sequenced clinical M. tuberculosis genomes. Forty-three lineage- or sublineage-specific nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (nsSNPs) were identified. Ten nsSNPs were specific to all Mtb isolates belonging to lineage 1 (L1). Two common sublineages, the Beijing family (L2.2) and EAI2 (L1.2.1), differed at as many as 26 lineage- or sublineage-specific SNPs. DosR regulon genes related to membrane proteins and the rpf family possessed mean dN/dS ratios greater than one, suggesting that they are under positive selection. Although the T cell epitope regions of DosR-related and rpf antigens were quite conserved, we found that the epitopes in L1 had higher rates of genetic polymorphisms than the other lineages. Some mutations in immunogenic epitopes of the antigens were specific to particular M. tuberculosis lineages. Therefore, the genetic diversity of the DosR regulon and rpf proteins might impact the adaptation of M. tuberculosis to the dormant state and the immunogenicity of latency antigens, which warrants further investigation.

Fusion of Dendritic Cells Activating Rv2299c Protein Enhances the Protective Immunity of Ag85B-ESAT6 Vaccine Candidate against Tuberculosis

In Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, naïve T cells that encounter mycobacterial antigens through dendritic cells (DCs) induce various CD4⁺ T-cell responses; therefore, appropriate DC activation is the key for protective immunity against tuberculosis. We previously found that Rv2299c-matured DCs induce Th1 differentiation with bactericidal activity. In this study, to prove that Rv2299c could enhance the protective immunity of other vaccine candidates comprising T-cell-stimulating antigens, Ag85B-ESAT6, a well-known vaccine candidate, was selected as a fusion partner of Rv2299c. Recombinant Rv2299c-Ag85B-ESAT6 protein induced DC maturation and activation. Furthermore, fusion of Rv2299c enhanced the protective efficacy of the Ag85B-ESAT6 vaccine in a mouse model and significantly higher production of TNF-α and IL-2 was detected in the lungs, spleen, and lymph nodes of the group immunized with the Rv2299c-fused protein than with Ag85B-ESAT6. In addition, fusion of Rv2299c enhanced the Ag85B-ESAT6-mediated expansion of multifunctional CD4⁺ T cells. These data suggested that the DC-activating protein Rv2299c may potentiate the protective immunity of the vaccine candidate comprising T cell antigens.

March of Mycobacterium: miRNAs intercept host cell CD40 signalling

The disease tuberculosis is fatal if untreated. It is caused by the acid-fast bacilli Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Mycobacterium resides and replicates within the alveolar macrophages, causing inflammation and granuloma, wherein macrophage-T cell interactions enhance the inflammation-causing pulmonary caseous lesions. The first interactions between Mycobacterium and the receptors on macrophages decide the fate of Mycobacterium because of phagolysosomal impairments and the expression of several miRNAs, which may regulate CD40 expression on macrophages. While the altered phagolysosomal functions impede antigen presentation to the T cell-expressed antigen receptor, the interactions between the macrophage-expressed CD40 and the T cell-expressed CD40-ligand (CD40L or CD154) provide signals to T cells and Mycobacterium-infected macrophages. These two functions significantly influence the resolution or persistence of Mycobacterium infection. CD40 controls T-cell polarisation and host-protective immunity by eliciting interleukin-12p40, nitric oxide, reactive oxygen species and IFN-γ production. Indeed, CD40-deficient mice succumb to low-dose aerosol infection with Mycobacterium because of deficient interleukin (IL)-12 production leading to impaired IFN-γ-secreting T-cell response. In contrast, despite generating fewer granulomas, the CD40L-deficient mice developed anti-mycobacterial T-cell responses to the levels observed in the wild-type mice. These host-protective responses are significantly subdued by the Mycobacterium-infected macrophage produced TGF-β and IL-10, which promote pro-mycobacterial T-cell responses. The CD40-CD40L-induced counteractive immune responses against Mycobacterium thus present a conundrum that we explain here with a reconciliatory hypothesis. Experimental validation of the hypothesis will provide a rationale for designing anti-tubercular immunotherapy.

