The Impact of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) on Parenting by Mothers Within an Ethnically Diverse Population in the Netherlands

Why Do Bystanders Report Intimate Partner Violence? Insights into Real-Life Reasoning from Those Who Actually Intervened

As intimate partner violence (IPV) often remains unknown to police, bystanders can play a crucial role in prevention and further escalation of IPV. However, little is known about what brings them into action by reporting incidents of IPV to authorities. As such, we use statements of bystanders who filed reports about IPV incidents to an official domestic violence agency in the Netherlands (N = 78), to investigate the reasoning and motivations for reporting their suspicions. Results show that the reasons for bystanders to report IPV differ depending on the relational dynamics between partners. In situations perceived as intimate terrorism, involving a hierarchical abusive relationship between a man offender and a woman victim, bystanders primarily reported when previous helping initiatives proved inefficient, and they did so to prevent further harm, often particularly in relation to the woman victim. In situations perceived as situational couple violence, involving a symmetrical abusive relationship, bystanders primarily reported when escalation appeared, and they did so to prevent further harm to involved children. We conclude that bystanders report IPV incidents when the need for help is clear, and their motivation for acting concerns the well-being of victims. Our findings add to the growing body of evidence about real-life bystander intervention in emergencies and highlight the need for understanding intervention as context-specific in order to design effective intervention initiatives.

The influences of sociocultural norms on women's decision to disclose intimate partner violence: Integrative review

Sociocultural norms against women can contribute to promoting intimate partner violence (IPV) and shape women's decision to disclose IPV. A cross-cultural analysis of the existing literature is needed to present an overview of the influences of sociocultural norms on women's decisions regarding the disclosure of IPV across different cultural contexts. The purpose of the review was to synthesize published quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods (MMs) studies to identify known sociocultural norms across different cultures that may influence women's decision to disclose IPV. The Whittemore and Knafl framework, Rayyan software, and PRISMA flow diagram were used. Databases included APA PsycInfo, CINAHL, PubMed, SocINDEX, and Women's Studies International. The quality of studies was assessed by the MMs appraisal tool. A total of 15 research articles written in English and published in peer-reviewed journals were included. Main categories emerged: (1) stigma surrounding IPV disclosure, victimization, and divorce; (2) gender roles; (3) preserving family honor; and (4) Children's well-being and future. A one-size-fits-all approach is not adequate for women who are considering disclosing IPV. Findings underscore that regardless of residing in individualistic countries, those sociocultural norms related to traditional gender roles and gender inequality are still important barriers to the disclosure of IPV among women with collectivist roots.

Parenting in the Context of Intimate Partner Violence: Understanding Mothers' Perceptions

Despite existing research, which has focused on the impacts of intimate partner violence (IPV) on mothers and their children, there is a paucity of research specifically examining mothers' perceptions of parenting in the context of IPV. This qualitative study explored parenting capacity and meaning making among a purposive sample of 16 female survivors of IPV who experienced IPV during both childhood and adulthood and had at least one school-aged child. Participants completed semi-structured in-person interviews during which they were asked a series of questions about their experiences with IPV and their parenting practices. Analysis revealed that parenting capacity could be categorized by two capacities: relational and operational. Based on these descriptive accounts of the experiences of parenting in contexts of IPV, a preliminary model suggesting a Dual-Part Model of Parenting (relational and operational capacity) is presented to aid in understanding the complexity and nuance of how parenting capacity may be impacted by IPV exposure throughout the lifespan. Strengths-based approaches to supporting survivors in parenting are explored, and future implications for strengths-based approaches to clinical practice with IPV survivors as well as improved research practices and social policies that emphasize an intersectionality approach are discussed.

