Sustaining visitor use in protected areas: future opportunities in recreation ecology research based on the USA experience

Tourist Trampling on a Peripheral Plant Population Restricted to an Urban Natural Area in the Capo Sant'Elia Promontory (Sardinia, W-Mediterranean Basin)

Urban natural areas provide important ecological services such as biodiversity conservation, as well as opportunities for people to connect with nature and preserve cultural heritage. However, the increasing demand for access to natural areas and the expansion of human recreational activities, such as hiking and biking, pose threats to these ecosystems, especially for animal and plant species, finally resulting in biodiversity loss. This study explores the intricate link between human trampling, plant density, and the morphological and reproductive characteristics of Globularia alypum L., a plant with a peripheral population in Sardinia restricted to a natural area within an urban context. The study examined trampling effects on 75 plots along a frequently used path crossing the plant's core population. Similar environmental conditions were assumed, with differences attributed to human trampling intensity and plant density, and morphological and reproductive traits were measured within each plot. Our results showed that human trampling caused differences in the morphological traits of plants, whereas, in contrast, reproductive traits are less vulnerable to human trampling than morphological ones. As a result, trampled areas may experience decreased plant recruitment, which can have long-term implications for plant population dynamics. Understanding the relationship between trampling effects and the sensitivity of peripheral plant populations is crucial for effective conservation and management strategies.

Clean and sustainable environment problems in forested areas related to recreational activities: case of Lithuania and Turkey

Introduction

With the acceleration of social life, people's interest and demand for forestry recreation activities is increasing. However, with this increase, it is inevitable that negative environmental effects will occur. Particularly mass participation poses an important risk for environmental sustainability. In this context, the aim of this study is to determine the recreational activities organized in forest areas in Turkey and Lithuania, the environmental effects of these activities and the precautions to be taken.

Methods

In Turkey and Lithuania, interviews were conducted to determine the attitudes of experts involved in recreational activity processes towards a clean environment and environmental sustainability. A semi-structured interview form was used in the interviews with forest operators and other experts. The sample group of the research consists of 17 experts from Turkey and Lithuania.

Results

According to the results of the research, recreational activities are organized in forest areas in both countries, but the most important problem related to these activities is waste production. In addition, there is also damage to the natural environment. Although there are legal regulations in both countries, there are no definite results in solving environmental problems.

Conclusions

It can be said that necessary measures such as raising awareness of people and ecological education should be taken in order to ensure the right of individuals to live in a safe and clean environment and at the same time to ensure sustainability in forest areas. as the improvement of legal regulation.

Consequences of the accessibility of the mountain national parks in Poland

In Poland, mountain national parks are visited by about 8 million tourists annually. As a result, national parks must have a properly developed infrastructure to accommodate such a large number of people. Tourism development in mountain national parks satisfies the needs of tourist participants and should increase the attractiveness of the area, fit into the cultural concepts of a given region, and promote its development. The research aims to determine the consequences of making mountain national parks available in Poland and determine the factors determining the attractiveness of the protected area and the related tourist burden. Nine mountain national parks located in Poland were selected for the research. An interview was conducted with employees of mountain national parks concerning (a) the tourist burden on the national park, (b) the tourist management of the national park and its surroundings, and (c) the impact of tourist traffic on the natural environment. Parameters characterizing the intensity and spatial character of tourist traffic, tourist management, and the influence of tourist traffic on the natural environment of mountain national parks are discussed. The study presents the parameters determining: tourist traffic density, tourist route density, and tourist traffic intensity. A map of the development of the surroundings of national parks was presented, and its influence on tourist traffic was determined. The obtained results were discussed in the context of the consequences of tourist traffic in mountain national parks. The result of the work was the development of a map of the tourist load of mountain national parks in Poland. Tourism is of crucial importance for the proper functioning of national parks. However, if not properly cultivated, it threatens the fauna and flora of such areas. Rational use of natural resources by tourists visiting mountain national parks is crucial to maintain the balance between man and nature. Proper supervision and management in the national park, as well as the collective responsibility of tourists visiting national parks and the community living in their vicinity, is of fundamental importance for the proper functioning of the system in national parks and nearby tourist destinations.

Citizen science as a tool for enhancing recreation research in protected areas: Applications and opportunities

As the popularity of nature-based recreation and tourism grows, protected area (PA) managers around the world are faced with escalating monitoring and management challenges across spatial and temporal scales. Citizen science, an emerging research approach which involves active public participation and collaboration with scientists in the scientific process, is an innovative tool that could help managers address these challenges. This study applied the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review Recommendations (PRISMA) protocol to review published studies that utilized citizen science methods in recreation research, examining the extent and nature of such applications and identifying future opportunities. We identified 20 peer-reviewed journal articles from the Web of Science, most of which were published since 2015. These studies utilized different citizen science approaches to examine recreation patterns, behaviors, and impacts in terrestrial and marine PAs. We found that citizen science was used most often in marine PAs, with specialized recreationists (e.g., SCUBA divers) as the most frequent contributors. The types of volunteers recruited differed by their sources (i.e., general public, recreation specialists, and organizational affiliates) and roles (i.e., volunteers as agents of data collection and volunteers as research subjects), with innovative technology (e.g., participatory GIS) creating new engagement opportunities. Despite these benefits, the accuracy and reliability of citizen science data remain important considerations for managers. Our review demonstrates how citizen science can inform management and enhance public participation in PA stewardship activities, and it reveals the need for more research to explore applications of citizen science in different recreation contexts.

Visualizing social-ecological intensities for management of recreation visitors in a multiuse system

Accounting for the variation of visitor conflicts and ecological disturbance of outdoor recreation activities across space and time can cause difficulty for managers seeking to make decisions in social-ecological systems (SESs). We develop a method to quantify and visualize social and ecological intensities resulting from outdoor recreation. We demonstrate the utility of our method at Valentine National Wildlife Refuge, where we conducted onsite surveys for an entire year of recreationists participating in consumptive (i.e., hunting), intermediate-consumptive (i.e., fishing) and nonconsumptive (e.g., hiking) activities. We use survey results and combine them with expert consensus by engaging refuge managers and scientists (i.e., Delphi method) to chart patterns in social (e.g., visitor conflicts) and ecological (e.g., damages to natural resources) intensities across multiple spatial and temporal scales. We highlight unexpected patterns that are revealed by collectively considering multi-activity groups through space and time and combining different survey methods (onsite, Delphi method). Based on the consensus reached using the Delphi method, the consumptive group had the greatest potential for social conflicts and ecological disturbances. Social and ecological intensities (i.e., hotspots) of recreation varied across lake types and seasons, highlighting high-intensity areas and periods on the refuge. Accounting for diverse outdoor recreation activities and coinciding social and ecological intensities will allow managers of SESs the ability to concomitantly preserve ecological resources, prioritize conservation efforts, and minimize visitor conflicts. We demonstrate the utility and ease of use of this technique, which can be implemented by managers and scientists within their respective SES of interest.