The ESX-1 Virulence Factors Downregulate miR-147-3p in Mycobacterium marinum-Infected Macrophages

As important virulence factors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, EsxA and EsxB not only play a role in phagosome rupture and M. tuberculosis cytosolic translocation but also function as modulators of host immune responses by modulating numerous microRNAs (miRNAs). Recently, we have found that mycobacterial infection downregulated miR-148a-3p (now termed miR-148) in macrophages in an ESX-1-dependent manner. The upregulation of miR-148 reduced mycobacterial intracellular survival. Here, we investigated miR-147-3p (now termed miR-147), a negative regulator of inflammatory cytokines (e.g., interleukin-6 [IL-6] and IL-10), in mycobacterial infection. We infected murine RAW264.7 macrophages with Mycobacterium marinum, a surrogate model organism for M. tuberculosis, and found that the esxBA-knockout strain (M. marinum ΔesxBA) upregulated miR-147 to a level that was significantly higher than that induced by the M. marinum wild-type (WT) strain or by the M. marinum ΔesxBA complemented strain, M. marinum ΔesxBA/pesxBA, suggesting that the ESX-1 system (potentially EsxBA and/or other codependently secreted factors) is the negative regulator of miR-147. miR-147 was also downregulated by directly incubating the macrophages with the purified recombinant EsxA or EsxB protein or the EsxBA heterodimer, which further confirms the role of the EsxBA proteins in the downregulation of miR-147. The upregulation of miR-147 inhibited the production of IL-6 and IL-10 and significantly reduced M. marinum intracellular survival. Interestingly, inhibitors of either miR-147 or miR-148 reciprocally compromised the effects of the mimics of their counterparts on M. marinum intracellular survival. This suggests that miR-147 and miR-148 share converged downstream pathways in response to mycobacterial infection, which was supported by data indicating that miR-147 upregulation inhibits the Toll-like receptor 4/NF-κB pathway.

Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis MAP1889c Protein Induces Maturation of Dendritic Cells and Drives Th2-biased Immune Responses

Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) is a causative agent of chronic granulomatous bowel disease in animals and is associated with various autoimmune diseases in humans including Crohn’s disease. A good understanding of the host-protective immune response and antibacterial immunity controlled by MAP and its components may contribute to the development of effective control strategies. MAP1889c was identified as a seroreactive antigen in Crohn’s disease patients. In this study, we investigated the immunological function of MAP1889c in dendritic cells (DCs). MAP1889c stimulated DCs to increase expression of co-stimulatory molecules (CD80 and CD86) and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class molecules and to secret higher interleukin (IL)-10 and moderate IL-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and IL-12p70 levels through the Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 pathway. MAP1889c-induced DC activation was mediated by mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), cAMPp-response element binding protein (CREB), and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB). In particular, the CREB signal was essential for MAP1889c-mediated IL-10 production but not TNF-α and IL-12p70. In addition, MAP1889c-matured DCs induced T cell proliferation and drove the Th2 response. Production of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated pro-inflammatory cytokines and anti-inflammatory cytokines was suppressed and enhanced respectively by MAP1889c pretreatment in DCs and T cells. Furthermore, treatment of MAP1889c in M. avium-infected macrophages promoted intracellular bacterial growth and IL-10 production. These findings suggest that MAP1889c modulates the host antimycobacterial response and may be a potential virulence factor during MAP infection.

A new multi-epitope peptide vaccine induces immune responses and protection against Leishmania infantum in BALB/c mice

