Eicosapentaenoic and Docosahexaenoic Acids Differentially Alter Gut Microbiome and Reverse High-Fat Diet-Induced Insulin Resistance

Branched-chain amino acid supplementation drives dynamic changes in gut microbiota without impairing glucose and lipid homeostasis at the different stages of insulin resistance in mice on a high-fat diet

OBJECTIVE

The potential role of dietary branched-chain amino acids on circulating branched-chain amino acid levels and their relationship with metabolic health are complex, and the literature is inconsistent. We aimed to explore the dynamic effects of branched-chain amino acid supplementation on glucose and lipid homeostasis at different stages of insulin resistance in high-fat diet-fed mice.

METHODS

Male C57BL/6J mice were fed with a normal chow diet, high-fat diet, or high-fat diet supplemented with 100% branched-chain amino acids for 12 or 24 wk. Metabolic parameters and gut microbiota profiling were performed at these two time points.

RESULTS

High-fat diet feeding caused varying degrees of branched-chain amino acid metabolic disorders in two different stages of insulin resistance. Supplementing with branched-chain amino acids further exacerbated branched-chain amino acid accumulation in the early stage of insulin resistance (12 wk), while adding branched-chain amino acids did not further elevate branched-chain amino acid levels in the hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia stage (24 wk). Compared with the high-fat diet group, branched-chain amino acid supplementation did not affect body weight; liver total cholesterol and triacylglycerol levels; and serum glucose, insulin, total cholesterol, triacylglycerol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels as well as glucose tolerance at these two time points but triggered dynamic changes in the gut bacterial diversity and gut microbiota composition and abundance, especially in the genus associated with obesity and related metabolic disorders.

CONCLUSION

Dietary branched-chain amino acid supplementation drives dynamic changes in circulating branched-chain amino acid levels and gut microbiome without subsequent effects on glucose and lipid homeostasis in high-fat diet-induced obese mice within the parameters of our study.

Therapeutic Potential of Palmitoylethanolamide in Gastrointestinal Disorders

Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) is an endocannabinoid-like bioactive lipid mediator belonging to the family of N-acylethanolamines, most abundantly found in peanuts and egg yolk. When the gastrointestinal (GI) effects of PEA are discussed, it must be pointed out that it affects intestinal motility but also modulates gut microbiota. This is due to anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, antimicrobial, and immunomodulatory features. Additionally, PEA has shown beneficial effects in several GI diseases, particularly irritable bowel syndrome and inflammatory bowel diseases, as various studies have shown, and it is important to emphasize its relative lack of toxicity, even at high dosages. Unfortunately, there is not enough endogenous PEA to treat disturbed gut homeostasis, even though it is produced in the GI tract in response to inflammatory stimuli, so exogenous intake is mandatory to achieve homeostasis. Intake of PEA could be through animal and/or vegetable food, but bearing in mind that a high dosage is needed to achieve a therapeutic effect, it must be compensated through dietary supplements. There are still open questions pending to be answered, so further studies investigating PEA's effects and mechanisms of action, especially in humans, are crucial to implementing PEA in everyday clinical practice.

Antibiotics and probiotics-induced effects on the total fatty acid composition of feces in a rat model

Fatty acids (FAs) play important roles as membrane components and signal transduction molecules. Changes in short chain FA (SCFA) composition are associated with gut microbiota modifications. However, the effect of bacteria-driven changes on the detailed FA spectrum has not been explored yet. We investigated the effect of antibiotics (ABx) and/or probiotics, in four treatment groups on rat stool FA composition. Principal component analysis indicated that the chromatogram profiles of the treatment groups differ, which was also observed at different time points. Linear mixed effects models showed that in the parameters compared (sampling times, treatments. and their interactions), both the weight percentage and the concentration of FAs were affected by ABx and probiotic administration. This study found that the gut microbiome defines trans and branched saturated FAs, most saturated FAs, and unsaturated FAs with less carbon atoms. These results are among the first ones to demonstrate the restoring effects of a probiotic mixture on a substantial part of the altered total FA spectrum, and also revealed a previously unknown relationship between gut bacteria and a larger group of FAs. These findings suggest that intestinal bacteria produce not only SCFAs but also other FAs that may affect the host's physiological processes.

Cross-talk between the gut microbiota and hypothyroidism: a bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization study

Background

Multiple observational studies suggest a connection between the composition of the gut microbiota and hypothyroidism. However, it has yet to be determined whether the gut microbiota has a causal effect on hypothyroidism.

Methods

To investigate the connection between the gut microbiota and hypothyroidism, two-sample Mendelian randomization was performed using data from a genome-wide association study meta-analysis (n = 18,430) conducted by the MiBioGen consortium. Summary statistics for hypothyroidism (26,342 cases and 59,827 controls) were obtained using the data from the FinnGen consortium R8 release data. To investigate the causal link between the gut microbiota and hypothyroidism, various methods, including MR-Egger, weighted median, weighted model, simple model, MR-PRESSO, and inverse variance weighted (IVW), were employed. The bacteria that were causally linked to hypothyroidism in forward Mendelian randomization analysis were subjected to reverse Mendelian randomization analysis. Cochran's Q statistics were utilized to gauge the heterogeneity of the instrumental variables.

Results

The results indicated that Akkermansia had a positive impact on hypothyroidism, with an odds ratio of 0.84 (95% CI 0.74-0.95, p = 0.01) based on the inverse variance-weighted estimates. Additionally, Anaerostipes (OR = 1.17, 95% CI 1.01-1.36, p = 0.04), Butyrivibrio (OR = 0.93, 95% CI 0.88-0.99, p = 0.02), Holdemania (OR = 0.89, 95% CI 0.81-0.99, p = 0.03), Intestinimonas (OR = 1.13, 95% CI 1.02-1.26, p = 0.03), Ruminiclostridium5 (OR = 1.19, 95% CI 1.01-1.41, p = 0.04), and Ruminococcaceae UCG-011 (OR = 0.91, 95% CI 0.84-0.99, p = 0.03) were identified. The gut microbiota was not significantly affected by hypothyroidism, as indicated by the results of the reverse MR analysis. There was no significant variation in the instrumental variables or horizontal pleiotropy.

Conclusion

The findings of this study using two-sample Mendelian randomization indicate a causal relationship between Akkermansia and hypothyroidism. Increased Akkermansia inhibits the onset and progression of hypothyroidism. Additional randomized controlled experiments are necessary to elucidate the beneficial impact of probiotics on hypothyroidism and their distinct protective mechanisms.

Egg Yolk Lipids Alleviated Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Colitis by Inhibiting NLRP3 Inflammasome and Regulating Gut Microbiota

The increasing incidence of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) has become a global phenomenon. Egg yolk lipids are one of the essential dietary foods, but its effects on intestinal immunity remain unclear. Here, egg yolk lipids are obtained using ethanol extraction and a total of 601 kinds of lipids are detected via lipidomics, including 251 kinds of triglycerides, 133 kinds of phosphatidylcholines, 44 kinds of phosphatidylethanolamines. Then, the study finds that egg yolk lipids significantly alleviate dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis and reduce the production of inflammatory factors. Meanwhile, egg yolk lipids also maintain intestinal barrier integrity and decrease lipopolysaccharide translocation by alleviating intestinal structure damage and increasing the numbers of goblet cells and mucin 2. Mechanistically, egg yolk lipids attenuate colitis by inhibiting the assembly and activation of NLRP3 inflammasome. Moreover, the study also finds that egg yolk lipids reverse gut microbiota dysbiosis referring to increased relative abundance of Bacteroides acidifaciens and decrease relative abundance of Akkermansia muciniphila, as well as increased short chain fatty acids concentration in the gut. Together, the study elucidates the anti-colitis effect of egg yolk lipids and provides positive evidences for egg yolk lipids involving in dietary strategy and IBD therapy.

Integrated Metabolomics and Gut Microbiome Analysis Reveals the Efficacy of a Phytochemical Constituent in the Management of Ulcerative Colitis

SCOPE

Cinnamaldehyde (CAH), a phytochemical constituent isolated from cinnamon, is gaining attention due to its nutritional and medicinal benefits. This study aimed to investigate the potential role of CAH in the treatment of ulcerative colitis (UC).

METHODS AND RESULTS

Integrated metabolomics and gut microbiome analysis are performed for 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS) induced UC rats. The effect of CAH on colonic inflammation, lipid peroxidation, metabolic profiles, and gut microbiota is systematically explored. It finds that CAH improves the colitis-related symptoms, decreases disease activity index, increases the colon length and body weight, and alleviates histologic inflammation of UC rats. These therapeutic effects of CAH are due to suppression of inflammation and lipid peroxidation. Moreover, multi-omics analysis reveals that CAH treatment cause changes in plasma metabolome and gut microbiome in UC rats. CAH regulates lipid metabolic processes, especially phosphatidylcholines, lysophosphatidylcholines, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Meanwhile, CAH modulates the gut microbial structure by restraining pathogenic bacteria (such as Helicobacter) and increasing probiotic bacteria (such as Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus).

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that CAH exerts a beneficial role in UC by synergistic modulating the balance in gut microbiota and the associated metabolites, and highlights the nutritional and medicinal value of CAH in UC management.