Find New RoadsTM? A Systematic Review on the Impacts of Off-Road Vehicle Activity on Soil, Vegetation, and Wildlife

The global use of off-road vehicles (ORVs) in natural environments has accelerated rapidly over the last few decades, resulting in significant social and environmental consequences. As the demand, use, and promotion of light-duty ORVs like all-terrain vehicles (ATVs), motorcycles, four-wheel drive trucks and sport utility vehicles (SUVs) increases in remote wilderness, the landscape is becoming fragmented into disorganized and destructive networks of trails and roads. Substantial ecological impacts to a wide range of ecosystem structures and functions will likely result from ORV activity. Applying a global systematic review, we examine 105 publications about plant, soil, and wildlife responses to ORV traffic in different habitats to help guide the direction of future research, monitoring programs, and mitigation efforts. Most studies investigated impacts to animals, followed by soils, then vegetative responses. Soil studies primarily focused on physical impacts to the soil (i.e., compaction, erosion, rut depth), but some studies suggest that soil chemical and biological properties may also be impacted by ORV traffic. The literature on plant responses to ORV activities primarily explored vegetation loss, although impacts on the plant community were also investigated. Animal studies investigated impacts of ORV use on invertebrates, mammals, birds, and to a lesser extent reptiles/amphibians, including population-level, community-level, and behavioral responses. Overall, research on environmental impacts of ORV traffic is biased to coastal and desert ecosystems in the northern hemisphere (primarily in the US), often does not address mechanisms that may produce ecological impacts (e.g., intensity of vehicular disturbance and ecosystem- or species-specific sensitivity to ORV activities), and frequently focused on short-term responses. More research is needed to understand the mechanisms that cause the different responses of soil, plant, and animals to ORVs over the long-term in a broad range of ecosystems to support real-time management and conservation efforts.

Noise pollution on coral reefs? - A yet underestimated threat to coral reef communities

Noise pollution is an anthropogenic stressor that is increasingly recognized for its negative impact on the physiology, behavior and fitness of marine organisms. Driven by the recent expansion of maritime shipping, artisanal fishing and tourism (e.g., motorboats used for recreational purpose), underwater noise increased greatly on coral reefs. In this review, we first provide an overview on how reef organisms sense and use sound. Thereafter we review the current knowledge on how underwater noise affects different reef organisms. Although the majority of available examples are limited to few fish species, we emphasize how the impact of noise differs based on an organisms' acoustic sensitivity, mobility and developmental stage, as well as between noise type, source and duration. Finally, we highlight measures available to governments, the shipping industry and individual users and provide directions for polices and research aimed to manage this global issue of noise emission on coral reefs.

Understanding and managing the interactions of impacts from nature-based recreation and climate change

Disturbance to ecosystems in parks and protected areas from nature-based tourism and recreation is increasing in scale and severity, as are the impacts of climate change-but there is limited research examining the degree to which these anthropogenic disturbances interact. In this perspective paper, we draw on the available literature to expose complex recreation and climate interactions that may alter ecosystems of high conservation value such that important species and processes no longer persist. Our emphasis is on ecosystems in high demand for tourism and recreation that also are increasingly experiencing stress from climate change. We discuss the importance of developing predictive models of direct and indirect effects, including threshold and legacy effects at different levels of biological organization. We present a conceptual model of these interactions to initiate a dialog among researchers and managers so that new research approaches and managerial frameworks are advanced to address this emerging issue.

Soil erosion on mountain trails as a consequence of recreational activities. A comprehensive review of the scientific literature

This article reviews the scientific literature on trail erosion and the magnitude of the erosive processes that occur on mountain trails due to recreational activities, mainly due to hiking. This work is necessary as a result of the increase in hiking and biking in forest, scrubland and grasslands, and the soil and vegetation degradation induced by these activities. We analysed results that have been compiled in the scientific literature, as well as other issues such as the geographical and temporal distribution of the research, the methods applied, the journals where the research was published, the types and quantity of uses of the pathways and the measures undertaken for damage mitigation. This paper highlights that there is a need for harmonization of methods. The results show that soil erosion rates are highly variable, high, and non-sustainable. Trail erosion research is growing at a rate of 3 papers per year and is published in a small group of scientific journals. Six journals published 47% of the papers on trail erosion, which show a high concentration in environmental journals. There are few papers published in the soil science and geomorphology disciplines, although the research topic and the science background are in these two disciplines. Reported world soil losses from trails ranged from 6.1 Mg ha^-1 y^-1 to 2090 Mg ha^-1 y^-1, all of which are not sustainable. Trail erosion has mainly been investigated in the USA and is a new topic in other regions of the world. There is a need to implement mitigation measures to avoid land degradation, and this should be researched in the near future as right now most of the research describes and quantifies the problem but does not provide solutions: mitigation, rehabilitation or restoration. From a pure scientific approach, we claim that there is a need to research the connectivity of flows and the role of the trails on runoff generation and then sediment yield at pedon, slope and watershed scales. There is a need to research the mechanisms of the soil erosion process in trails: trampling effect, wheel impact, factors and seasonal and temporal changes.

Going off trails: How dispersed visitor use affects alpine vegetation

Mountain protected areas provide a range of ecosystem services including conserving biodiversity, while often providing recreation and tourism opportunities. Unfortunately, tourists and pack animals used to transport equipment can damage sensitive alpine vegetation particularly when they leave trails. This study assessed the impacts of disturbance from off trail use on alpine vegetation in a popular park in the Andes. The effect of different levels of disturbance as well as abiotic factors on alpine steppe vegetation was assessed using generalized linear models and ordinations in 91 plots (20 m²) in the popular Horcones Valley that is used to access remote areas in Aconcagua Provincial Park in Argentina. Disturbance off trails resulted in declines in the cover of native plants, including the endemic shrub Adesmia aegiceras but increases in the cover of herbs including the non-native Convolvulus arvensis. Increased disturbance was associated with shifts from stress tolerant species to ruderal plants characterized by more acquisitive traits, including shorter plants with greater Specific Leaf Area. The research demonstrates the severity of impacts from off trail trampling including how trampling favours some species with specific traits over others and why it is important to limit off track use in areas of high conservation value.