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a tropical and subtropical disease which is endemic in more than eighty countries around the world. Leishmania infantum is one of the main causative agents of VL disease. Currently, there is no approved-to-market vaccine for VL therapy. In this study, we evaluated cellular and humoral immune responses induced by our newly designed multi-epitope vaccine in BALB/c mice. Four antigenic proteins, including histone H1, sterol 24-c-methyltransferase (SMT), Leishmania-specific hypothetical protein (LiHy), and Leishmania-specific antigenic protein (LSAP) were chosen for the prediction of potential immunodominant epitopes. Moreover, to enhance vaccine immunogenicity, two toll-like receptors 4 (TLR4) agonists, resuscitation-promoting factors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (RpfE and RpfB), were employed as the built-in adjuvants. Immunization with the designed multi-epitope vaccine elicited a robust Th1-type immune response, compared to other groups, as shown by increased levels of IL-2, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IgG2a. Furthermore, a significant decrease was observed in Th-2-type-related cytokines such as IL-4 in immunized mice. The designed construct also induced a significant reduction in parasite load (p < 0.0001), conferring protection against L. infantum challenge. This study could be promising in gaining insight towards the potential of peptide epitope-based vaccines as effective protective approaches against Leishmania species.

Bacterial Protein Toll-Like-Receptor Agonists: A Novel Perspective on Vaccine Adjuvants

Adjuvants have been used in vaccines for over a century, however, the search for safe and effective vaccine adjuvants continues. In recent decades toll-like-receptor (TLR) agonists have been investigated as potential vaccine adjuvants. In this regard, the majority of the currently investigated TLR agonists are non-protein microbial components such as lipopolysaccharides, oligonucleotides, and lipopeptides. On the other hand, a growing number of studies reveal that TLR signaling and immune responses can be activated by numerous bacterial proteins. However, their potential roles as adjuvants have been somewhat overlooked. Herein, we discuss several such bacterial proteins which exhibit adjuvant properties, including the activation of TLR signaling, antigen presenting cell maturation, pro-inflammatory cytokine production and adaptive immune response. The protein nature of these TLR agonists presents several unique features not shared by non-protein TLR agonists. These properties include the amenability for modifying the structure and function as necessary for optimal immunogenicity and minimal toxicity. Protein adjuvants can be genetically fused to protein antigens which ensure the co-delivery of adjuvant-antigen not only into the same cell but also in the same endocytic cargo, leading to more effective activation of innate and adaptive immune response.

Toll-Like Receptor 4 as an Immune Receptor Against Mycobacterium tuberculosis: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVE

To review the main Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and the roles played by toll-like receptor (TLR)4 in determination of Mtb infection outcome.

METHODS

Several scientific databases, including Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar, were used for searching appropriate research articles from the literature for information on our topic.

RESULTS

TLR4 plays positive roles in induction of immune responses against Mtb and participates in eradication of the infection. Some limited investigations approved the roles of TLR4 in induction of apoptosis in macrophages during tuberculosis (TB) and attenuation of immune responses in some situations.

CONCLUSIONS

TB outcome appears to be dependent on TLR4/Mtb interaction and several factors, including bacterial load and immune or nonimmune cells, as hosts. Also, other TLR/Mtb interactions can affect TLR4 responses.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis Rv3463 induces mycobactericidal activity in macrophages by enhancing phagolysosomal fusion and exhibits therapeutic potential

Macrophages are responsible for innate and adaptive immune response activation necessary for eliminating infections. Optimal activation of macrophages to phagocytize Mycobacterium tuberculosis is critical in anti-mycobacterial defense. Here, we identified a novel Rv3463 hypothetical protein that induces macrophage activation in Mtb culture filtrate. Recombinant Rv3463 activated mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages to induce the expression of surface molecules and secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines via the TLR2 and TLR4 pathways. Mitogen activated protein kinase, phospatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinases, and the NF-κB signaling pathways are involved in Rv3463-mediated macrophage activation. Furthermore, Rv3463 induced bactericidal effects in Mtb-infected macrophages through phagosome maturation and phagolysosomal fusion enhanced by phospatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinases and Ca²⁺ signaling pathways and exhibited therapeutic effects in a short-term Mtb-infection mouse model. Overexpression of Rv3463 in M. smegmatis caused rapid clearance of bacteria in macrophages and mice. Our study suggests that Rv3463 is a promising target for the development of post-exposure tuberculosis vaccines or adjunct immune-therapy.