Effects of low-frequency rTMS combined with risperidone on the gut microbiome in hospitalized patients with chronic schizophrenia

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) has been widely used in treating schizophrenia (SCH). However, the effects of the low frequency of rTMS combined with antipsychotics on the gut microbiome in chronic SCH have been poorly investigated. In the present study, psychiatric symptoms were assessed and the stool samples obtained from 33 adult patients with chronic SCH (at baselinephase), 27 after 2 weeks of treatment (rTMS combined with risperidone, SCH-2W), and 37 healthy controls (HC) were analyzed by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. We found that the reduction of phylum Proteobacteria, family Enterobacteriaceae and genera Escherichia-Shigella as well as the increase of genera norank_f_Lachnospiraceae might be related to the antipsychotic effect of rTMS combined with risperidone. These findings indicate that the brain-gut-microbiota axis might be involved in the therapeutic effect of rTMS combined with antipsychotic drugs.

Lychee Pulp-Derived Dietary Fiber-Bound Phenolic Complex Upregulates the SCFAs-GPRs-ENS Pathway and Aquaporins in Loperamide-Induced Constipated Mice by Reshaping Gut Microbiome

This study aimed to investigate the effects of the lychee pulp-derived dietary fiber-bound phenolic complex (DF-BPC) on a murine model of loperamide-induced constipation and its molecular mechanism associated with gut microbiota modification. DF-BPC supplementation mitigated loperamide-induced dyschezia, intestinal hypomotility, and colonic impairment, as evidenced by the increased gastro-intestinal transit rate and mucus cell counts. By comparison, short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) contents and relative abundances of associated genera (Butyricimonas, Clostridium, and Lactobacillus) were effectively upregulated following DF-BPC supplementation. Notably, DF-BPC significantly enhanced expressions of G protein-coupled receptor (GPR) 41 and 43, reaching 1.43- and 1.62-fold increase, respectively. Neurotransmitter secretions were simultaneously altered in DF-BPC-treated mice, suggesting upregulation of the SCFAs-GPRs-enteric nervous system pathway. The overexpression of aquaporins (AQP3, 8, and 9) was stimulated partly through GPRs activation. Mild inflammation associated with constipation was inhibited by suppressing LBP-TLR4-NF-κB signaling translocation. These findings suggest that DF-BPC from lychee pulp has the potential to alleviate constipation in mice through modifying the gut microbiome.

Assessing the role of the gut microbiome in methylmercury demethylation and elimination in humans and gnotobiotic mice

The risk of methylmercury (MeHg) toxicity following ingestion of contaminated foodstuffs (e.g., fish) is directly related to the kinetics of MeHg elimination among individuals. Yet, the factors driving the wide range of inter-individual variability in MeHg elimination within a population are poorly understood. Here, we investigated the relationship between MeHg elimination, gut microbiome demethylation activity, and gut microbiome composition using a coordinated human clinical trial and gnotobiotic mouse modeling approach together with metagenomic sequence analysis. We first observed MeHg elimination half-lives (t1/2) ranging from 28 to 90 days across 27 volunteers. Subsequently, we found that ingestion of a prebiotic induced changes in the gut microbiome and mixed effects (increased, decrease, and no effect) on elimination in these same individuals. Nonetheless, elimination rates were found to correlate with MeHg demethylation activity in cultured stool samples. In mice, attempts to remove the microbiome via generation of germ-free (GF) animals or through antibiotic (Abx) treatment both diminished MeHg demethylation to a similar extent. While both conditions substantially slowed elimination, Abx treatment resulted in significantly slower elimination than the GF condition, indicating an additional role for host-derived factors in supporting elimination. Human fecal microbiomes transplanted to GF mice restored elimination rates to that seen in control mice. Metagenomic sequence analysis of human fecal DNA did not identify genes encoding proteins typically involved in demethylation (e.g., merB, organomercury lyase). However, the abundance of several anaerobic taxa, notably Alistipes onderdonkii, were positively correlated with MeHg elimination. Surprisingly, mono-colonization of GF free mice with A. onderdonkii did not restore MeHg elimination to control levels. Collectively, our findings indicate the human gut microbiome uses a non-conventional pathway of demethylation to increase MeHg elimination that relies on yet to be resolved functions encoded by the gut microbes and the hostClinical Trial NCT04060212, prospectively registered 10/1/2019.

Nutritional Support for Liver Diseases

The liver is a key organ that is responsible for the metabolism of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates and the absorption and storage of micronutrients. Unfortunately, the prevalence of chronic liver diseases at various stages of advancement in the world population is significant. Due to the physiological function of the liver, its dysfunction can lead to malnutrition and sarcopenia, and the patient's nutritional status is an important prognostic factor. This review discusses key issues related to the diet therapy of patients with chronic liver diseases, as well as those qualified for liver transplantation and in the postoperative period.

Palmitoylethanolamide counteracts high-fat diet-induced gut dysfunction by reprogramming microbiota composition and affecting tryptophan metabolism

Obesity is associated with gastrointestinal (GI) tract and central nervous system (CNS) disorders. High-fat diet (HFD) feeding-induced obesity in mice induces dysbiosis, causing a shift toward bacteria-derived metabolites with detrimental effects on metabolism and inflammation: events often contributing to the onset and progression of both GI and CNS disorders. Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) is an endogenous lipid mediator with beneficial effects in mouse models of GI and CNS disorders. However, the mechanisms underlining its enteroprotective and neuroprotective effects still need to be fully understood. Here, we aimed to study the effects of PEA on intestinal inflammation and microbiota alterations resulting from lipid overnutrition. Ultramicronized PEA (30 mg/kg/die per os) was administered to HFD-fed mice for 7 weeks starting at the 12th week of HFD regimen. At the termination of the study, the effects of PEA on inflammatory factors and cells, gut microbial features and tryptophan (TRP)-kynurenine metabolism were evaluated. PEA regulates the crosstalk between the host immune system and gut microbiota via rebalancing colonic TRP metabolites. PEA treatment reduced intestinal immune cell recruitment, inflammatory response triggered by HFD feeding, and corticotropin-releasing hormone levels. In particular, PEA modulated HFD-altered TRP metabolism in the colon, rebalancing serotonin (5-HT) turnover and reducing kynurenine levels. These effects were associated with a reshaping of gut microbiota composition through increased butyrate-promoting/producing bacteria, such as Bifidobacterium, Oscillospiraceae and Turicibacter sanguinis, with the latter also described as 5-HT sensor. These data indicate that the rebuilding of gut microbiota following PEA supplementation promotes host 5-HT biosynthesis, which is crucial in regulating intestinal function.

Maternal transfer of resorcinol-bis(diphenyl)-phosphate perturbs gut microbiota development and gut metabolism of offspring in rats

Resorcinol-bis(diphenyl)-phosphate (RDP), an emerging organophosphate flame retardant, is increasingly used as a primary alternative for decabromodiphenyl ether and is frequently detected in global environmental matrices. However, the long-term effects of its exposure to humans remain largely unknown. To investigate its intergenerational transfer capacity and health risks, female Sprague Dawley rats were orally exposed to RDP from the beginning of pregnancy to the end of the lactation period. The RDP content, gut microbiota homeostasis, and metabolic levels were determined. RDP accumulation occurred in the livers of maternal rats and offspring and increased with exposure time. 16S rRNA gene sequencing showed that exposure to RDP during pregnancy and/or lactation significantly disrupted gut microbiota homeostasis, as evidenced by decreased abundance and diversity. In particular, the abundance of Turicibacter, Adlercreutzia, and YRC22 decreased, correlating significantly with glycollipic metabolism. This finding was consistent with the reduced levels of short-chain fatty acids, the crucial gut microbial metabolites. Meanwhile, RDP exposure resulted in changes in gut microbiome-related metabolism. Nine critical overlapping KEGG metabolic pathways were identified, and the levels of related differential metabolites decreased. Our results suggest that the significant adverse impacts of RDP on gut microbiota homeostasis and metabolic function may increase the long-term risks related to inflammation, obesity, and metabolic diseases.