What Do We Know After Decades of Research About Parenting and IPV? A Systematic Scoping Review Integrating Findings

This systematic scoping literature review synthesizes scholarship about intimate partner violence (IPV) and parenting into a conceptual model. We integrate findings from across 136 studies. To be included, studies had to consider how IPV influenced one's parenting and/or how parents responded to the violence they encountered in terms of their practices related to their children. Studies had to be peer-reviewed, empirical articles, done using quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods, and published in English. There were no limits on the dates or locations of studies. Using these predetermined criteria, authors screened over 6,000 articles, finally selecting 136 studies to be coded and analyzed. Results demonstrate IPV undermines maternal well-being and parenting practices. Our findings also highlight multiple ways that mothers struggle to realize the complex tasks of parenting within IPV, including through emotional coping, action-based coping, and social support. By systematically bringing together and analyzing existing data on the topic, this study helps build the knowledge base around how women facing IPV plan for physical and psychological safety of themselves and their children. Our synthesis of the literature helps expand theoretical frameworks, and stregthen prevention practices and policies so they reflect both the suffering and the resilience of mothers who grapple with IPV. Our review draws attention to the need to focus interventions on promoting the mental health and parenting self-efficacy of mothers who suffer from the direct effects of IPV and its attacks on their mental health and parental role.

Social-Level Factors Related to Positive Mental Health Outcomes Following Intimate Partner Violence: Results from a Population-Based Aotearoa New Zealand Sample

Intimate partner violence (IPV) continues to be an issue for women globally. There remains a gap in research about what contributes to better mental health following IPV. The sociodemographic characteristics and other factors associated with positive mental health were explored among a sample of 454 women aged 16 years and over who reported previous exposure to physical and/or sexual IPV. Sixty-six percent of women reported positive mental health. The cessation of violence, support at disclosure, and ongoing informal support were factors significantly associated with positive mental health. Greater community outreach to improve responses to disclosure and practical support is needed.

Evaluating interventions with victims of intimate partner violence: a community psychology approach

Purpose

Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is one of the most common forms of domestic violence, with profound implication for women's physical and psychological health. In this text we adopted the Empowerment Process Model (EPM) by Cattaneo and Goodman (Psychol Violence 5(1):84–94) to analyse interventions provided to victims of IPV by a Support Centre for Women (SCW) in Italy, and understand its contribution to women’s empowerment.

Method

We conducted semi-structured interviews with ten women who had been enrolled in a program for IPV survivors at a SCW in the past three years. The interviews focused on the programs’ aims, actions undertaken to reach them, and the impact on the women’s lives, and were analysed using an interpretative phenomenological approach.

Results

Results showed that the interventions provided by the SWC were adapted according to women's needs. In the early phases, women’s primary aim was ending violence, and the intervention by the SCW was deemed as helpful to the extent it provided psychological support, protection and safe housing. Women’s aims subsequently moved to self-actualisation and economic and personal independence which required professional training, internships, and social support. Although satisfying the majority of the women’s expectations, other important needs (e.g., economic support or legal services) were poorly addressed, and cooperation with other services (e.g., police or social services) was sometimes deemed as critical.

Conclusions

By evaluating a program offered by a SCW to IPV survivors through the lens of the EPM model, we found that women deemed the program as effective when both individual resources and empowerment processes were promoted. Strengths, limitations and implications are discussed.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12905-021-01268-7.

The Role of Maternal Acceptance in Mediating Child Outcomes Among Substance Using Women Experiencing Intimate Partner Violence

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is prevalent in the United States, and many women who experience IPV have children in their care. Substance use is common among this population and affects parenting behaviors such as maternal acceptance and child outcomes. Maternal experience of IPV affects a mother's ability to parent and interact with her child. Little is known about the combined influence of both maternal substance use and IPV on parenting behaviors and child problem behaviors. The current study examined differences in maternal acceptance and child internalizing and externalizing behaviors among mothers who reported experiencing IPV to mothers who never reported experiencing IPV. Results showed that mothers with a history of IPV reported lower rates of maternal acceptance and higher rates of child problem behaviors compared with those with no history of IPV. In addition, frequency of substance use moderated this relationship. This is the first study, to date, to examine the relationship between maternal acceptance and child problem behaviors among substance using mothers with a history of IPV and is a first step to understanding the parenting practices of this population.