Image Analysis to Monitor Experimental Trampling and Vegetation Recovery in Icelandic Plant Communities

With growing tourism in natural areas, monitoring recreational impacts is becoming increasingly important. This paper aims to evaluate how different trampling intensities affect some common Icelandic plant communities by using digital photographs to analyze and quantify vegetation in experimental plots and to monitor vegetation recovery rates over a consecutive three-year period. Additionally, it seeks to evaluate the use of image analysis for monitoring recreational impact in natural areas. Experimental trampling was conducted in two different sites representing the lowlands and the highlands in 2014, and the experimental plots were revisited in 2015, 2016, and 2017. The results show that moss has the highest sensitivity to trampling, and furthermore has a slow recovery rate. Moss-heaths in the highlands also show higher sensitivity and slower recovery rates than moss-heaths in the lowlands, and grasslands show the highest resistance to trampling. Both methods tested, i.e., Green Chromatic Coordinate (GCC) and Maximum Likelihood Classification (MLC), showed significant correlation with the trampling impact. Using image analysis to quantify the status and define limits of use will likely be a valuable and vital element in managing recreational areas. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) will add a robust way to collect photographic data that can be processed into vegetation parameters to monitor recreational impacts in natural areas.

Recreational Ecology: A Review of Research and Gap Analysis

Recreational ecology is an internationally evolving research field addressing the high demand for nature-based tourism and recreation, and its environmental impacts. This review aimed to analyze the research effort of recreational ecology studies published in four renowned journals in the field, the Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Tourism Management, the Journal of Environmental Management, and Environmental Management. Between 1976 and 2017, this review identified 145 papers focused on recreational ecology. The majority of research investigated the direct impacts of terrestrial activities in protected areas, in particular the impacts of walking and hiking on vegetation and trail conditions, and the impacts of wildlife viewing. A conceptual model was developed to describe the varied relationships between nature-based tourists and recreationists and the environment. Future research in recreational ecology should broaden its agenda to increase knowledge on indirect and long-term impacts; including on cryptic or less popular species; establish more specifically how the intensity of impacts depends on the amount of use other than in trampling studies; extend to other geographic areas such as developing countries, and nature-based spaces that are less protected and exposed to high visitation such as urban environments. Importantly, a much stronger focus needs to be on interdisciplinary approaches incorporating both environmental and social science techniques to determine ways of how visitor experiential needs can be reconciled with environmental conservation concerns in a rapidly increasing tourism and recreation economy.

Soil erosion on the "El Portalet" mountain trails in the Eastern Iberian Peninsula

Leisure activities in natural areas have experienced a large increase in popularity. In Mediterranean ecosystems, research on soil erosion in agriculture and forest fire affected land has been well developed but trail erosion has not been widely studied. In this work we evaluated two trails in the eastern Iberian Peninsula to assess soil erosion rates and provide new data. The study area is located in a semi-arid Mediterranean climate (around 400 mm y^-1) and in limestone terrain with scarce soil development. The average erosion rates were 24.39 Mg ha^-1 y^-1 and 40.40 Mg ha^-1 y^-1 for the "Barranc de la Cova de la Hedra" and "Casa del Racó" study trails, respectively. These are non-sustainable rates due to the shallow soils and slow soil development in Mediterranean ecosystems. We found that the depth at the centre of the trail and the maximum depth measured could quickly and easily assess soil erosion rates in the mountain trails. Measuring the width and depth in the centre of the trail can assess 91% of the total erosion and reduces the time of the survey by 80%.

The Role of Tourism Impacts on Cultural Ecosystem Services

Parks and protected areas are recognized for the important ecosystem services, or benefits, they provide society. One emerging but understudied component is the cultural ecosystem services that parks and protected areas provide. These cultural ecosystem services include a variety of benefits, such as cultural heritage, spiritual value, recreation opportunities, and human health and well-being. However, many of these services can only be provided if people visit these parks and protected areas through tourism opportunities. However, with this tourism use comes a variety of inevitable resource impacts. This current research connects potential impacts from tourism in parks and protected areas to the health and well-being aspect of cultural ecosystem services. We used an MTurk sample to record affective responses across a range of resource conditions. Results demonstrate that as tourism-related ecological impacts increased, positive affect decreased. Decreases in positive affect were more severe for park and protected area scenes featuring informal and/or undesignated social trails when compared to scenes with increasing levels of trampling/vegetation loss. Collectively, the results show that managing tourism in parks and protected areas in a manner that reduces impact is essential to providing beneficial cultural ecosystem services related to human health and well-being.

Do people care about pine invasions? Visitor perceptions and willingness to pay for pine control in a protected area

Tree invasions are increasing globally, causing major problems for biodiversity, ecosystem services and human well-being. In South America, conifer invasions occur across many ecosystems and while numerous studies address the ecological consequences of these invasions, little is known about social perceptions and people's attitudes toward their control. The social perceptions on the effect of invasive conifers can include recreational, cultural and conservation dimensions. This study, conducted in the Malalcahuello National Reserve, aims to assess visitor's perception about invasive pines (Pinus spp.) and their effects on the endangered Araucaria araucana forests and determine their willingness to pay for pine control. We used a questionnaire to survey visitors to the reserve in both winter and summer (n = 138 for each season). When confronted with six images of araucaria and pine forests with and without snow, visitors consistently preferred landscapes without pines and disliked those completely dominated by pines the most. Almost half, 46.5%, of the visitors expressed their willingness to pay (WTP) for pine control and after given a brief explanation about pine impacts, this number rose to 79%. Visitors who said they were unwilling to pay argue ethical, aesthetic and pragmatic considerations relating closely to a number of social value systems and beliefs. Our study shows that there is a high variation in how people assess the threat of invasive pine species in natural areas, but education even in a very brief format can help to increase awareness of the problem and build social and financial support for its control.