Serotonin Transporter (SERT) Expression Modulates the Composition of the Western-Diet-Induced Microbiota in Aged Female Mice

Background. The serotonin transporter (SERT), highly expressed in the gut and brain, is implicated in metabolic processes. A genetic variant of the upstream regulatory region of the SLC6A4 gene encoding SERT, the so-called short (s) allele, in comparison with the long (l) allele, results in the decreased function of this transporter, altered serotonergic regulation, an increased risk of psychiatric pathology and type-2 diabetes and obesity, especially in older women. Aged female mice with the complete (Sert-/-: KO) or partial (Sert+/-: HET) loss of SERT exhibit more pronounced negative effects following their exposure to a Western diet in comparison to wild-type (Sert+/+: WT) animals. Aims. We hypothesized that these effects might be mediated by an altered gut microbiota, which has been shown to influence serotonin metabolism. We performed V4 16S rRNA sequencing of the gut microbiota in 12-month-old WT, KO and HET female mice that were housed on a control or Western diet for three weeks. Results. The relative abundance of 11 genera was increased, and the abundance of 6 genera was decreased in the Western-diet-housed mice compared to the controls. There were correlations between the abundance of Streptococcus and Ruminococcaceae_UCG-014 and the expression of the pro-inflammatory marker Toll-like-Receptor 4 (Tlr4) in the dorsal raphe, as well as the expression of the mitochondrial activity marker perixome-proliferator-activated-receptor-cofactor-1b (Ppargc1b) in the prefrontal cortex. Although there was no significant impact of genotype on the microbiota in animals fed with the Control diet, there were significant interactions between diet and genotype. Following FDR correction, the Western diet increased the relative abundance of Intestinimonas and Atopostipes in the KO animals, which was not observed in the other groups. Erysipelatoclostridium abundance was increased by the Western diet in the WT group but not in HET or KO animals. Conclusions. The enhanced effects of a challenge with a Western diet in SERT-deficient mice include the altered representation of several gut genera, such as Intestinimonas, Atopostipes and Erysipelatoclostridium, which are also implicated in serotonergic and lipid metabolism. The manipulation of these genera may prove useful in individuals with the short SERT allele.

Microbiota and nutrition as risk and resiliency factors following prenatal alcohol exposure

Alcohol exposure in adulthood can result in inflammation, malnutrition, and altered gastroenteric microbiota, which may disrupt efficient nutrient extraction. Clinical and preclinical studies have documented convincingly that prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) also results in persistent inflammation and nutrition deficiencies, though research on the impact of PAE on the enteric microbiota is in its infancy. Importantly, other neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorders, have been linked to gut microbiota dysbiosis. The combined evidence from alcohol exposure in adulthood and from other neurodevelopmental disorders supports the hypothesis that gut microbiota dysbiosis is likely an etiological feature that contributes to negative developmental, including neurodevelopmental, consequences of PAE and results in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Here, we highlight published data that support a role for gut microbiota in healthy development and explore the implication of these studies for the role of altered microbiota in the lifelong health consequences of PAE.

Effects of fenbendazole on fecal microbiome in BPH/5 mice, a model of hypertension and obesity, a brief report

Fenbendazole (FBZ) is a common antiparasitic treatment used in research rodent colonies for biosecurity purposes. The effect of this compound has been studied in C57 mice, but never before in a strain of mice that has co-morbidities, such as the blood pressure high (BPH)/5. The BPH/5 mouse is an inbred genetic model of hypertension. While both male and female BPH/5 have high blood pressure, there is a metabolic sexual dimorphism with females displaying key features of obesity. The obese gut microbiome has been linked to hypertension. Therefore, we hypothesized that fenbendazole treatment will alter the gut microbiome in hypertensive mice in a sex dependent manner. To test the influence of FBZ on the BPH/5 gut microbiota, fecal samples were collected pre- and post-treatment from adult BPH/5 mice (males and non-pregnant females). The mice were treated with fenbendazole impregnated feed for five weeks. Post-treatment feces were collected at the end of the treatment period and DNA was extracted, and the V4 region of 16S rRNA was amplified and sequenced using the Illumina MiSeq system. The purpose was to analyze the fecal microbiome before and after FBZ treatment, the results demonstrate changes with treatment in a sex dependent manner. More specifically, differences in community composition were detected in BPH/5 non-pregnant female and males using Bray-Curtis dissimilarity as a measure of beta-diversity (treatment p = 0.002). The ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes, which has been identified in cases of obesity, was not altered. Yet, Verrucomicrobia was increased in BPH/5 males and females post-treatment and was significantly different by sex (treatment p = 5.85e-05, sex p = 0.0151, and interaction p = 0.045), while Actinobacteria was decreased in the post-treatment mice (treatment p = 0.00017, sex p = 0.5, interaction p = 0.2). These results are indicative of gut dysbiosis compared to pre-treatment controls. Lactobacillus was decreased with FBZ treatment in BPH/5 females only. In conclusion, fenbendazole does alter the gut microbial communities, most notable in the male rather than female BPH/5 mouse. This provides evidence that caution should be taken when providing any gut altering treatments before or during mouse experiments.

Heterogeneity in the response to n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

A central goal in the study of long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) is to translate findings from the basic sciences to the population level to improve human health and prevent chronic diseases. A tenet of this vision is to think in terms of precision medicine and nutrition, that is, stratification of individuals into differing groups that will have different needs across the lifespan for n-3 PUFAs. Therefore, there is a critical need to identify the sources of heterogeneity in the human population in the dietary response to n-3 PUFA intervention.

RECENT FINDINGS

We briefly review key sources of heterogeneity in the response to intake of long chain n-3 PUFAs. These include background diet, host genome, composition of the gut microbiome, and sex. We also discuss the need to integrate data from newer rodent models (e.g. population-based approaches), multi -omics, and analyses of big data using machine learning and data-driven cluster analyses.

SUMMARY

Accounting for vast heterogeneity in the human population, particularly with the use of big data integrated with preclinical evidence, will drive the next generation of precision nutrition studies and randomized clinical trials with long-chain n-3 PUFAs.

A new gentiopicroside derivative improves cognitive deficits of AD mice via activation of Wnt signaling pathway and regulation of gut microbiota homeostasis

BACKGROUND

In our previous study, we found that gentiopicroside (GPS) isolated from Gentiana rigescens Franch has a significant antiaging activity via regulation of mitophagy and oxidative stress. In order to increase the anti-aging activity of GPS, several compounds based on the chemical structure of GPS were synthesized and evaluated for bioactivity with yeast replicative lifespan assay, and 2H-gentiopicroside (2H-GPS) as leading compound was selected for AD treatment.

PURPOSE AND METHODS

To investigate whether 2H-GPS has anti- Alzheimer's disease effects, we used D-galactose (Dgal)-induced model mice to evaluate the effect of 2H-GPS on AD mice. Furthermore, we explored the action mechanism of this compound with RT-PCR, Western Blot, ELISA and 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis.

RESULTS

Memory dysfunction and reduction in the number of neurons in the brain of mice were observed in Dgal treated group. These symptoms of AD mice were significantly relieved by administering 2H-GPS and donepezil (Done), respectively. In the Dgal only treated group, the protein levels of β-catenin, REST and phosphorylated GSK-3β, involved in the Wnt signaling pathway were significantly decreased, whereas the protein levels of GSK-3β, Tau, phosphorylated Tau, P35 and PEN-2 were significantly increased. Importantly, treatment with 2H-GPS resulted in restoration of memory dysfunction and levels of these proteins. Furthermore, the composition of the gut microbiota after 2H-GPS administration was explored through 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. Moreover, the mice, in which depleted gut microbiota with antibiotic cocktail (ABX), were used for evaluation of whether the gut microbiota is involved to the effect of 2H-GPS. Significant changes in gut microbiota composition were observed between AD and 2H-GPS-treated AD mice, and ABX partially eliminated the AD-restoring effect of 2H-GPS.

CONCLUSION

2H-GPS improves the symptoms of AD mice through combination of the regulation of Wnt signaling pathway and the microbiota-gut-brain axis, and the mechanism of action of 2H-GPS is distinct from that of Done.

Casein Hydrolysate Alleviates Adipose Chronic Inflammation in High Fat-Diet Induced Obese C57BL/6J Mice through MAPK Pathway

Obesity-induced adipose chronic inflammation is closely related to the development of insulin resistance and T2DM. Tripeptides l-valyl-l-prolyl-l-proline (VPP) and l-isoleucyl-l-prolyl-L-proline (IPP) derived from bovine casein have been reported to prevent inflammatory changes and mitigate insulin resistance in adipocytes. In this study, we aimed to investigate the influence of casein hydrolysates (CH) containing VPP and IPP on a high fat diet (HFD)-induced obese mice and cytokine TNF-α-induced adipocytes. Our data showed that CH alleviated chronic inflammation both in vivo and in vitro. 4% CH suppressed HFD-induced systemic inflammatory factors, hypertrophic white adipocytes, and macrophage infiltration. More importantly, CH was able to improve adipocyte dysfunction induced by TNF-α by increasing the expression of CCAAT/enhancer binding protein α (C/EBP-α) rather than peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPAR-γ). Furthermore, CH also dose-dependently suppressed mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)-c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) phosphorylation and enhanced the phosphorylation of Erk 1/2, but not nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) p65 phosphorylation, in TNF-α-induced 3T3-L1 cells. These results indicated that CH could ameliorate adipose chronic inflammation through the MAPK pathway. Altogether, our findings suggested that 4% CH supplementation for 6 weeks exerted a protective role in preventing obesity-related inflammation and adipose dysfunction.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids-rich dietary lipid prevents high fat diet-induced obesity in mice

Diet is the primary factor affecting host nutrition and metabolism, with excess food intake, especially high-calorie diets, such as high-fat and high-sugar diets, causing an increased risk of obesity and related disorders. Obesity alters the gut microbial composition and reduces microbial diversity and causes changes in specific bacterial taxa. Dietary lipids can alter the gut microbial composition in obese mice. However, the regulation of gut microbiota and host energy homeostasis by different polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in dietary lipids remains unknown. Here, we demonstrated that different PUFAs in dietary lipids improved host metabolism in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity in mice. The intake of the different PUFA-enriched dietary lipids improved metabolism in HFD-induced obesity by regulating glucose tolerance and inhibiting colonic inflammation. Moreover, the gut microbial compositions were different among HFD and modified PUFA-enriched HFD-fed mice. Thus, we have identified a new mechanism underlying the function of different PUFAs in dietary lipids in regulating host energy homeostasis in obese conditions. Our findings shed light on the prevention and treatment of metabolic disorders by targeting the gut microbiota.