Intimate Partner Violence Against Low-Income Women in Mexico City and Associations with Child School Attendance: A Latent Class Analysis Using Cross-sectional Data

INTRODUCTION

Few studies have investigated how intimate partner violence (IPV), and patterns of IPV experiences, may impact children's school attendance in low- and middle-income countries.

METHODS

Using baseline data from a sub-sample of 659 women in Mexico City enrolled in a randomized controlled trial who reported having a child under age 18 and in school, multilevel latent class analysis (LCA) was used to classify women based on their reported IPV experiences. Multilevel risk regression analyses examined associations between latent class membership and IPV-related disruptions in children's schooling. Latent classes were identified in a prior study.

RESULTS

Overall, 23.3% of women reported their child's school attendance was disrupted due to IPV. LCA identified four distinct classes of IPV experiences: Low Physical and Sexual Violence (39.1%); Low Physical and High Sexual Violence class (14.8%), High Physical and Low Sexual Violence and Injuries (36.5%); and High Physical and Sexual Violence and Injuries (9.6%). Compared with women in the Low Physical and Sexual Violence class, women in the High Physical and Sexual Violence and Injuries class and women in the High Physical and Low Sexual Violence and Injuries class were at greater risk of IPV disrupting children's school attendance (ARR 3.39, 95% CI 2.34, 4.92; ARR 2.22, 95% CI 1.54, 3.19, respectively). No other statistically significant associations emerged.

DISCUSSION

High disruptions in children's school attendance due to IPV were reported and were differentially related to patterns of IPV experiences. Findings underscore the need to understand underlying mechanisms. Future work integrating both violence against women and violence against children is needed.

Gender-based violence: Experiences from two tertiary care settings in Sri Lanka

Background: This study aimed to obtain an overview of survivors of gender-based violence GBV who seek care, different types and consequences of (GBV), their modes of referral, factors associated with GBV, characteristics of the perpetrators, health-seeking behavior of the care-seekers and the service provided by GBV Care Centers in two tertiary care settings Methods: A retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted from January 2017 to December 2019 at two GBV care centers in a Women's Hospital and a General Hospital in Colombo, Sri Lanka. Sociodemographic details of care-seekers, referral methods, types of violence experienced and their consequences, factors associated with GBV, characteristics of the perpetrator, health seeking behavior of those seeking care, and the services provided, were obtained from the hospital records.  Results: Records from all care seekers (n=495 women, no men) were obtained, and 488 were suitable for analysis. More women presented with GBV to the Women's Hospital compared to the General Hospital (395 vs 93, p<0.001), and there were significant differences in modes of referral between the two hospitals. A large majority had suffered emotional and economic violence, although physical or sexual violence were the reasons for referral to the centers. Suicidal tendencies had been reported by 20%. In 94.2% of cases the husband, lover or partner was the perpetrator. Physical violence was more likely in married women, those who did not report a stable relationship, and in those who were employed. Of the 488 women, 37% were pregnant at the time of violence. Most of the women had confided with another female about the violence. Less than 5% came for follow-up. Conclusions: GBV care services should be offered in all hospitals, especially those providing maternity and gynaecological care. Emotional and economic violence are common but often overlooked. There is a need to increase public awareness about GBV.