The Mycobacterium tuberculosis glycoprotein Rv1016c protein inhibits dendritic cell maturation, and impairs Th1 /Th17 responses during mycobacteria infection

The myobacterial factors and the associated mechanism by which Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) evades the host immune surveillance system remain widely unexplored. Here, we found that overexpressing Rv1016c, a mannosylated protein of M. tuberculosis in BCG (rBCG-Rv1016c) led to increased virulence of the recombined BCG in the severe-combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice model and to a loss of protective efficacy in a zebrafish-M. marinum model, compared to wild type BCG. Further investigations on the effects of rBCG-Rv1016c on the host innate immunity revealed that rBCG-Rv1016c decreased the production of cytokines IL-2, IL-12p70, TGF-β, IL-6 as well as of the co-stimulatory molecules CD80, CD86, MHC-I and MHC-II by the infected DCs. These effects were mimicked by rBCG-Rv1016cHis, which carried an extra 6-His tag at the C-terminus of Rv1016c. Relatively to BCG infected DCs, the rBCG-Rv1016c-infected DCs failed to polarize naïve T cells to Th1- and Th17-type cells to secret IFN-γ and IL-17. Additionally, T lymphocytes from BCG- infected mice showed significantly less proliferation and production of IFN-γ and IL-17. Similarly, rBCG-Rv1016c mice released a higher level of IL-10 in response to rBCG-Rv1016c stimulation than wild type BCG infected mice. Furthermore, DCs from TLR-2 knockout mice showed no reduction in IL-6, IL-12 p70 and TGF-β secretion in response to rBCG-Rv1016c infection, compared to DCs infected with BCG. We propose that Rv1016c interferes in differentiation of the DCs by targeting suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) 1 and SOCS3 expression, which subsequently leads to the reduction in STAT-1 and STAT-6 phosphorylation. These findings open new perspectives regarding the immunosuppressive strategies adopted by Mtb to survive in the host.

Immunogenicity and Vaccine Potential of InsB, an ESAT-6-Like Antigen Identified in the Highly Virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis Beijing K Strain

Our group recently identified InsB, an ESAT-6-like antigen belonging to the Mtb9.9 subfamily within the Esx family, in the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Korean Beijing strain (Mtb K) via a comparative genomic analysis with that of the reference Mtb H37Rv and characterized its immunogenicity and its induced immune response in patients with tuberculosis (TB). However, the vaccine potential of InsB has not been fully elucidated. In the present study, InsB was evaluated as a subunit vaccine in comparison with the most well-known ESAT-6 against the hypervirulent Mtb K. Mice immunized with InsB/MPL-DDA exhibited an antigen-specific IFN-γ response along with antigen-specific effector/memory T cell expansion in the lungs and spleen upon antigen restimulation. In addition, InsB immunization markedly induced multifunctional Th1-type CD4⁺ T cells coexpressing TNF-α, IL-2, and IFN-γ in the lungs following Mtb K challenge. Finally, we found that InsB immunization conferred long-term protection against Mtb K comparable to that conferred by ESAT-6 immunization, as evidenced by a similar level of CFU reduction in the lung and spleen and reduced lung inflammation. These results suggest that InsB may be an excellent vaccine antigen component for developing a multiantigenic Mtb subunit vaccine by generating Th1-biased memory T cells with a multifunctional capacity and may confer durable protection against the highly virulent Mtb K.

A subset of CD1c+ dendritic cells is increased in patients with tuberculosis and promotes Th17 cell polarization

The role of primary subsets of DCs in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in humans is incompletely understood. In this study, we identified a CD1c DC subset with phenotype of CD1c+CD11c+CD19-CD11b+ that was significantly increased in tuberculous pleural effusions and in peripheral blood from patients with TB compared with that from healthy controls (p < 0.0001). Sputum smear/culture-positive patients with tuberculosis had significantly higher frequency of CD1c+CD11b+ DC subset than sputum smear/culture-negative patients (p < 0.0001). After effective anti-TB chemotherapy, the frequency of CD1c+CD11b+ DC subset in peripheral blood and tuberculous pleural effusions was decreased. CD1c+CD11b+ DC subset from tuberculous pleural effusions expressed higher levels of TLR2, TLR4, CD172a, CD206 and FcεRⅠ, but lower levels of CD80, CD83 and CD86 compared with CD1c+CD11b- DC subset. Expression of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-23, TNF-α, IFN-γ and TGF-β mRNA in CD1c+CD11b+ DCs was higher than in CD1c+CD11b- DC subset. Co-culture of autologous naive CD4+ T cells with sorted CD1c+CD11b+ DCs expressed significantly increased levels of IL-17A and RORγt transcripts as compared with those co-cultured with CD11b- subset. In conclusion, a CD1c+CD11b+ DC subset with elevated frequency in patients with tuberculosis was identified and it promoted Th17 cell differentiation.