Endogenous n-3 PUFAs Improve Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease through FFAR4-Mediated Gut-Liver Crosstalk

The gut-liver axis plays a key role in the development and progression of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Due to the complexity and incomplete understanding of the cross-talk between the gut and liver, effective therapeutic targets are largely unknown. Free fatty acid receptors (FFARs) may bridge the cross-talk between the gut and liver. FFAR4 has received considerable attention due to its important role in lipid metabolism. However, the role of FFAR4 in this cross talk in NAFLD remains unclear. In this study, mice with high endogenous n-3 PUFAs but FFAR4 deficiency were generated by crossbreeding Fat-1 and FFAR4 knockout mice. FFAR4 deficiency blocked the protective effects of high endogenous n-3 PUFAs on intestinal barrier dysfunction and hepatic steatosis. In addition, FFAR4 deficiency decreased gut microbiota diversity and enriched Rikenella, Anaerotruncus, and Enterococcus, and reduced Dubosiella, Ruminococcaceae UCG-010, Ruminococcaceae UCG-014, Coriobacteriaceae UCG-002, Faecalibaculum, Ruminococcaceae UCG-009, and Akkermansia. Notably, FFAR4 deficiency co-regulated pantothenic acid and CoA biosynthesis, β-alanine metabolism, and sphingolipid metabolism pathways in the gut and liver, potentially associated with the aggravation of NAFLD. Together, the beneficial effects of n-3 PUFAs on the gut and liver were mediated by FFAR4, providing insights on the role of FFAR4 in the treatment of NAFLD through the gut-liver axis.

Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) differentially modifies the in vitro gut microbiota in an age-dependent manner

Introduction

Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) are well-known carbohydrates that promote healthy gut microbiota and have been previously demonstrated to enhance levels of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus. Its bifidogenic properties are associated with positive health outcomes such as reduced obesity and anti-inflammatory properties, and, therefore, is in use as a prebiotic supplement to support healthy gut microbiota. However, the gut microbiota changes with age, which may lead to differential responses to treatments with prebiotics and other dietary supplements.

Methods

To address this concern, we implemented a 24-h in vitro culturing method to determine whether FOS treatment in three different adult age groups would have a differential effect. The age groups of interest ranged from 25 to 70 years and were split into young adults, adults, and older adults for the purposes of this analysis. Metagenomics and short-chain fatty acid analysis were performed to determine changes in the structure and function of the microbial communities.

Results

These analyses found that FOS created a bifidogenic response in all age groups, increased overall SCFA levels, decreased alpha diversity, and shifted the communities to be more similar in beta diversity metrics. However, the age groups differed in which taxa were most prevalent or most affected by FOS treatment.

Discussion

Overall, the results of this study demonstrate the positive effects of FOS on the gut microbiome, and importantly, how age may play a role in the effectiveness of this prebiotic.

Fishmeal Protein Replacement by Defatted and Full-Fat Black Soldier Fly Larvae Meal in Juvenile Turbot Diet: Effects on the Growth Performance and Intestinal Microbiota

A 12-week feeding trial was conducted to investigate the effect of the same fishmeal protein level replaced by black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) meal (BSFL) with different lipid contents on the growth performance and intestinal health of juvenile turbot (Scophthalmus maximus L.) (initial body weight 12.64 g). Three isonitrogenous and isolipidic diets were formulated: fish meal-based diet (FM), diets DF and FF, in which 14% fish meal protein of the FM diet was replaced by defatted and full-fat BSFL, respectively. There were no significant differences in growth performance, intestinal morphology, and mucosal barrier function between the DF and the FM group. However, diet FF markedly reduced the growth performance, intestinal perimeter ratio, and the gene expression of anti-inflammatory cytokine TGF-β (P < 0.05). Compared to group FF, the communities of intestinal microbiota in group DF were more similar to group FM. Moreover, diet DF decreased the abundance of some potential pathogenic bacteria and enriched the potential probiotics, such as Bacillus. Diet FF obviously altered the composition of intestinal microbiota and increased the abundance of some potential pathogenic bacteria. These results suggested that the application of defatted BSFL showed more positive effects on fish growth and intestinal health than the full-fat BSFL, and the intestinal microbiota was closely involved in these effects.

Polysaccharide-rich fractions from Enteromorpha prolifera improve hepatic steatosis and gut barrier integrity in high-fat diet-induced obese mice linking to modulation of gut microbiota

Polysaccharides from Enteromorpha prolifera (EP) possess important benefits in the management of obesity and associated metabolic diseases, but to date, the underlying mechanism linking this alleviative effect of EP to gut microbiota remains obscure. This study aimed to investigate the effects of EP in improving lipid metabolism disorders and intestinal barrier disruption in mice with high-fat diet (HFD), and its association with modulation of gut microbiota. C57BL/6 mice were fed a control diet or a HFD with or without 5% EP for 12 weeks. Factors related to lipid metabolism, insulin signaling and intestinal barrier integrity, as well as the involvement of gut microbiota and metabolites, were measured. EP supplementation reduced HFD-induced adiposity and mitigated insulin resistance, hepatic steatosis and elevation of serum lipopolysaccharides (LPS). HFD impaired intestinal barrier integrity while improved due to EP. Moreover, EP administration ameliorated HFD-induced gut dysbiosis, as revealed by the increased short-chain fatty acid (SCFA)-producing bacteria (e.g., Bacteroides, Parabacteroides, Alloprevotella, and Ruminococcus) and gut barrier-protective Akkermansia muciniphila and decreased endotoxin-producing bacteria (e.g., Desulfovibrionaceae and Bilophila), accompanied by enrichment in intestinal SCFA content and reduction in circulating LPS level. The change of dominant bacterial genera is significantly correlated with improved metabolic profiles and intestinal permeability induced by EP. In conclusion, our results indicate that EP can attenuate HFD-induced metabolic disorders along with restoration of gut barrier integrity and lowering of circulating endotoxin, and these improvements are associated with modulation of gut microbiota composition and related metabolites. These data deepen mechanistic understanding of the anti-obesity and metabolic improving effects of EP.

Potential Mechanisms by Which Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic Acids Regulate Glucose Homeostasis in Obesity

Dysregulation of glucose metabolism in response to diet-induced obesity contributes toward numerous complications, such as insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis. Therefore, there is a need to develop effective strategies to improve glucose homeostasis. In this review, we first discuss emerging evidence from epidemiological studies and rodent experiments that increased consumption of EPA (either as oily fish, or dietary/pharmacological supplements) may have a role in preventing impairments in insulin and glucose homeostasis. We then review the current evidence on how EPA-derived metabolites known as hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids (HEPEs) may be a major mode of action by which EPA exerts its beneficial effects on glucose and lipid metabolism. Notably, cell culture and rodent studies show that HEPEs prevent fat accumulation in metabolic tissues through peroxisome proliferator activated receptor (PPAR)-mediated mechanisms. In addition, activation of the resolvin E1 pathway, either by administration of EPA in the diet or via intraperitoneal administration of resolvin E1, improves hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, and liver steatosis through multiple mechanisms. These mechanisms include shifting immune cell phenotypes toward resolution of inflammation and preventing dysbiosis of the gut microbiome. Finally, we present the next steps for this line of research that will drive future precision randomized clinical trials with EPA and its downstream metabolites. These include dissecting the variables that drive heterogeneity in the response to EPA, such as the baseline microbiome profile and fatty acid status, circadian rhythm, genetic variation, sex, and age. In addition, there is a critical need to further investigate mechanisms of action for HEPEs and to establish the concentration of HEPEs in differing tissues, particularly in response to consumption of oily fish and EPA-enriched supplements.

Effects of Omega-3-Rich Pork Lard on Serum Lipid Profile and Gut Microbiome in C57BL/6NJ Mice

Background and Aims. Hyperlipidemia is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. This study is aimed at investigating the effects of consuming omega-3-rich pork lard on the serum lipid profile and gut microbiome of the mice model. Methods and Results. We divided 23 C57BL/6NJ males (16-week-old) into 3 groups, and each group received either a control diet, a high-fat diet of coconut oil (coconut oil), or a high-fat diet of omega-3-rich pork lard (omega lard) for 28 days. Thereafter, fasting serum lipids and fecal microbiomes were analyzed. The serum cholesterol, triglyceride, and LDL levels of the omega lard-treated group were significantly reduced compared to the coconut oil-treated group ( $P<0.05$ ). However, the microbiome analysis revealed a significant increase in the abundance of Lachnospiraceae in the omega lard-treated group compared to the coconut oil-treated group ( $P<0.05$ ). Furthermore, Spearman’s correlation analysis revealed that the increased serum lipid content was positively correlated with the abundance of Bacteroidaceae ( $P<0.05$ ) and negatively correlated with the abundance of Lachnospiraceae ( $P<0.05$ ). Conclusions. These findings suggested that omega-3-rich pork lard altered the serum lipid profile and gut microbiome in the mice model. Practical Application. The excellent protection offered by omega-3-rich pork lard against hyperlipidemia indicated that pork lard could be used as alternative cooking oil for health-conscious individuals. It could also be introduced as a functional ingredient for patients with hyperlipidemia.