Breaking the Intergenerational Cycle: Partner Violence, Child-Parent Attachment, and Children's Aggressive Behaviors

The link between exposure to violence in the home and children's later exhibition of violent behaviors is well documented in the criminological literature. To date, most research on partner violence (PV) and children's welfare has focused on adolescent outcomes. As such, we know little about how PV affects the behavior of the youngest, and perhaps most vulnerable population of children who have been exposed to PV. Our understanding of the PV-child behavior association is also limited because extant research has focused less attention on identifying risk factors that explain and modify the link between exposure to PV and children's behavior. We use data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a five-wave longitudinal study of U.S.-born children (N = 2,896) and structural equation modeling (SEM), to explore the impact of PV exposure on later aggressive behaviors. We extend the literature on PV exposure and childhood aggression in three ways: (a) We focus on young children's behavioral outcomes; (b) we identify child-parent attachment as a potential moderator of the PV-childhood aggression relationship; and (c) we investigate variation in the effect of PV exposure on children's aggressive behavior by children's attachment to parents. Findings support our hypotheses that exposure to PV during first 3 years of life is associated with increased aggression at age 5 and age 9. We find that the effect of PV on aggression at age 9 is fully mediated through the parent-child attachment. Contrary to our expectations, we do not find evidence of a strong parent-child attachment moderating the impact of PV exposure on children's aggressive behavior.

A Profile of Gender-Based Violence Research in Europe: Findings From a Focused Mapping Review and Synthesis

This article reports the findings from a new form of review: a focused mapping review and synthesis. The aim was to create a contemporary, snapshot profile of the nature and scope of gender-based violence (GBV) studies conducted in Europe. GBV is one of the most prevalent human rights violations in the world affecting mainly women and girls. The policy context of GBV in Europe has gathered momentum in recent years, but we do not have a clear picture of how this relates to research activity. Thirteen journals were purposively selected on their likelihood to publish GBV research. All articles published in these journals during 2015 and meeting our inclusion criteria were retrieved. Data were extracted according to (1) types of methodologies used, (2) geographical location of research, and (3) patterns of research activity/interest. Thirty-two articles met the inclusion criteria. Many titles and abstracts were not explicit about the gendered nature of the research which made retrieval and analysis difficult. A range of methodologies were reported, with single-country research conducted more than international collaborations. Intimate partner violence and sexual abuse attracted most research interest. No studies explored female genital mutilation/cutting and only one investigated early and forced marriage. The findings have implications regarding GBV research in Europe, and we explore them in relation to relevant European policy. Researchers can help raise the profile of the gendered nature of most violence-related research by being explicit about this in their publications. Increasing opportunities for cross-national research will help address the global nature of GBV. Tackling GBV requires synergy of empirical evidence and policy to drive the agenda.

Early Life Exposure to Violence: Developmental Consequences on Brain and Behavior

Exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) can have long-lasting effects on a child’s socio-emotional and neurological development. Research has focused on the effects of IPV on women or older children, while the developmental consequences of exposure to domestic violence during early childhood are less well documented. However, one would expect significant developmental effects since the infant’s brain and stress-related systems are especially susceptible to environmental stimuli. The goal of this mini-review is to examine how findings on infant exposure to IPV can be related to risk and resilience of development in infancy. We describe the known effects of witnessing violence during the perinatal period on socio-emotional development and the possible pathways by which IPV affects brain and stress-regulating systems. Exposure to IPV during infancy disrupts the infant’s emotional and cognitive development, the development of the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis and brain structures related to witnessing itself (auditory and visual cortex). The findings are embedded in the context of the resource depletion hypothesis. A central problem is the dearth of research on exposure to IPV during infancy, its effect on caregiving, and infant development. Nonetheless, the available evidence makes it clear that policies for prevention of IPV are critically needed.

The Influences of Drug Abuse on Mother-Infant Interaction Through the Lens of the Biopsychosocial Model of Health and Illness: A Review