MAP1981c, a Putative Nucleic Acid-Binding Protein, Produced by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, Induces Maturation of Dendritic Cells and Th1-Polarization

Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) is the causative pathogen of chronic granulomatous enteropathy (Johne's disease) in animals, and has been focused on its association with various autoimmune diseases in humans, including Crohn's disease. The discovery of novel mycobacterial antigens and exploring their role in host immunity can contribute to the advancement of effective defense strategies including vaccines and diagnostic tools. In a preliminary study, we identified cellular extract proteins of MAP that strongly react with the blood of patients with Crohn's disease. In particular, MAP1981c, a putative nucleic acid-binding protein, showed high expression levels and strong reactivity to IgG and IgM in the sera of patients. Here, we investigated the immunological features of MAP1981c and focused on its interaction with dendritic cells (DCs), confirming its immunomodulatory ability. MAP1981c was shown to recognize Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4, and induce DC maturation and activation by increasing the expression of co-stimulatory (CD80 and CD86) and MHC class I/II molecules and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α) in DCs. This DC activation by MAP1981c was mediated by downstream signaling of TLR4 via MyD88- and TRIF-, MAP kinase-, and NF-κB-dependent signaling pathways. In addition, MAP1981c-treated DCs activated naïve T cells and induced the differentiation of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells to express T-bet, IFN-γ, and/or IL-2, but not GATA-3 and IL-4, thus indicating that MAP1981c contributes to Th1-type immune responses both in vitro and in vivo. Taken together, these results suggest that MAP1981c is a novel immunocompetent antigen that induces DC maturation and a Th1-biased response upon DC activation, suggesting that MAP1981c can be an effective vaccine and diagnostic target.

Characterising resuscitation promoting factor fluorescent-fusions in mycobacteria

BACKGROUND

Resuscitation promoting factor proteins (Rpfs) are peptidoglycan glycosidases capable of resuscitating dormant mycobacteria, and have been found to play a role in the pathogenesis of tuberculosis. However, the specific roles and localisation of each of the 5 Rpfs in Mycobacterium tuberculosis remain mostly unknown. In this work our aim was to construct fluorescent fusions of M. tuberculosis Rpf proteins as tools to investigate their function.

RESULTS

We found that Rpf-fusions to the fluorescent protein mCherry are functional and able to promote cell growth under different conditions. However, fusions to Enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein (EGFP) were non-functional in the assays used and none were secreted into the extracellular medium, which suggests Rpfs may be secreted via the Sec pathway. No specific cellular localization was observed for either set of fusions using time-lapse video microscopy.

CONCLUSIONS

We present the validation and testing of five M. tuberculosis Rpfs fused to mCherry, which are functional in resuscitation assays, but do not show any specific cellular localisation under the conditions tested. Our results suggest that Rpfs are likely to be secreted via the Sec pathway. We propose that such mCherry fusions will be useful tools for the further study of Rpf localisation, individual expression, and function.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis Protein Rv3841 Activates Dendritic Cells and Contributes to a T Helper 1 Immune Response