Sodium butyrate in both prevention and supportive treatment of colorectal cancer

Accumulating evidence suggests that selected microbiota-derived metabolites play a significant role in both tumor prevention and supportive treatment of cancer. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), i.e., mainly acetate, proprionate, and butyrate, are one of them. Nowadays, it is known that butyrate is a key microbial metabolite. Therefore, in the current review, we focused on butyrate and sodium butyrate (NaB) in the context of colorectal cancer. Notably, butyrate is characterized by a wide range of beneficial properties/activities. Among others, it influences the function of the immune system, maintains intestinal barrier integrity, positively affects the efficiency of anti-cancer treatment, and may reduce the risk of mucositis induced by chemotherapy. Taking into consideration these facts, we analyzed NaB (which is a salt of butyric acid) and its impact on gut microbiota as well as anti-tumor activity by describing molecular mechanisms. Overall, NaB is available as, for instance, food with special medical purposes (depending on the country's regulation), and its administration seems to be a promising option for colorectal cancer patients.

Central and peripheral regulations mediated by short-chain fatty acids on energy homeostasis

The human gut microbiota influences obesity, insulin resistance, and the subsequent development of type 2 diabetes (T2D). The gut microbiota digests and ferments nutrients resulting in the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which generate various beneficial metabolic effects on energy and glucose homeostasis. However, their roles in the central nervous system (CNS)-mediated outputs on the metabolism have only been minimally studied. Here, we explore what is known and future directions that may be worth exploring in this emerging area. Specifically, we searched studies or data in English by using PubMed, Google Scholar, and the Human Metabolome Database. Studies were filtered by time from 1978 to March 2022. As a result, 195 studies, 53 reviews, 1 website, and 1 book were included. One hundred and sixty-five of 195 studies describe the production and metabolism of SCFAs or the effects of SCFAs on energy homeostasis, glucose balance, and mental diseases through the gut-brain axis or directly by a central pathway. Thirty of 195 studies show that inappropriate metabolism and excessive of SCFAs are metabolically detrimental. Most studies suggest that SCFAs exert beneficial metabolic effects by acting as the energy substrate in the TCA cycle, regulating the hormones related to satiety regulation and insulin secretion, and modulating immune cells and microglia. These functions have been linked with AMPK signaling, GPCRs-dependent pathways, and inhibition of histone deacetylases (HDACs). However, the studies focusing on the central effects of SCFAs are still limited. The mechanisms by which central SCFAs regulate appetite, energy expenditure, and blood glucose during different physiological conditions warrant further investigation.

Oral antibiotics perturbation on gut microbiota after prostate biopsy

Introduction

The use of antibiotics may induce the changes in gut microbiota. Previous studies have shown conflicting results on whether the changed gut microbiota by antibiotics can be recovered. Our study aims to investigate whether the gut microbiota could be recovered after a single dose of oral co-amoxiclav before transrectal ultrasound-guided transperineal prostate biopsy (TPPBx) in 5 weeks’ time.

Methods

Fifteen patients with elevated serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) were recruited to provide pre-antibiotic and post-antibiotic fecal samples. The V4 region of 16S rRNA was sequenced. Analysis was performed by QIIME2. Alpha- and beta-diversities were analyzed, as well as the differential enrichment by Linear discriminant analysis Effect Size (LEfSe) analysis.

Results

Both the alpha- and beta-diversities of the pre- and post-antibiotic fecal samples were significantly different. Genera that are associated with alleviation of inflammation were enriched in the pre-antibiotic fecal samples, while the inflammation-associated genera were more enriched in the post-antibiotic fecal samples.

Conclusion

A single dose of oral co-amoxiclav before TPPBx could have led to a change of gut microbiota that cannot be recovered in 5 weeks' time. Microbiome studies on prostate cancer patients should be cautioned on the use of post-prostate biopsy fecal sampling. Further studies should be conducted for the impact on gut microbiome for TPPBx alone.

Neuroprotective Effects of Oligosaccharides From Periplaneta Americana on Parkinson’s Disease Models In Vitro and In Vivo

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the neurodegenerative diseases that is characterized by obvious motor and some nonmotor symptoms. Various therapeutics failed in the effective treatment of PD because of impaired neurological function in the brain and various complications. Periplaneta Americana oligosaccharides (OPA), the main active ingredients extracted from the medicine residues of Periplaneta Americana (P. Americana), have been reported to exert anti-inflammatory effects. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the possible mechanisms of OPA against 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP⁺)-induced apotosis in SH-SY5Y cells and its potential neuroprotective effects in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced PD subacute model mice. The data demonstrated that OPA significantly reversed the MPP⁺-induced decrease in SH-SY5Y cell viability, reduced the proportion of apoptotic cells, and protected SH-SY5Y cells from apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner by regulating the expression of apoptosis-related genes. Furthermore, OPA also alleviated the motor dysfunction of PD model mice, prevented the loss of tyrosine hydroxylase positive cells, suppressed the apoptosis of substantia nigra cells, and improved the dysbiosis of gut microbiota in vivo, suggesting that OPA demonstrated a significantly neuroprotective effect on PD model mice. These results indicated that OPA might be the possibility of PD therapeutics with economic utility and high safety.

Cooked Adzuki Bean Reduces High-Fat Diet-Induced Body Weight Gain, Ameliorates Inflammation, and Modulates Intestinal Homeostasis in Mice

Adzuki bean is widely consumed in East Asia. Although the positive effects of its biologically active ingredients on obesity have been confirmed, the role of whole cooked adzuki bean in preventing obesity and the relationship between the effects and gut microbiota remain unclear. Mice were fed either a low-fat diet (LFD) or high-fat diet (HFD) with or without 15% cooked adzuki bean for 12 weeks. Cooked adzuki bean significantly inhibited weight gain and hepatic steatosis, reduced high levels of serum triacylglycerol (TG), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alleviated systemic inflammation and metabolic endotoxemia in mice fed a HFD. Importantly, cooked adzuki bean regulated gut microbiota composition, decreased the abundance of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-producing bacteria (Desulfovibrionaceae,Helicobacter,and Bilophila), and HFD-dependent taxa (Deferribacteraceae, Ruminiclostridium_9, Ruminiclostridium, Mucispirillum, Oscillibacter, Enterorhabdus, Tyzzerella, Anaerotruncus, Intestinimonas, unclassified_f_Ruminococcaceae, Ruminiclostridium_5, and Ruminococcaceae), and enriched Muribaculaceae, norank_f_Muribaculaceae, Anaeroplasma, Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, and Lachnospiraceae to alleviate inflammation and metabolic disorders induced by HFD. These findings provide new evidence for understanding the anti-obesity effect of cooked adzuki bean.

EPA and DHA differentially coordinate the crosstalk between host and gut microbiota and block DSS-induced colitis in mice by a reinforced colonic mucus barrier

Background: Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the colon with a continuously remitting and relapsing course. Its etiology is closely related to abnormal interactions between host and gut microbiota. The mucus barrier lining the gastrointestinal tract is necessary to coordinate host and gut microbiota interaction by nourishing and modulating the microbiota. Differential effects of the anti-inflammatory fatty acids docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) on UC progression in mice were firstly addressed by our previous work; here, the mechanism for their respective effects were further uncovered from host-microbiome crosstalk based on mucus barrier modulation to pave the way for UC therapy. Methods: Assessment of the disease activity index and histopathology score was conducted in mice with dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis pre-treated with different doses of EPA and DHA. Mucin generation, glycosylation and secretion were evaluated by a combination of electron microscopy, specific mucous staining, and qPCR. Western blotting was used to analyze the underlying molecular events. Fecal short chain fatty acids were detected using gas chromatography, and the gut microbial composition was analyzed using 16S rRNA sequencing. Results: Compared with DHA, the more potent inhibitory effect of high dose EPA on DSS-induced colitis was reconfirmed, which was underlain by a reinforced mucus layer as indicated by increased mucin granule release, mucus layer stratification and markedly upregulated expression of the key modulators involved in goblet cell differentiation. In turn a remarkably enhanced mucus barrier in the EPA group functioned to modulate the gut microbiome, as demonstrated by the enriched abundance of the phylum Bacteroidetes and mucin-degrading bacterium Akkermansia muciniphila producing acetic and propionic acids. Conclusions: EPA and DHA differentially coordinate the interaction between the host and the gut microbiota and relieve mucus barrier disruption in DSS-induced colitis. EPA may develop into a promising adjunctive therapy for UC.