Benefits of crowd-sourced GPS information for modelling the recreation ecosystem service

Modelling cultural ecosystem services is an enduring challenge, raising issues about the integration and spatialization of immaterial values and benefits, and their contingency on local preferences. Building on the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum framework, we present a novel methodology for assessing the recreation service using GPS tracks downloaded from crowd-sourced websites: the Grelou model (Georeferencing REcreation in Local OUtdoors), here applied to the Grenoble living area (French Alps). GPS tracks revealed the complete spatial extent of visitor presence and enabled modelling visitation networks for ten recreation activities with great spatial accuracy, thus providing a spatial estimate of recreational multifunctionality–expressed as the sum of networks. After coupling track networks with landscape preference and proximity factors, Grelou assessed the recreation service as a combination of opportunity and preferences, and identified recreation hotspots of different profiles such as aroundoor leisure or outdoor sport. We performed an online survey among local sports associations using an interactive map to select districts visited by respondents (~1000 people). The declared visitor presence for recreation purposes was highly spatially congruent with Grelou outputs (R² = 0.89). Detailed analysis of responses on selection criteria for recreationists validates our choice of critical factors underlying both the recreation opportunity potential and the expected visitation frequency over the whole study area. We also analyzed outputs of the InVESt recreation model against the same visitation explanatory factors. Differences between the two models allowed us to pinpoint biases and weaknesses in the InVESt recreation modelling framework based on crowd-sourced photographs. By making use of an increasingly available data source (GPS tracks), Grelou offers a standardized and flexible way to assess the recreation service associated with multiple recreation practices. Its high spatial accuracy supports the analysis of spatial relationships with other ecoystems services and the integration of recreation into environmental assessments, land management and planning.

Taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity of vascular plants at Ma'anling volcano urban park in tropical Haikou, China: Reponses to soil properties

Anthropogenic processes and socio-economic factors play important roles in shaping plant diversity in urban parks. To investigate how plant diversity of Ma' anling urban volcano park in Hainan Province, China respond to these factors, we carried out a field investigation on the taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity of vascular plants and soil properties in this area. We found 284 species of vascular plants belonging to 88 families and 241 genera, which included 194 native species, 23 invasive species, 31 naturalized species, 40 cultivars, and 4 rare / endangered plant species. Tree composition and richness significantly varied between different vegetation formations (plantation, secondary forest, and abandoned land). Plant species richness and community composition were significantly affected by elevation (El), soil water content (WC), total soil nitrogen (TN) and soil organic matter (SOM). There were significant diversity differences between plantations and abandoned lands, but not between the plantations and secondary forests. The flora in the study site was tropical in nature, characterized by pantropic distributions. Compared to adjacent areas, floristic composition in the study site was most similar to that of Guangdong, followed by that of Vietnam. Our study revealed the diversity patterns of volcanic plants and provided the basis for future planning of plant conservation, such as preserving plant species, maintaining plant habitats, and coordinating plant management in this region.

Influence of settings management and protection status on recreational uses and pressures in marine protected areas

Coastal populations and tourism are growing worldwide. Consequently outdoor recreational activity is increasing and diversifying. While Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are valuable for mitigating anthropogenic impacts, recreational uses are rarely monitored and studied, resulting in a lack of knowledge on users' practices, motivation and impacts. Based on boat counts and interview data collected in New Caledonia, we i) explored factors affecting user practices and motivations, ii) constructed fine-scale pressure indices covering activities and associated behaviors, and iii) assessed the relationships between user practices and site selection. User practices were found to depend on protection status, boat type and user characteristics. Pressure indices were higher within no-take MPAs, except for fishing. We found significant relationships between user practices and settings characteristics. In the context of increasing recreational uses, these results highlight options for managing such uses through settings management without jeopardizing the social acceptance of MPAs or the attainment of conservation goals.

Effects of Backpacker Use, Pack Stock Trail Use, and Pack Stock Grazing on Water-Quality Indicators, Including Nutrients, E. coli, Hormones, and Pharmaceuticals, in Yosemite National Park, USA

We investigated how visitor-use affects water quality in wilderness in Yosemite National Park. During the summers of 2012-2014, we collected and analyzed surface-water samples for water-quality indicators, including fecal indicator bacteria Escherichia coli, nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon), suspended sediment concentration, pharmaceuticals, and hormones. Samples were collected upstream and downstream from different types of visitor use at weekly to biweekly intervals and during summer storms. We conducted a park-wide synoptic sampling campaign during summer 2014, and sampled upstream and downstream from meadows to evaluate the mitigating effect of meadows on water quality. At pack stock stream crossings, Escherichia coli concentrations were greater downstream from crossings than upstream (median downstream increase in Escherichia coli of three colony forming units 100 mL^-1), with the greatest increases occurring during storms (median downstream increase in Escherichia coli of 32 CFU 100 mL^-1). At backpacker use sites, hormones, and pharmaceuticals (e.g., insect repellent) were detected at downstream sites, and Escherichia coli concentrations were greater at downstream sites (median downstream increase in Escherichia coli of 1 CFU 100 mL^-1). Differences in water quality downstream vs. upstream from meadows grazed by pack stock were not detectable for most water-quality indicators, however, Escherichia coli concentrations decreased downstream, suggesting entrapment and die-off of fecal indicator bacteria in meadows. Our results indicate that under current-use levels pack stock trail use and backpacker use are associated with detectable, but relatively minor, effects on water quality, which are most pronounced during storms.

How Networks of Informal Trails Cause Landscape Level Damage to Vegetation

When visitors are not constrained to remain on formal trails, informal trail networks can develop and damage plant communities in protected areas. These networks can form in areas with low growing vegetation, where formal trails are limited, where there is limited regulation and where vegetation is slow to recover once disturbed. To demonstrate the extent of impacts from unregulated recreational use, we assessed damage to alpine vegetation by hikers and pack animals in the highest protected area in the southern Hemisphere: Aconcagua Park, in the Andes. Within the 237 ha area surveyed in the Horcones Valley, over 19 km of trails were found, nearly all of which (94%) were informal. This network of trails resulted in the direct loss of 11.5 ha of vegetation and extensive fragmentation of alpine meadows (21 fragments) and steppe vegetation (68 fragments). When levels of disturbance off these trails were quantified using rapid visual assessments, 81% of 102 randomly located plots showed evidence of disturbance, with the severity of disturbance greatest close to trails. As a result, vegetation in 90% of the Valley has been damaged by visitor use, nearly all of it from unregulated use. These results highlight the extent to which informal trails and trampling off-trail can cause landscape damage to areas of high conservation value, and hence the importance of better regulation of visitor use. The methodology used for off-trail impact assessment can be easily applied or adapted for other popular protected areas where trampling off-trail is also an issue.