The attenuated vaccine Mycobacterium bovis BCG (Bacille Calmette Guerin) has limited protective efficacy against TB. The development of more effective TB vaccines has focused on the mycobacterial antigens that cause strong T helper 1 (Th1) responses. Mtb protein Rv3841 (bacterioferritin B; BfrB) is known to play a crucial role in the growth of Mtb. Nonetheless, it is unclear whether Rv3841 can induce protective immunity against Mtb. Here, we studied the action of Rv3841 in maturation of dendritic cells (DCs) and its engagement in the development of T-cell immunity. We found that Rv3841 functionally activated DCs by upregulating costimulatory molecules and increased secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. Activation of DCs by Rv3841 was mediated by Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), followed by triggering of mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor-κB signaling pathways. In addition, Rv3841-matured DCs effectively proliferated and polarized Th1 immune response of naïve CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cells. Moreover, Rv3841 specifically caused the expansion of CD4⁺CD44^highCD62L^low T-cells from Mtb-infected mice; besides, the T-cells activated by Rv3841-matured DCs inhibited intracellular mycobacterial growth. Our data suggest that Rv3841 induces DC maturation and protective immune responses, a finding that may provide candidate of effective TB vaccines.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis Rv3628 drives Th1-type T cell immunity via TLR2-mediated activation of dendritic cells and displays vaccine potential against the hyper-virulent Beijing K strain

Identification of vaccine target antigens (Ags) that induce Ag-specific Th1 immunity is the first step toward the development of a tuberculosis vaccine. Here, we evaluated the Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) protein Rv3628, a soluble inorganic pyrophosphatase, as a vaccine target and characterized the molecular details of its interaction with dendritic cells (DCs). Rv3628 activated DCs, increasing their expression of cell surface molecules and augmenting their production of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-12p70. Rv3628 mediated these effects by binding to TLR2 and activating downstream MyD88-, MAPK- and NF-κB-dependent signaling pathways. Rv3628-stimulated DCs induced the expansion of OVA-specific CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells, which secreted IFN-γ and IL-2. Rv3628-specific effector/memory T cells expanded to a similar extent as those stimulated with ESAT-6 Ag in samples of lung and spleen cells collected from Mtb-infected mice. Finally, an Rv3628 subunit vaccine adjuvanted with dimethyldioctadecylammonium liposomes containing monophosphoryl lipid-A caused significant reductions in bacterial counts and lung inflammation after challenge with the hyper-virulent Mtb K strain. Importantly, protective efficacy was correlated with the generation of Rv3628-specific CD4⁺ T cells co-producing IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-2 and exhibiting an elevated IFN-γ recall response. Thus, Rv3628 polarizes DCs toward a Th1 phenotype and promotes protective immunity against Mtb infection.

Mouse β-defensin-14 for inducing the maturation of dendritic cells

BACKGROUND

β-defensins are an excellent antimicrobial peptide against microbial infection in which dendritic cells (DCs) play a crucial role by improving the innate and adaptive immune defense. However, it is unclear whether BDs affect DC maturation. This work aimed to study the effects of mouse β-defensin-14 (MBD-14) on DC maturation.

METHODS

Via in vitro using mouse bone marrow DCs, the maturation of DCs was evaluated by cell morphological staining, flow cytometry, endocytosis assay, and allogeneic mixed lymphocyte reaction, respectively. And it was also assessed by in vivo establishing a mouse air-pouch model for flow cytometric determination, cytokine analysis, and histological staining. Additionally, CLI-095, an inhibitor of Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4), was used to determine whether TLR-4 is possibly involved in DC maturation.

RESULTS

It was found MBD-14 promoted DCs to form more filopodia and lamellipodia, increased the expression of DC maturation markers (CD40 and MHC-II), decreased their endocytic capacity, and enhanced T-cell proliferation. The analyses of the air-pouch exudates were consistent with the in vitro results of MBD-14 activating DCs. And when CLI-095 was applied, DC maturation was inhibited partly.

CONCLUSIONS

This work demonstrates that MBD-14 can promote the maturation of DCs in which TLR-4 is possibly involved.