Women who abuse illicit drugs often engage in atypical parenting behaviors that interfere with the natural development of mother-infant interaction and attachment. Maternal caregiving deficits leave pronounced adverse consequences in the wake of drug abuse relapse, which often occurs and in early infancy. These are times when the child requires optimal parental care. The contemporary literature documents long-term implications of illicit drug-abuse in parenting on infants. However, factors that drive and sustain the influence of drug abuse on parent-infant outcomes remain elusive. This review adopts a biopsychosocial approach to synthesizing the existing state of knowledge on this issue. Mother-infant interaction is a dynamic socio-relational process that occurs at multiple levels of organization. As such, a biopsychosocial perspective enables us to uncover: (i) roles of specific physiological mechanisms and biological characteristics of atypical parenting in mothers who abuse drugs, (ii) the influence of drugs on maternal psychological state (i.e., beliefs regarding parenting practices, emotional regulation), and (iii) social relationships (i.e., relationships with spouse and other drug abusers) and contextual cues (i.e., triggers) that moderate non-optimal maternal caregiving. A comprehensive review of these key domains provides a nuanced understanding of how these several sources interdependently shape atypical parent-infant interaction amongst drug abusing mothers. Systematic elucidation of major factors underlying drug-abused maternal behaviors facilitates the development of targeted and more effective interventions.

Child maltreatment is mediating long-term consequences of household dysfunction in a population representative sample

Background:

Adverse childhood experiences (ACE) exhibit long-lasting consequences on later life and are considered as a major public health problem. ACEs can be divided into household dysfunctions, which affect the child indirectly, and direct maltreatment. As a high correlation between ACEs in general is known, we assessed the risk for child maltreatment associated with the occurrence of household dysfunctions. To provide a better understanding for the mechanisms leading to the deleterious sequelae of ACEs, we furthermore assessed whether the long-term consequences of household dysfunction are mediated by child maltreatment and thereby might be targeted by effective child protection programs.

Methods:

A representative sample of the German population above the age of 14 (N = 2531) was assessed in a cross-sectional observational population-based survey.

Results:

The data reveal that mental illness of a household member was associated with significantly increased risks for all child maltreatment subtypes (ORs 4.95–5.55), just as household substance abuse (ORs 5.32–6.98), violence against the mother (ORs 4.43–10.26), incarceration of a household member (ORs 6.11–14.93) and parental separation (OR 3.37–4.87). Child maltreatment partially mediated the association of household mental illness, substance abuse and parental separation with later depression, anxiety, life satisfaction and subjective general health status and completely mediated the associations of intimate partner violence (IPV) and incarceration of a household member with anxiety, depression and subjective health status in adulthood.

Conclusions:

ACEs linked to household dysfunction are associated with an increased risk for all subtypes of child maltreatment. The assessed widespread consequences of household dysfunction are mediated by child maltreatment. This underlines the role of prevention of child maltreatment in families with household dysfunction and implies child protection as a priority in any interventions.

Thai women's experiences of and responses to domestic violence

Purpose

Domestic violence has been linked to many health consequences. It can impact women’s mental, physical, sexual, and reproductive health, and all of these effects can be long lasting. Despite the growing awareness of the deleterious effects of domestic violence in Thailand, there have been few nation-wide studies that have examined the issue and its consequences. In fact, Thailand has not examined intimate partner violence incidence for the past 20 years. This study aimed to investigate the consequences of domestic violence across the country.

Subjects and methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted in four areas of Thailand: central, southern, northern, and northeastern. One province in each area was selected by simple random sampling techniques. One thousand four hundred and forty-four married or cohabiting females in a heterosexual union, aged 20–59 years, were included in the sample and were interviewed about their experiences of psychological, physical, and sexual violence by their male partners.

Results

One thousand four hundred and forty-four women completed the interviews. Sixteen percent of respondents encountered domestic violence in its various psychological, physical, or sexual forms. In the majority of cases, all forms of domestic violence were exerted repeatedly. Four-fifths of women who faced domestic violence reported that it had an impact on their physical and mental health as well as employment. This study also found that half of the domestic violence survivors reported their children had witnessed violent situations. These women exercised four coping strategies to deal with their domestic violence: 1) counseling; 2) requesting help from others; 3) fighting back; and 4) running away from home.

Conclusion

The findings confirm that domestic violence has implications that extend beyond health and result in the deterioration of the quality of women’s lives. These results underscore that domestic violence is a serious problem that must be addressed in Thai society.