An Evaluation of U.S. National Wildlife Refuge Planning for Off-Road Vehicle Use

Off-road vehicles (hereafter, ORVs) rank high among public-land management challenges because they are popular, often impair environmental conditions, and may cause conflicts with other recreational users. Unit-level planning for federal lands increasingly translates broad, system-wide objectives, such as maintenance of ecological integrity, into place-based limitations on ORV use to minimize and mitigate adverse impacts on wildlife. We reviewed 176 planning documents covering 313 National Wildlife Refuges (hereafter, Refuges) to understand how planning supports or undermines ORV recreation management. These plans offer an important perspective on ORV management because the Refuges are a large, diverse system of conservation lands where recreation may be permitted only where it is compatible with wildlife protection. Of the plans we evaluated, 24% mentioned ORV use and 12% prescribed some action related to ORVs. The most common prescriptions banned ORV use or limited it to mobility-impaired hunters. Many plans lacked clarity or documentation of analysis in discussing ORV recreation. When analyses grouped ORV use with other activities, such as hunting or other modes of transportation, they often failed to consider the characteristic effects of ORV use. Regardless of how ORV use was categorized, evaluation of its effects seldom considered the full range of environmental impacts documented in the scientific literature. Published research recommends many best practices for managing ORV use and impacts. Though some are habitat specific, five general best-practice categories highlight where planning connects with and diverges from common recommendations. Other land management agencies offer helpful models for implementing these practices in planning. We suggest that public land managers employ tools from each of the five categories: policy formation and public participation, spatial and temporal route planning, permitting, monitoring, and enforcement. The plan prescriptions we examined were strongest in their efforts at route planning. Refuge prescriptions have the most room to improve in detailing how they can work with neighbors and external stakeholders in formulating ORV-use rules.

Environmental and managerial factors associated with pack stock distribution in high elevation meadows: Case study from Yosemite National Park

Parks and protected areas are integral strategies for biological diversity conservation, and their management often involves balancing visitor use with resource protection. Effectively balancing these objectives requires data about how use is distributed within areas of interest and how management strategies and environmental conditions interact to minimize negative impacts. This study examined which environmental and managerial factors most influenced the distribution of domestic pack stock animals, a common visitor use-related activity, when released to graze in high elevation meadows. Using a species distribution modelling approach, MaxEnt, managerial factors were found to be among the top contributors to models. Pack stock animals concentrated use near the locations where they were released as well as portable enclosure fencing confining the lead animal even though the remainder were allowed to roam freely. Elevation was the environmental factor contributing most, with animals remaining at similar elevations to the meadow even if moving into nearby understory. Results highlight the importance of release point and fence locations to overall pack stock animal distribution and rotational or strategic placement can be a tactic for mitigating impacts to sensitive habitats.

Comparing impacts between formal and informal recreational trails

Globally there are hundreds of thousands of kilometres of recreational trails traversing natural areas of high conservation value: but what are their impacts and do impacts differ among trails? We compared the effects of four common types of recreational trails [(1) narrow and (2) medium width informal bare earth trails and (3) gravel and (4) tarmac/concrete formal trails] on vegetation adjacent to trails in a high conservation value plant community that is popular for mountain biking and hiking in Australia. Plant species composition was recorded in quadrats along the edge of the four types of trails and in control sites away from trails. Vegetation cover, the cover of individual growth forms, and species richness along the edges of all four types of trails were similar to the controls, although the wider trails affected plant composition, with the tarmac and gravel trails favouring different species. With very few comparative studies, more research is required to allow managers and researchers to directly compare differences in the severity and types of impacts on vegetation among trails. In the meantime, limiting damage to vegetation on the edge of hardened trails during construction, use and maintenance is important, and hardening trails may not always be appropriate.

Does Zoning Winter Recreationists Reduce Recreation Conflict?

Parks and protected area managers use zoning to decrease interpersonal conflict between recreationists. Zoning, or segregation, of recreation-often by non-motorized and motorized activity-is designed to limit physical interaction while providing recreation opportunities to both groups. This article investigated the effectiveness of zoning to reduce recreation conflict in the Vail Pass Winter Recreation Area in Colorado, USA. Despite a zoning management system, established groomed travel routes were used by both non-motorized recreationists (backcountry skiers, snowboarders, snowshoers) and motorized recreationists (snowmobilers). We hypothesized that persistent recreation conflict reported by non-motorized recreationists was the result of recreation occurring in areas of mixed non-motorized and motorized use, mostly along groomed routes. We performed a geospatial analysis of recreation [from Global Positioning System (GPS) points, n = 1,233,449] in the Vail Pass Winter Recreation Area to identify areas of mixed non-motorized and motorized use. We then surveyed non-motorized recreationists (n = 199) to test whether reported conflict is higher for respondents who traveled in areas of mixed-use, compared with respondents traveling outside areas of mixed-use. Results from the geospatial analysis showed that only 0.7 % of the Vail Pass Winter Recreation Area contained recreation from both groups, however that area contained 14.8 % of all non-motorized recreation and 49.1 % of all motorized recreation. Survey analysis results showed higher interpersonal conflict for all five standard conflict variables among non-motorized respondents who traveled in areas of mixed-use, compared with those traveling outside mixed-use areas. Management implications and recommendations for increasing the effectiveness of zoning are provided.

Decadal increase in the number of recreational users is concentrated in no-take marine reserves

In coastal areas, demographic increase is likely to result in greater numbers of recreational users, with potential consequences on marine biodiversity. These effects may also occur within Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), which are popular with recreational users. Our analysis builds on data collected over a ten-year period during three year-round surveys to appraise changes in recreational boating activities in coral ecosystems. Results show that the number of boaters has greatly increased, particularly so within MPAs during weekends and the warm season, when peaks in boat numbers have become more frequent. We also observed that the number of anchored boats has increased over the period. These changes may be resulting in biophysical impacts that could be detrimental to conservation objectives in MPAs. This steady increase over time may cause changes in the spatial and temporal distribution of users and in their practices, thus highlighting the importance of monitoring recreational activities.

Effects of extreme natural events on the provision of ecosystem services in a mountain environment: The importance of trail design in delivering system resilience and ecosystem service co-benefits

A continued supply of ecosystem services (ES) from a system depends on the resilience of that system to withstand shocks and perturbations. In many parts of the world, climate change is leading to an increased frequency of extreme weather events, potentially influencing ES provision. Our study of the effects of an intense rainfall event in Gorce National Park, Poland, shows: (1) the intense rainfall event impacted heavily on the supply of ES by limiting potential recreation opportunities and reducing erosion prevention; (2) these negative impacts were not only restricted to the period of the extreme event but persisted for up to several years, depending on the pre-event trail conditions and post-event management activities; (3) to restore the pre-event supply of ES, economic investments were required in the form of active repairs to trails, which, in Gorce National Park, were an order of magnitude higher than the costs of normal trail maintenance; and (4) when recreational trails were left to natural restoration, loss of biodiversity was observed, and recovery rates of ES (recreation opportunities and soil erosion prevention) were reduced in comparison to their pre-event state. We conclude that proper trail design and construction provides a good solution to avoid some of the negative impacts of extreme events on recreation, as well as offering co-benefits in terms of protecting biodiversity and enhancing the supply of regulating services such as erosion prevention.