Innate immunity in tuberculosis: host defense vs pathogen evasion

The major innate immune cell types involved in tuberculosis (TB) infection are macrophages, dendritic cells (DCs), neutrophils and natural killer (NK) cells. These immune cells recognize the TB-causing pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) through various pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), including but not limited to Toll-like receptors (TLRs), Nod-like receptors (NLRs) and C-type lectin receptors (CLRs). Upon infection by Mtb, the host orchestrates multiple signaling cascades via the PRRs to launch a variety of innate immune defense functions such as phagocytosis, autophagy, apoptosis and inflammasome activation. In contrast, Mtb utilizes numerous exquisite strategies to evade or circumvent host innate immunity. Here we discuss recent research on major host innate immune cells, PRR signaling, and the cellular functions involved in Mtb infection, with a specific focus on the host's innate immune defense and Mtb immune evasion. A better understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying host-pathogen interactions could provide a rational basis for the development of effective anti-TB therapeutics.

Rv2299c, a novel dendritic cell-activating antigen of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, fused-ESAT-6 subunit vaccine confers improved and durable protection against the hypervirulent strain HN878 in mice

Understanding functional interactions between DCs and antigens is necessary for achieving an optimal and desired immune response during vaccine development. Here, we identified and characterized protein Rv2299c (heat-shock protein 90 family), which effectively induced DC maturation. The Rv2299c-maturated DCs showed increased expression of surface molecules and production of proinflammatory cytokines. Rv2299c induced these effects by binding to TLR4 and stimulating the downstream MyD88-, MAPK- and NF-κB-dependent signaling pathways. The Rv2299c-maturated DCs also showed an induced Th1 cell response with bactericidal activity and expansion of effector/memory T cells. The Rv2299c-ESAT-6 fused protein had greater immunoreactivity than ESAT-6. Furthermore, boosting BCG with the fused protein significantly reduced hypervirulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis HN878 burdens post-challenge. The pathological study of the lung from the challenged mice assured the efficacy of the fused protein. The fused protein boosting also induced Rv2299c-ESAT-6-specific multifunctional CD4⁺ T-cell response in the lungs of the challenged mice. Our findings suggest that Rv2299c is an excellent candidate for the rational design of an effective multiantigenic TB vaccine.

Tuberculosis vaccines - perspectives from the NIH/NIAID Mycobacteria vaccine testing program

The development of novel vaccine candidates against infections with Mycobacterium tuberculosis has highlighted our limited understanding of immune mechanisms required to kill M. tuberculosis. The induction of a Th1 immunity is vital, but new studies are required to identify other mechanisms that may be necessary. Novel vaccines formulations that invoke effector cells such as innate lymphoid cells may provide an environment that promote effector mechanisms including T cell and B cell mediated immunity. Identifying pathways associated with killing this highly successful infectious agent has become critical to achieving the goal of reducing the global tuberculosis burden.

Identification of novel antigen candidates for a tuberculosis vaccine in the adult zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major global health challenge and the development of a better vaccine takes center stage in fighting the disease. For this purpose, animal models that are capable of replicating the course of the disease and are suitable for the early-stage screening of vaccine candidates are needed. A Mycobacterium marinum infection in adult zebrafish resembles human TB. Here, we present a pre-clinical screen for a DNA-based tuberculosis vaccine in the adult zebrafish using an M. marinum infection model. We tested 15 antigens representing different types of mycobacterial proteins, including the Resuscitation Promoting factors (Rpf), PE/PPE protein family members, other membrane proteins and metabolic enzymes. The antigens were expressed as GFP fusion proteins, facilitating the validation of their expression in vivo. The efficiency of the antigens was tested against a low-dose intraperitoneal M. marinum infection (≈ 40 colony forming units), which mimics a primary M. tuberculosis infection. While none of the antigens was able to completely prevent a mycobacterial infection, four of them, namely RpfE, PE5_1, PE31 and cdh, led to significantly reduced bacterial burdens at four weeks post infection. Immunization with RpfE also improved the survival of the fish against a high-dose intraperitoneal injection with M. marinum (≈ 10.000 colony forming units), resembling the disseminated form of the disease. This study shows that the M. marinum infection model in adult zebrafish is suitable for the pre-clinical screening of tuberculosis vaccines and presents RpfE as a potential antigen candidate for further studies.