Intimate partner violence victimization increases the risk of under-five morbidity: A stratified multilevel analysis of pooled Tanzania Demographic Health Surveys, 2010-2016

INTRODUCTION

A hidden determinant such as intimate partner violence victimization has been associated with under-five morbidity and mortality. However, there is lack of information regarding which exactly age group of under-five is more vulnerable to morbidity when their mothers exposed to intimate partner violence victimization. This study aimed to determine the effect of mothers' exposure to intimate partner violence victimization on age groups specific under-five morbidity that could lead to mortality.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The current study pooled and analyzed data from 2010 and 2016 Tanzania Demographic Health Survey datasets. We used a stratified multilevel modeling to assess the association between under-five morbidity and intimate partner violence victimization according to age groups. The Statistical approach using Stata 14 was used to adjust for clustering effect and weighted the estimates to correct for non-responses and disproportionate sampling employed during designing of the surveys.

RESULTS

A total of 13,639 singleton live-births babies within three years prior to interview dates from the ever-married women were included in the analysis. We found a significant reduction of the three main symptoms of under-five morbidity namely; a cough with difficult or fast breathing from 21.7 to 15.7%, fever from 22.5 to 18.3%, and diarrhoea from 15.5 to 12.7% for the survey years from 2010 to 2016 respectively (P<0.05). Overall, about 40% of mothers reported experiencing any forms of intimate partner violence victimization. After adjusting for individual and cluster variables, we found that under-five in post-neonatal period (Adjusted odds ratios = 1.50; 95%CI, 1.21-1.86) and childhood period (Adjusted odds ratios = 1.40; 95%CI, 1.24-1.57) were significantly affected with morbidity when their mothers' exposed to any form of intimate partner violence victimization.

CONCLUSION

This analysis revealed that intimate partner violence victimization is still a major and public health problem in Tanzania that threatens child health during the period of post-neonatal and childhood. There is a need to introduce screening for intimate partner violence victimization in maternal and child care for effective monitoring and prevention of the problem.

Maternal intimate partner violence victimization and child maltreatment

There is some limited evidence of an association between maternal intimate partner victimization (IPV) and children's experience of maltreatment. Using data from a longitudinal study, we examine whether this relationship is independent of range of potential confounders including socio-economic, familial and psychological factors. Data were taken from the 14 and 30-year follow-ups of the Mater-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy (MUSP) in Australia. A subsample of 2064 mothers and children (59.0% female) whose data on maternal IPV and child maltreatment was available, were analysed. In families with maternal IPV, two in five children reported being maltreated, compared to one in five children maltreated in families without maternal IPV. Except for sexual maltreatment which was consistently higher in female offspring, there was no gender differences in experiencing different types of maltreatment in families manifesting maternal IPV. Although both males and females were at increased risk of child maltreatment in families where mothers were victimized by their male partners, male children were more likely to be emotionally maltreated. The main associations were substantially independent of measured confounders, except for father's history of mental health problems which attenuated the association of maternal IPV victimization and male offspring's physical abuse. Our findings confirm that there is a robust association between maternal IPV and child maltreatment. Both maternal IPV victimization and child maltreatment co-occur in a household characterized by conflict and violence. Consequences of IPV go beyond the incident and influence all family members. Efforts to reduce child maltreatment may need to address the greater level of IPV associated with the cycle of family violence.

A literature review: Qualitative studies of women parenting during abuse

Many women worldwide are physically and emotionally abused, and their children are exposed to violence as well, resulting in what has become a worldwide epidemic. The Millennium Development Goals Report 2013 adopted through the United Nations' Development Program recognizes the continued need for global efforts to empower women, reduce child mortality, and improve child health. This literature review of women's experiences while parenting during abuse revealed the utilization of parenting strategies to parent their child(ren) effectively in the most difficult and traumatic of circumstances. Recommendations from all of the articles caution not to remove the child from the mother, but to give both mother and child tailored interventions and a compassionate and empathetic understanding of what these abused mothers' parenting experiences are.