The impacts of trail infrastructure on vegetation and soils: Current literature and future directions

Reflecting the popularity of nature-based activities such as hiking and mountain biking, there are thousands of kilometres of recreational trails worldwide traversing a range of natural areas. These trails have environmental impacts on soils and vegetation, but where has there been research, what impacts have been found and how were they measured? Using a systematic quantitative literature review methodology, we assessed the impacts of trails on vegetation and soils, highlighting what is known, but also key knowledge gaps. Of the 59 original research papers identified on this topic that have been published in English language peer-reviewed academic journals, most were for research conducted in protected areas (71%), with few from developing countries (17%) or threatened ecosystems (14%). The research is concentrated in a few habitats and biodiversity hotspots, mainly temperate woodland, alpine grassland and Mediterranean habitats, often in the USA (32%) or Australia (20%). Most examined formal trails, with just 15% examining informal trails and 11% assessing both types. Nearly all papers report the results of observational surveys (90%), collecting quantitative data (66%) with 24% using geographic information systems. There was an emphasis on assessing trail impacts at a local scale, either on the trail itself and/or over short gradients away from the trail edge. Many assessed changes in composition and to some degree, structure, of vegetation and soils with the most common impacts documented including reduced vegetation cover, changes in plant species composition, trail widening, soil loss and soil compaction. There were 14 papers assessing how these local impacts can accumulate at the landscape scale. Few papers assessed differences in impacts among trails (7 papers), changes in impacts over time (4), species-specific responses (3) and only one assessed effects on plant community functioning. This review provides evidence that there are key research gaps including assessing informal trails, comparing trail types, landscape and temporal scale impacts, functional responses and impacts on threatened ecosystems/species. A more diverse geographic spread of research is also required including in regions experiencing rapid growth in tourism and recreation.

Recreational trails as a source of negative impacts on the persistence of keystone species and facilitation

Hiking trails, which are among the most common forms of infrastructure created for nature-based tourism, can alter key ecological processes. Trails can damage plants that facilitate the establishment and growth of other species leading to changes in community and functional composition. This can be a particular concern in harsh alpine ecosystems where plant communities are often dominated by one or two keystone species that provide shelter to a suite of beneficiary species. We analysed how a hiking trail affects interspecific facilitation by a dominant trampling-sensitive nurse shrub in the highest National Park in Australia. First we assessed the effects of the trail on the abundance, size and density of the nurse shrub at different distances from the trail. We then compared species richness and composition between areas in, and out, of the nurse shrub's canopy at different distances from the trail. To better understand why some species may benefit from facilitation and any effects of the trail on the quality of facilitation we compared functional composition between quadrats using community trait weighted means calculated by combining plant composition with species functional traits (canopy height, leaf area, % dry weight of leaves and specific leaf area). The abundance, size and density of nurse shrubs was lower on the trail edges than further away, particularly on the leeward edge, where there was more bare ground and less shrub cover. There were differences in species richness, cover, composition and functional composition in and outside the nurse shrub canopy. The shrubs appeared to facilitate species with more competitive, but less stress tolerant traits (e.g. taller plants with leaves that were larger, had high specific leaf area and low dry matter content). However, despite reductions in nurse shrubs near the trail, where they do exist, they appear to provide the same 'quality' of facilitation as nurse shrubs further away. However, longer-term effects may be occurring as the loss of nurse shrubs alters the wind profile of the ridgeline and therefore succession. The use of a steel mesh walkway along the trail may facilitate the regeneration of nurse shrubs and other plants that require protection from wind. Our results highlight the importance of diversifying recreation ecology research to assess how trails affect important ecological processes.

Differences in the impacts of formal and informal recreational trails on urban forest loss and tree structure

Recreational trails are one of the most common types of infrastructure used for nature-based activities such as hiking and mountain biking worldwide. Depending on their design, location, construction, maintenance and use, these trails differ in their environmental impacts. There are few studies, however, comparing the impacts of different trail types including between formal management-created trails and informal visitor-created trails. Although both types of trails can be found in remote natural areas, dense networks of them often occur in forests close to cities where they experience intense visitor use. To assess the relative impacts of different recreational trails in urban forests, we compared the condition of the trail surface, loss of forest strata and changes in tree structure caused by seven types of trails (total network 46.1 km) traversing 17 remnants of an endangered urban forest in Australia. After mapping and classifying all trails, we assessed their impact on the forest condition at 125 sites (15 sites per trail type, plus 15 control sites within undisturbed forest). On the trail sites, the condition of the trail surface, distance from the trail edge to four forest strata (litter, understory, midstorey and tree cover) and structure of the tree-line were assessed. Informal trails generally had poorer surface conditions and were poorly-designed and located. Per site, formal and informal trails resulted in similar loss of forest strata, with wider trails resulting in greater loss of forest. Because there were more informal trails, however, they accounted for the greatest cumulative forest loss. Structural impacts varied, with the widest informal trails and all formal hardened trails resulting in similar reductions in canopy cover and tree density but an increase in saplings. These structural impacts are likely a function of the unregulated and intense use of large informal trails, and disturbance from the construction and maintenance of formal trails. The results demonstrate that different types of recreational trails vary in the type and range of impacts they cause to forests. They highlight the importance of careful consideration towards management options when dealing with trail networks especially in areas of high conservation value.