Ginsenoside Rb1 Improves Metabolic Disorder in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obese Mice Associated With Modulation of Gut Microbiota

Gut microbiota plays an important role in metabolic homeostasis. Previous studies demonstrated that ginsenoside Rb1 might improve obesity-induced metabolic disorders through regulating glucose and lipid metabolism in the liver and adipose tissues. Due to low bioavailability and enrichment in the intestinal tract of Rb1, we hypothesized that modulation of the gut microbiota might account for its pharmacological effects as well. Here, we show that oral administration of Rb1 significantly decreased serum LDL-c, TG, insulin, and insulin resistance index (HOMA-IR) in mice with a high-fat diet (HFD). Dynamic profiling of the gut microbiota showed that this metabolic improvement was accompanied by restoring of relative abundance of some key bacterial genera. In addition, the free fatty acids profiles in feces were significantly different between the HFD-fed mice with or without Rb1. The content of eight long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs) was significantly increased in mice with Rb1, which was positively correlated with the increase of Akkermansia and Parasuttereller, and negatively correlated with the decrease of Oscillibacter and Intestinimonas. Among these eight increased LCFAs, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), octadecenoic acids, and myristic acid were positively correlated with metabolic improvement. Furthermore, the colonic expression of the free fatty acid receptors 4 (Ffar4) gene was significantly upregulated after Rb1 treatment, in response to a notable increase of LCFA in feces. These findings suggested that Rb1 likely modulated the gut microbiota and intestinal free fatty acids profiles, which should be beneficial for the improvement of metabolic disorders in HFD-fed mice. This study provides a novel mechanism of Rb1 for the treatment of metabolic disorders induced by obesity, which may provide a therapeutic avenue for the development of new nutraceutical-based remedies for treating metabolic diseases, such as hyperlipidemia, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes.

Seabuckthorn polysaccharide ameliorates high-fat diet-induced obesity by gut microbiota-SCFAs-liver axis

Obesity has been reported to be associated with gut microbiome dysbiosis. seabuckthorn fruits have traditionally been used in Tibetan foods and medicines for thousands of years. Seabuckthorn polysaccharide (SP) is one of the main functional components in seabuckthorn fruits. However, the effects of SP on a high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity have not yet been elucidated. The purpose of this study is to explore the amelioration effect of SP on obesity induced by HFD and to reveal its mechanism of gut microbiota and its metabolites. Results showed that 12-week SP (0.1%, w/w) dietary supplementation could significantly reduce body weight gain, serum lipid level and liver triglycerides level in obese mice. Notably, the SP treatment elevated p-AMPKα and PPARα proteins expression stimulated the phosphorylation of ACC1 and inhibited the protein expression of FAS, PPARγ, and CD36 in the mice liver. Further, SP also reorganized the gut microbiome by up-regulating the proportion of Muribaculaceae_unclassified, Bifidobacterium, Rikenellaceae_RC9_gut_group, Alistipes, and Bacteroides, and down-regulating the abundance of Lactobacillus, Firmicutes_unclassified, Dubosiella Bilophila, and Streptococcus in HFD-induced obese mice. Moreover, the production of microbial metabolites short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in feces has also increased. In addition, correlation analysis results showed that obesity-ameliorating effects of SP were highly associated with levels of SCFAs in feces. Therefore, the regulation of SP on liver lipid metabolism may be due to the variation of the gut microbiome and raised production of SCFAs. These results indicate that SP could play the part of a potential nutraceutical for ameliorating obesity through regulation of the gut-liver axis.

The Nutrition-Microbiota-Physical Activity Triad: An Inspiring New Concept for Health and Sports Performance

The human gut microbiota is currently the focus of converging interest in many diseases and sports performance. This review presents gut microbiota as a real “orchestra conductor” in the host’s physio(patho)logy due to its implications in many aspects of health and disease. Reciprocally, gut microbiota composition and activity are influenced by many different factors, such as diet and physical activity. Literature data have shown that macro- and micro-nutrients influence gut microbiota composition. Cumulative data indicate that gut bacteria are sensitive to modulation by physical activity, as shown by studies using training and hypoactivity models. Sports performance studies have also presented interesting and promising results. Therefore, gut microbiota could be considered a “pivotal” organ for health and sports performance, leading to a new concept: the nutrition-microbiota-physical activity triad. The next challenge for the scientific and medical communities is to test this concept in clinical studies. The long-term aim is to find the best combination of the three elements of this triad to optimize treatments, delay disease onset, or enhance sports performance. The many possibilities offered by biotic supplementation and training modalities open different avenues for future research.

Alterations in the Gut Microbial Composition and Diversity of Tibetan Sheep Infected With Echinococcus granulosus

Hydatidosis/cystic echinococcosis (CE) caused by Echinococcus granulosus is a parasitic zoonotic disease worldwide, threatening animal health and production and public health safety. However, it is still unclear that whether E. granulosus infection can result in the alteration of gut microbiota in Tibetan sheep. Therefore, a study was designed to investigate the influences of E. granulosus infection on gut microbiota of Tibetan sheep. A total of 10 ovine small intestinal contents (five from healthy and five from infected) were obtained and subjected to high-throughput sequencing by MiSeq platform. A total of 2,395,641 sequences and 585 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were identified. Firmicutes and Proteobacteria were the most dominant phyla in all samples. Moreover, the proportions of Armatimonadetes and Firmicutes in the infected Tibetan sheep were significantly decreased, whereas Actinobacteria, Chloroflexi, and Acidobacteria had significantly increased. At the genus level, the Christensenellaceae_R-7_group and Ruminococcaceae_NK4A214_group were the predominant bacterial genera in all the samples. Furthermore, the healthy Tibetan sheep exhibited higher abundances of Intestinimonas, Butyrivibrio, Pseudobutyrivibrio, Ruminococcaceae, Eubacterium_coprostanoligenes_group, Oxobacter, Prevotella_1, Ruminiclostridium_6, Coprococcus_1, Ruminococcus, Lachnospiraceae_UCG-002, Olsenella, and Acetitomaculum, whereas Kocuria, Clostridium_sensu_stricto_1, Slackia, Achromobacter, and Stenotrophomonas levels were lower. In conclusion, our results conveyed an information that E. granulosus infection may cause an increase in pathogenic bacteria and a decrease in beneficial bacteria. Additionally, a significant dynamical change in gut microbiota could be associated with E. granulosus infection.

Suppression of high-fat-diet-induced obesity in mice by dietary folic acid supplementation is linked to changes in gut microbiota

PURPOSE

To investigate whether the effects of dietary folic acid supplementation on body weight gain are mediated by gut microbiota in obesity.

METHODS

Male C57 BL/6J conventional (CV) and germ-free (GF) mice both aged three to four weeks were fed a high-fat diet (HD), folic acid-deficient HD (FD-HD), folic acid-supplement HD (FS-HD) and a normal-fat diet (ND) for 25 weeks. Faecal microbiota were analyzed by 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing, and the mRNA expression of genes was determined by the real-time RT-PCR. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in faeces and plasma were measured using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

In CV mice, HD-induced body weight gain was inhibited by FS-HD, accompanied by declined energy intake, smaller white adipocyte size, and less whitening of brown adipose tissue. Meanwhile, the HD-induced disturbance in the expression of fat and energy metabolism-associated genes (Fas, Atgl, Hsl, Ppar-α, adiponectin, resistin, Ucp2, etc.) in epididymal fat was diminished, and the dysbiosis in faecal microbiota was lessened, by FS-HD. However, in GF mice with HD feeding, dietary folic acid supplementation had almost no effect on body weight gain and the expression of fat- and energy-associated genes. Faecal or plasma SCFA concentrations in CV and GF mice were not altered by either FD-HD or FS-HD feeding.

CONCLUSION

Dietary folic acid supplementation differently affected body weight gain and associated genes' expression under HD feeding between CV and GF mice, suggesting that gut bacteria might partially share the responsibility for beneficial effects of dietary folate on obesity.

Effect of piperine on the mitigation of obesity associated with gut microbiota alteration

An obese mouse model induced by high-fat diet (HFD) feeding was used to reveal the role of piperine in modulating gut microbiota (GM). Piperine was administrated at 20 and 40 mg/kg body weight every day. As a result, piperine at 40 mg/kg significantly decreased body weight, liver weight, perirenal fat weight, and lowered serum triglycerides, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and glucose levels in HFD-fed mice. Additionally, piperine significantly attenuated fatty liver and modulated hepatic mRNA expressions of SREBP-1c, SREBP2, and HMGCR. In perirenal fat, FAS, C/EBPα, MCP1, and IL-6 expressions were significantly downregulated by piperine. 16S rRNA sequencing revealed that piperine elevated GM diversity. The relative abundance of Muribaculaceae and Ruminococcaceae were significantly elevated, while Dubosiella and Enterorhabdus genera were suppressed by piperine. The Pearson correlation analysis showed that the altered phylotypes were highly correlated with obesity phenotypes. These findings suggest that piperine modulates energy homeostasis and inflammation to alleviate obesity associated with GM regulation.

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Piperine significantly attenuates obesity and elevates gut microbiota diversity.

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Piperine elevates the abundance of Muribaculaceae and Ruminococcaceae families.