Tourism and recreation listed as a threat for a wide diversity of vascular plants: a continental scale review

Tourism and recreation are diverse and popular activities. They may also contribute to the risk of extinction for some plants because of the range and severity of their impacts, including in protected areas: but which species, where and how? To evaluate the extent to which tourism and recreation may be threatening process for plants, we conducted a continental level review of listed threats to endangered vascular plants using data from Australia. Of the 659 vascular plant species listed as critically endangered or endangered by the Australian Government, tourism and recreation were listed as a threat(s) for 42%. This is more than those listed as threatened by climate change (26%) and close to the proportion listed as threatened by altered fire regimes (47%). There are plant species with tourism and recreation listed threats in all States and Territories and from all but one bioregion in Australia. Although more than 45 plant families have species with tourism and recreation listed as threats, orchids were the most common species listed as at risk from these threats (90 species). The most common types of threats listed were visitors collecting plants in protected areas (113 species), trampling by hikers and others (84 species), damage from recreational vehicles (59 species) and road infrastructure (39 species). Despite the frequency with which tourism and recreation were listed as threats in Australia, research quantifying these threats and methods to ameliorate their impacts are still limited. Although this lack of information contributes to the challenge of managing tourism and recreation, impacts from visitors will often be easier to manage within natural areas than those from larger scale threats such as altered fire regimes and climate change.

Desktop analysis of potential impacts of visitor use: a case study for the highest park in the Southern Hemisphere

Nature-based tourism and recreation activities have a range of environmental impacts, but most protected area agencies have limited capacity to assess them. To prioritise where and what impacts to monitor and manage, we conducted a desktop assessment using Geographical Information Systems (GIS) by combining recreation ecology research with data on visitor usage and key environmental features for a popular protected area used for mountaineering and trekking, Aconcagua Provincial Park (2400-6962 m a.s.l.) in the Andes of Argentina. First, we integrated visitor data from permits with environmental data using GIS. We then identified key impact indicators for different activities based on the recreation ecology literature. Finally, we integrated this data to identify likely ecological impacts based on the types of activities, amount of use and altitudinal zones. Visitors only used 2% of the Park, but use was concentrated in areas of high conservation value including in alpine meadows and glacier lakes. Impacts on water resources were likely to be concentrated in campsites from the intermediate to the nival/glacial zones of the Park while impacts on terrestrial biodiversity were likely to be more severe in the low and intermediate alpine zones (2400-3800 m a.s.l.). These results highlight how visitor data can be used to identify priority areas for on-ground assessment of impacts in key locations. Improvements to the management of visitors in this Park involves more effective ways of dealing with water extraction and human waste in high altitude campsites and the impacts of hikers and pack animals in the low and intermediate alpine zones.

Is tourism damaging ecosystems in the Andes? Current knowledge and an agenda for future research

Despite the popularity of tourism and recreation in the Andes in South America and the regions conservation value, there is limited research on the ecological impacts of these types of anthropogenic use. Using a systematic quantitative literature review method, we found 47 recreation ecology studies from the Andes, 25 of which used an experimental design. Most of these were from the Southern Andes in Argentina (13 studies) or Chile (eight studies) with only four studies from the Northern Andes. These studies documented a range of impacts on vegetation, birds and mammals; including changes in plant species richness, composition and vegetation cover and the tolerance of wildlife of visitor use. There was little research on the impacts of visitors on soils and aquatic systems and for some ecoregions in the Andes. We identify research priorities across the region that will enhance management strategies to minimise visitor impacts in Andean ecosystems.

Patch-scale effects of equine disturbance on arthropod assemblages and vegetation structure in subalpine wetlands

Assessments of vertebrate disturbance to plant and animal assemblages often contrast grazed versus ungrazed meadows or other larger areas of usage, and this approach can be powerful. Random sampling of such habitats carries the potential, however, for smaller, more intensely affected patches to be missed and for other responses that are only revealed at smaller scales to also escape detection. We instead sampled arthropod assemblages and vegetation structure at the patch scale (400-900 m(2) patches) within subalpine wet meadows of Yosemite National Park (USA), with the goal of determining if there were fine-scale differences in magnitude and directionality of response at three levels of grazing intensity. Effects were both stronger and more nuanced than effects evidenced by previous random sampling of paired grazed and ungrazed meadows: (a) greater negative effects on vegetation structure and fauna in heavily used patches, but (b) some positive effects on fauna in lightly grazed patches, suggested by trends for mean richness and total and population abundances. Although assessment of disturbance at either patch or landscape scales should be appropriate, depending on the management question at hand, our patch-scale work demonstrated that there can be strong local effects on the ecology of these wetlands that may not be detected by comparing larger scale habitats.

Equine grazing in managed subalpine wetlands: effects on arthropods and plant structure as a function of habitat

Grazing management necessarily emphasizes the most spatially extensive vegetation assemblages, but landscapes are mosaics, often with more mesic vegetation types embedded within a matrix of drier vegetation. Our primary objective was to contrast effects of equine grazing on both subalpine vegetation structure and associated arthropods in a drier reed grass (Calamagrostis muiriana) dominated habitat versus a wetter, more productive sedge habitat (Carex utriculata). A second objective was to compare reed grass and sedge as habitats for fauna, irrespective of grazing. All work was done in Sequoia National Park (CA, USA), where detailed, long-term records of stock management were available. We sampled paired grazed and control wet meadows that contained both habitats. There were moderate negative effects of grazing on vegetation, and effects were greater in sedge than in reed grass. Conversely, negative grazing effects on arthropods, albeit limited, were greater in the drier reed grass, possibly due to microhabitat differences. The differing effects on plants and animals as a function of habitat emphasize the importance of considering both flora and fauna, as well as multiple habitat types, when making management decisions. Sedge supported twice the overall arthropod abundance of reed grass as well as greater diversity; hemipteran and dipteran taxa were particularly abundant in sedge. Given the greater grazing effects on sedge vegetation, greater habitat provision for terrestrial arthropods, and value as aquatic arthropod habitat, the wetter sedge assemblage is worthy of additional consideration by managers when planning for grazing and other aspects of land usage.

Enhancing the utility of visitor impact assessment in parks and protected areas: a combined social-ecological approach

Understanding the ecological consequences of visitor use in parks and how visitors interact with resource conditions is essential for avoiding the impairment of park and protected area resources and visitor experiences. This study combined ecological measures of off-trail resource impacts with social science techniques to understand visitor judgments of ecological impacts and visitors' degree of exposure to impacts. Specifically, this paper reports on a novel integration of techniques that was tested in the Bear Lake Road Corridor of Rocky Mountain National Park, CO, USA in which resource change, as a result of visitor use off designated trails and sites, was assessed and combined with social science and visitor use data. Visual survey techniques were used to understand visitor judgments of ecologically important resource impacts and GPS-tracking of visitor use and behavior allowed for the determination of the degree of visitor's exposure to impaired resources. Results suggest that resource impacts are prevalent and intense throughout the area, but tended to be spatially limited in proximity to attraction sites. Visitors are interacting with resource conditions reported to be unacceptable for significant portions of their hikes. Overall, the work represents an advancement of predictive capabilities when managing park and protected area resources.

Effects of a long-term disturbance on arthropods and vegetation in subalpine wetlands: manifestations of pack stock grazing in early versus mid-season

Conclusions regarding disturbance effects in high elevation or high latitude ecosystems based solely on infrequent, long-term sampling may be misleading, because the long winters may erase severe, short-term impacts at the height of the abbreviated growing season. We separated a) long-term effects of pack stock grazing, manifested in early season prior to stock arrival, from b) additional pack stock grazing effects that might become apparent during annual stock grazing, by use of paired grazed and control wet meadows that we sampled at the beginning and end of subalpine growing seasons. Control meadows had been closed to grazing for at least two decades, and meadow pairs were distributed across Sequoia National Park, California, USA. The study was thus effectively a landscape-scale, long-term manipulation of wetland grazing. We sampled arthropods at these remote sites and collected data on associated vegetation structure. Litter cover and depth, percent bare ground, and soil strength had negative responses to grazing. In contrast, fauna showed little response to grazing, and there were overall negative effects for only three arthropod families. Mid-season and long-term results were generally congruent, and the only indications of lower faunal diversity on mid-season grazed wetlands were trends of lower abundance across morphospecies and lower diversity for canopy fauna across assemblage metrics. Treatment x Season interactions almost absent. Thus impacts on vegetation structure only minimally cascaded into the arthropod assemblage and were not greatly intensified during the annual growing season. Differences between years, which were likely a response to divergent snowfall patterns, were more important than differences between early and mid-season. Reliance on either vegetation or faunal metrics exclusively would have yielded different conclusions; using both flora and fauna served to provide a more integrative view of ecosystem response.

Monitoring of vegetation impact due to trampling on Cadillac Mountain summit using high spatial resolution remote sensing data sets

Cadillac Mountain--the highest peak along the eastern seaboard of the United States--is a major tourist destination in Acadia National Park, Maine. Managing vegetation impact due to trampling on the Cadillac Mountain summit is extremely challenging because of the large number of visitors and the general open nature of landscape in this fragile subalpine environmental setting. Since 2000, more intensive management strategies--based on placing physical barriers and educational messages for visitors--have been employed to protect threatened vegetation, decrease vegetation impact, and enhance vegetation recovery in the vicinity of the summit loop trail. The primary purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of the management strategies employed. For this purpose, vegetation cover changes between 2001 and 2007 were detected using multispectral high spatial resolution remote sensing data sets. A normalized difference vegetation index was employed to identify the rates of increase and decrease in the vegetation areas. Three buffering distances (30, 60, and 90 m) from the edges of the trail were used to define multiple spatial extents of the site, and the same spatial extents were employed at a nearby control site that had no visitors. No significant differences were detected between the mean rates of vegetation increase and decrease at the experimental site compared with a nearby control site in the case of a small spatial scale (≤30 m) comparison (in all cases P > 0.05). However, in the medium (≤60 m) and large (≤90 m) spatial scales, the rates of increased vegetation were significantly greater and rates of decreased vegetation significantly lower at the experimental site compared with the control site (in all cases P < 0.001). Research implications are explored that relate to the spatial extent of the radial patterns of impact of trampling on vegetation at the site level. Management implications are explored in terms of the spatial strategies used to decrease the impact of trampling on vegetation.

A proposed methodology to assess the quality of public use management in protected areas

In recent years, the goal of nature preservation has faced, almost worldwide, an increase in the number of visitors who are interested in experiencing protected areas resources, landscapes and stories. Spain is a good example of this process. The rapidly increasing numbers of visitors have prompted administrations and managers to offer and develop a broad network of facilities and programs in order to provide these visitors with information, knowledge and recreation. But, are we doing it the best way? This research focuses on developing and applying a new instrument for evaluating the quality of visitor management in parks. Different areas are analyzed with this instrument (78 semi-quantitative indicators): planning and management capacity (planning, funding, human resources), monitoring, reception, information, interpretation, environmental education, training, participation and volunteer's programs. Thus, we attempt to gain a general impression of the development of the existing management model, detecting strengths and weaknesses. Although Spain's National Parks constituted the specific context within which to develop the evaluation instrument, the design thereof is intended to provide a valid, robust and flexible method for application to any system, network or set of protected areas in other countries. This paper presents the instrument developed, some results obtained following its application to Spanish National parks, along with a discussion on the limits and validity thereof.

The consequences of backcountry surface disposal of human waste in an alpine, temperate forest and arid environment

Surface disposal of human waste by the smear method, a suggested but heretofore unexamined technique, was tested in three environments and examined for reductions in fecal mass and fecal indicator bacteria. Substantial reduction in fecal mass was observed after six and fourteen weeks of exposure in all environments, but extensive reduction in fecal indicator bacteria was observed in only the arid and alpine environments. Although surface smears appear favorable to cathole techniques in terms of indicator bacteria reduction, the application of this method is limited by several other factors common to backcountry sanitation situations. It is therefore likely that surface disposal would only be applicable in very remote, low use, alpine and arid settings where lack of soil development precludes the use of catholes and carry-out techniques are otherwise impractical.

Developing a monitoring protocol for visitor-created informal trails in Yosemite National Park, USA

Informal trails created or perpetuated by visitors is a management challenge in many protected natural areas such as Yosemite National Park. This is a significant issue as informal trail networks penetrate and proliferate into protected landscapes and habitats, threatening ecological integrity, aesthetics, and visitor experiences. In order to develop effective strategies for addressing this problem under an adaptive management framework, indicators must be developed and monitoring protocol must be established to gather timely and relevant data about the condition, extent, and distribution of these undesired trail segments. This article illustrates a process of developing and evaluating informal trail indicators for meadows in Yosemite Valley. Indicator measures developed in past research were reviewed to identify their appropriateness for the current application. Information gaps in existing indicator measures were addressed by creating two new indices to quantify the degree of informal trailing based on its land fragmentation effects. The selected indicator measures were applied to monitoring data collected between 2006 and 2008. The selected measures and indices were evaluated for their ability to characterize informal trail impacts at site and landscape scales. Results demonstrate the utility of indicator measures in capturing different characteristics of the informal trail problem, though several metrics are strongly related to each other. The two fragmentation indices were able to depict fragmentation without being too sensitive to changes in one constituent parameter. This study points to the need for a multiparameter approach to informal trail monitoring and integration with other monitoring data. Implications for monitoring programs and research are discussed.