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Piperine suppresses Dubosiella and Enterorhabdus genera.

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The piperine-altered phylotypes are highly correlated with obesity phenotypes.

Beneficial effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on the metabolic profile of obese female mice entails upregulation of HEPEs and increased abundance of enteric Akkermansia muciniphila

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) ethyl esters are of interest given their clinical approval for lowering circulating triglycerides and cardiometabolic disease risk. EPA ethyl esters prevent metabolic complications driven by a high fat diet in male mice; however, their impact on female mice is less studied. Herein, we first investigated how EPA influences the metabolic profile of female C57BL/6J mice consuming a high fat diet. EPA lowered murine fat mass accumulation, potentially through increased biosynthesis of 8-hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acid (HEPE), as revealed by mass spectrometry and cell culture studies. EPA also reversed the effects of a high fat diet on circulating levels of insulin, glucose, and select inflammatory/metabolic markers. Next, we studied if the improved metabolic profile of obese mice consuming EPA was associated with a reduction in the abundance of key gut Gram-negative bacteria that contribute toward impaired glucose metabolism. Using fecal 16S-ribosomal RNA gene sequencing, we found EPA restructured the gut microbiota in a time-dependent manner but did not lower the levels of key Gram-negative bacteria. Interestingly, EPA robustly increased the abundance of the Gram-negative Akkermansia muciniphila, which controls glucose homeostasis. Finally, predictive functional profiling of microbial communities revealed EPA-mediated reversal of high fat diet-associated changes in a wide range of genes related to pathways such as Th-17 cell differentiation and PI3K-Akt signaling. Collectively, these results show that EPA ethyl esters prevent some of the deleterious effects of a high fat diet in female mice, which may be mediated mechanistically through 8-HEPE and the upregulation of intestinal Akkermansia muciniphila.

The Relationship Between Osteoporosis and Intestinal Microbes in the Henan Province of China

Osteoporosis (OP) is a chronic disease in the elderly, and China is entering an aging demographic trend. In recent years, increasing evidence has demonstrated that probiotics can treat osteoporosis. This study aimed to explore the relevant mechanisms and to validate the beneficial effect on osteoporosis by high-throughput metagenome-wide gene sequencing in humans. In this study, compared with controls, several species had altered abundances, and specific functional pathways were found in the OP group. At the species level, the species that had increased in OP individuals were positively correlated to bone resorption markers and negatively correlated to 25-OH-D3 and bone formation markers, with Streptococcus sanguinis showing the strongest relevance, followed by Streptococcus gordonii, Actinomyces odontolyticus, and Olsenella unclassified. Additionally, Actinomyces graevenitzii, enriched in the OP group, was positively correlated to inflammation indicators that included white blood cell (WBC), neutrophil count (NEC), and the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) (p < 0.05). Conversely, the levels of Akkermansia muciniphila, Bacteroides eggerthii, Bacteroides fragilis, Bacteroides uniformis, and Butyricimonas synergistic were increased in the control group, which had a negative correlation with bone resorption markers and positive correlation with bone formation markers and 25-OH-D3. Additionally, Bacteroides fragilis had a negative correlation with inflammation indicators (WBC, NEC, and NLR) and the above pathways (p < 0.05). Functional prediction revealed that 106 metabolic pathways, enriched in the OP group, were significantly higher than in the control group (p < 0.05). In particular, pathways related to LPS biosynthesis, phytate degradation, lactate acid, and ethanol fermentation were more abundant in the OP group than in the control and were positively related to WBC and NEC. Taken together, several species with altered abundances and specific functional pathways were found in OP individuals. The role of phytases in OP provides novel epidemiological evidence to elucidate the underlying microbiota-relevant mechanisms in bone mineralization and should be explored further.

Adzuki Bean Alleviates Obesity and Insulin Resistance Induced by a High-Fat Diet and Modulates Gut Microbiota in Mice

Adzuki bean consumption has many health benefits, but its effects on obesity and regulating gut microbiota imbalances induced by a high-fat diet (HFD) have not been thoroughly studied. Mice were fed a low-fat diet, a HFD, and a HFD supplemented with 15% adzuki bean (HFD-AB) for 12 weeks. Adzuki bean supplementation significantly reduced obesity, lipid accumulation, and serum lipid and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) levels induced by HFD. It also mitigated liver function damage and hepatic steatosis. In particular, adzuki bean supplementation improved glucose homeostasis by increasing insulin sensitivity. In addition, it significantly reversed HFD-induced gut microbiota imbalances. Adzuki bean significantly reduced the ratio of Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes (F/B); enriched the occurrence of Bifidobacterium, Prevotellaceae, Ruminococcus_1, norank_f_Muribaculaceae, Alloprevotella, Muribaculum, Turicibacter, Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, and Lachnoclostridium; and returned HFD-dependent taxa (Desulfovibrionaceae, Bilophila, Ruminiclostridium_9, Blautia, and Ruminiclostridium) back to normal status. PICRUSt2 analysis showed that the changes in gut microbiota induced by adzuki bean supplementation may be associated with the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, sulfur, and cysteine and methionine; and LPS biosynthesis; and valine, leucine, and isoleucine degradation.

Live Combined B. subtilis and E. faecium Alleviate Liver Inflammation, Improve Intestinal Barrier Function, and Modulate Gut Microbiota in Mice with Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Background

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a chronic, progressive liver disease with an increasing incidence rate. This study investigated the protective effects of live combined Bacillus subtilis and Enterococcus faecium (LCBE) on NAFLD, and its possible mechanisms.

Material/Methods

Five-week-old C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into 3 groups: chow, HFD, and HFD+LCBE groups. The levels of serum biochemical markers, glucose tolerance, insulin, the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, LPS, and histological staining were measured using commercial kits. qPCR was used to examine the mRNA expression levels of inflammatory cytokines in the liver. Western blotting was used to determine the protein levels of TLR4, NF-κB p65, PPAR-α, and CPT-1 in the liver, and occludin and Claudin1 in the intestine. The intestinal flora of the mice was analyzed by high-throughput sequencing of the V3–V4 region of 16S rDNA.

Results

LCBE significantly lowered the body weight, liver/body weight ratio, and serum glucose level, and increased the serum insulin level in NAFLD mice. In addition, LCBE treatment improved the liver function and lipid profile, decreased the levels of LPS and inflammatory cytokines, and downregulated the expression of TLR4 and NF-κB p65. Moreover, LCBE enhanced the intestinal barrier function by increasing the expression of occludin and Claudin1. Furthermore, LCBE modulated the composition of the gut microbiota by reducing the Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio, and the proportion of inflammation-related and LPS-producing bacteria, thus re-arranging the structure of the gut microbiota.

Conclusions

LCBE protects against NAFLD by alleviating inflammation, restoring the intestinal barrier, and modulating gut microbiota composition.

Longitudinal Characterization of the Gut Bacterial and Fungal Communities in Yaks

Development phases are important in maturing immune systems, intestinal functions, and metabolism for the construction, structure, and diversity of microbiome in the intestine during the entire life. Characterizing the gut microbiota colonization and succession based on age-dependent effects might be crucial if a microbiota-based therapeutic or disease prevention strategy is adopted. The purpose of this study was to reveal the dynamic distribution of intestinal bacterial and fungal communities across all development stages in yaks. Dynamic changes (a substantial difference) in the structure and composition ratio of the microbial community were observed in yaks that matched the natural aging process from juvenile to natural aging. This study included a significant shift in the abundance and proportion of bacterial phyla (Planctomycetes, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Spirochaetes, Tenericutes, Proteobacteria, and Cyanobacteria) and fungal phyla (Chytridiomycota, Mortierellomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota) across all development stages in yaks. As yaks grew older, variation reduced, and diversity increased as compared to young yaks. In addition, the intestine was colonized by a succession of microbiomes that coalesced into a more mature adult, including Ruminococcaceae_UCG-005, Romboutsia, Prevotellaceae_UCG-004, Blautia, Clostridium_sensu_stricto_1, Ruminococcus_1, Ruminiclostridium_5, Rikenellaceae_RC9_gut_group, Alloprevotella, Acetitomaculum, Lachnospiraceae_NK3A20_group, Bacteroides, Treponema_2, Olsenella, Escherichia-Shigella, Candidatus_Saccharimonas, and fungal communities Mortierella, Lomentospora, Orpinomyces, and Saccharomyces. In addition, microorganisms that threaten health, such as Escherichia-Shigella, Mortierella, Lomentospora and Hydrogenoanaerobacterium, Corynebacterium_1, Trichosporon, and Coprinellus, were enriched in young and old yaks, respectively, although all yaks were healthy. The significant shifts in microflora composition and structure might reflect adaptation of gut microbiome, which is associated with physicochemical conditions changes and substrate availability in the gut across all development periods of yaks.

Inositol hexaphosphate modulates the behavior of macrophages through alteration of gene expression involved in pathways of pro- and anti-inflammatory responses, and resolution of inflammation pathways

Inositol hexaphosphate (IP6) is a dietary compound commonly obtained from corn, rice, etc. Although we may consume significant amount of IP6 daily, it is unclear whether this diet will impact macrophages' fate and function. Therefore, we characterized the underlying relationship between IP6 and macrophage polarization in this study. We specifically examined the signature gene expression profiles associated with pro- and anti-inflammatory responses, and resolution of inflammation pathways in macrophages under the influence of IP6. Interestingly, our data suggested that IP6 polarizes bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) into an M2a-like subtype. Our results also demonstrated that IP6 reduces lipopolysaccharide-induced apoptosis and pro-inflammatory responses in macrophages. In contrast, the expression levels of genes related to anti-inflammatory responses and resolution of inflammation pathways are upregulated. Our findings collectively demonstrated that IP6 has profound modulation effects on macrophages, which warrant further research on the therapeutic benefits of IP6 for inflammatory diseases.

Prolyl Endopeptidase Gene Disruption Improves Gut Dysbiosis and Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Mice Induced by a High-Fat Diet

The gut-liver axis is increasingly recognized as being involved in the pathogenesis and progression of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Prolyl endopeptidase (PREP) plays a role in gut metabolic homeostasis and neurodegenerative diseases. We investigated the role of PREP disruption in the crosstalk between gut flora and hepatic steatosis or inflammation in mice with NAFLD. Wild-type mice (WT) and PREP gene knocked mice (PREP^gt) were fed a low-fat diet (LFD) or high-fat diet (HFD) for 16 or 24 weeks. Murine gut microbiota profiles were generated at 16 or 24 weeks. Liver lipogenesis-associated molecules and their upstream mediators, AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and sirtuin1 (SIRT1), were detected using RT-PCR or western blot in all mice. Inflammatory triggers and mediators from the gut or infiltrated inflammatory cells and signal mediators, such as p-ERK and p-p65, were determined. We found that PREP disruption modulated microbiota composition and altered the abundance of several beneficial bacteria such as the butyrate-producing bacteria in mice fed a HFD for 16 or 24 weeks. The level of butyrate in HFD-PREP^gt mice significantly increased compared with that of the HFD-WT mice at 16 weeks. Interestingly, PREP disruption inhibited p-ERK and p-p65 and reduced the levels of proinflammatory cytokines in response to endotoxin and proline-glycine-proline, which guided macrophage/neutrophil infiltration in mice fed a HFD for 24 weeks. However, at 16 weeks, PREP disruption, other than regulating hepatic inflammation, displayed improved liver lipogenesis and AMPK/SIRT1 signaling. PREP disruption may target multiple hepatic mechanisms related to the liver, gut, and microbiota, displaying a dynamic role in hepatic steatosis and inflammation during NAFLD. PREP might serve as a therapeutic target for NAFLD.

Mixed conjugated linoleic acid sex-dependently reverses high-fat diet-induced insulin resistance via the gut-adipose axis

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) may prevent the development of obesity and metabolic disorders. However, the effects of CLA on inflammation and glucose metabolism are controversial. The underlying mechanisms governing the gut microbiota and sexual dimorphisms have also not been elucidated. The present study assessed the effect of CLA on glucose and lipid metabolism in established obesity and examined the mechanism of action based on gut microbiota. Four-week-old C57BL/6J mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD) for 10 weeks to induce obesity. The diet-induced obese (DIO) mice were fed an HFD supplemented with mixed CLA (50% cis-9, trans-11 isomer and 50% trans-10, cis-12 isomers, 0.2% wt/wt) for 15 weeks. CLA supplementation remarkably reversed body weight in both sexes. CLA favored anti-inflammatory microbiota in male mice, mediating increased short-chain fatty acids and decreased lipopolysaccharide (LPS) production, which alleviated global inflammation and improved insulin sensitivity via inhibition of the TLR4-NF-κB pathway in adipose tissue. CLA promoted the growth of hydrogen sulfide-producing Desulfovibrio and the release of LPS in female mice, which aggravated adipose inflammation and insulin resistance. Although CLA impaired glucose metabolism in females, brown adipose tissue was significantly activated with browning of white adipose tissue in both sexes, which led to enhanced energy expenditure. Fecal transplantation from CLA-treated mice to DIO mice mimicked the sex-dependent phenotype. In conclusion, CLA decreased body weight and increased energy expenditure but sex-dependently modulated insulin resistance via the gut-adipose axis.

Neurodevelopment correlates with gut microbiota in a cross-sectional analysis of children at 3 years of age in rural China

We investigated cross-sectional associations between children's neurodevelopment and their gut microbiota composition. Study children (36 months of age) lived in rural China (n = 46). Neurodevelopment was assessed using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development, 2nd Edition, yielding the Mental Developmental Index (MDI) and Psychomotor Developmental Index (PDI). Children's gut microbiota was assessed using 16S rRNA gene profiling. Microbial diversity was characterized using alpha diversity patterns. Additionally, 3 coabundance factors were determined for the 25 most abundant taxa. Multivariable linear regression models were constructed to examine the relationships between Bayley scores (MDI and PDI) and children's gut microbiota. In adjusted models, MDI and PDI scores were not associated with alpha diversity indices. However, in adjusted models, MDI and PDI scores were positively associated with the first coabundance factor, which captured positive loadings for the genera Faecalibacterium, Sutterella, and Clostridium cluster XIVa. For an interquartile range increase in the first coabundance factor, MDI scores increased by 3.9 points [95% confidence interval (CI): 0, 7.7], while PDI scores increased by 8.6 points (95% CI 3.1, 14). Our results highlight the potential for gut microbial compositional characteristics to be important correlates of children's Bayley Scales performance at 36 months of age.

Altered Gut Microbiota Related to Inflammatory Responses in Patients With Huntington's Disease

Emerging evidence indicates that gut dysbiosis may play a regulatory role in the onset and progression of Huntington’s disease (HD). However, any alterations in the fecal microbiome of HD patients and its relation to the host cytokine response remain unknown. The present study investigated alterations and host cytokine responses in patients with HD. We enrolled 33 HD patients and 33 sex- and age- matched healthy controls. Fecal microbiota communities were determined through 16S ribosomal DNA gene sequencing, from which we analyzed fecal microbial richness, evenness, structure, and differential abundance of individual taxa between HD patients and healthy controls. HD patients were evaluated for their clinical characteristics, and the relationships of fecal microbiota with these clinical characteristics were analyzed. Plasma concentrations of interferon gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p70, IL-13, and tumor necrosis factor alpha were measured by Meso Scale Discovery (MSD) assays, and relationships between microbiota and cytokine levels were analyzed in the HD group. HD patients showed increased α-diversity (richness), β-diversity (structure), and altered relative abundances of several taxa compared to those in healthy controls. HD-associated clinical characteristics correlated with the abundances of components of fecal microbiota at the genus level. Genus Intestinimonas was correlated with total functional capacity scores and IL-4 levels. Our present study also revealed that genus Bilophila were negatively correlated with proinflammatory IL-6 levels. Taken together, our present study represents the first to demonstrate alterations in fecal microbiota and inflammatory cytokine responses in HD patients. Further elucidation of interactions between microbial and host immune responses may help to better understand the pathogenesis of HD.

Effect of different phosphatidylcholines on high fat diet-induced insulin resistance in mice

In this study, we systematically investigated the effect of different phosphatidylcholines on high fat diet-induced insulin resistance in mice.

Gut Microbiota of Chinese Obese Children and Adolescents With and Without Insulin Resistance

OBJECTIVE

The intestinal flora of gut microbiota in obese Chinese children and adolescents with and without insulin resistance (IR) was analyzed, as well as associations between the gut microbiota and two serum cytokines related to glucose metabolism, adropin and angiopoietin-like 4 (ANGPTL4).

METHODS

Clinical data, fecal bacterial composition, glucose-related hormones, and serum adipokines (adropin and ANGPTL4) were analyzed in 65 Chinese children with exogenous obesity. The composition of the gut microbiota was determined by 16S rRNA-based metagenomics and IR was calculated using the homeostasis model assessment (HOMA).

RESULTS

The 65 obese subjects were divided into two groups: insulin sensitive (IS) (n=40, 57.5% males) or IR (n=25, 60% males). Principal coordinates analysis revealed that the gut microbiota samples from the IS group clustered together and separated partly from the IR group (p=0.008). By Mann-Whitney U-test, at a phylum level, a reduction of Firmicutes and an increase of Bacteroidetes in the IR subjects was observed. LEfSe analysis revealed that IS subject, when compared to their IR counterparts, harbored members of the order Coriobacteriales, Turicibacterales, Pasteurellales and family Turicibacteraceae, that were significantly more abundant. In contrast, the IR subjects had members of family Peptococcaceae that were significantly more prevalent than the IS subjects (all p<0.05). Spearman's correlation analysis revealed that serum ANGPTL4 was positively associated with genus Bacteroides, Butyricimonas, and Alistipes, and adropin was positively associated with genus Anaerostipes and Alistipes, and negatively associated with genus Blautia (all p<0.05).

CONCLUSION

In obese children, the gut microbiome in IR subjects was significantly discordant from the IS subjects, and the abundance of some metabolism-related bacteria correlated with the serum concentrations of adropin and ANGPTL4. These observations infer that the gut microbiota may be involved in the regulation of glucose metabolism in obesity.